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ADuma (Ukrainian:дума, pluraldumy) is a oralepic poem which originated inUkraine during theHetmanate Era in the sixteenth century, possibly based on earlier Kyivan epic forms. Historically,dumy were performed by itinerantCossack bards calledkobzari, who accompanied themselves on akobza or abandura, who were often (blind) itinerant musicians who retained the kobzar appellation and accompanied their singing by playing abandura (rarely a kobza) or arelya/lira (a Ukrainian variety ofhurdy-gurdy). Dumas are sung in recitative, in the so-called "duma mode", a variety of theDorian mode with a raised fourth degree.
Dumy were vocal works built around historical events, many dealing with military action in some forms.[1]: 247 Embedded in these historical events were religious and moralistic elements. There are themes of the struggle of the Cossacks against enemies of different faiths or events occurring on religious feast-days. Although the narratives of thedumy mainly revolve around war, thedumy themselves do not promote courage in battle.[2]: 573 Thedumy rather impart a moral message on how one should conduct oneself properly in the relationships with family, community, and church.[2]: 573 However, the kobzari did not play only religious songs and dumy. They also played "satirical songs (sometimes openly scabrous); dance melodies; either with or without words; lyric songs; and historical songs".[2]: 570
The relationship between the military and the religion with dumy originated in the times of theCossack rebellion of 1648. Ukraine fell under the control of the Catholic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, that imposed discriminatory measures on theEastern Orthodox Church. This rebellion was followed by “partition and eventual subjugation of the Ukrainian lands and the Ukrainian church.[2]: 574 The Cossacks rebelled against the religious oppression and their lands were eventually lost to the oppressor. This causes a great dilemma in the church because the Cossacks were defenders of the faith, and since they lost, and the faith is infallible, the Cossacks themselves must have done something sinful.[2]: 575 This is why a duma has a great religious undertone and is a song that tells of death and defeat, not of victory.[2]: 571–4 Pavlo Zhytetsky suggested that the style ofduma's evolved as a unique combination of folk and educated cultures.[3]