TheDragoman of the Sublime Porte (Ottoman Turkish:tercümân-ı bâb-ı âlî;Greek:διερμηνέας της Υψηλής Πύλης,romanized: diermineas tis Ypsilis Pylis),Dragoman of the Imperial Council (tercümân-ı dîvân-ı hümâyûn), or simplyGrand Dragoman (μέγας διερμηνέας,megas diermineas) orChief Dragoman (tercümân başı), was the seniorinterpreter of theOttoman government—frequently referred to as the "Sublime Porte"—andde facto deputy foreign minister. From the position's inception in 1661 until the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence in 1821, the office was occupied byPhanariotes, and was one of the main pillars of Phanariote power in the Ottoman Empire.
In theOttoman Empire, the existence of official interpreters ordragomans[a] is attested from the early 16th century. They were part of the staff of thereis ül-küttab ('head secretary'), who was responsible for foreign affairs within theImperial Council. As fewOttoman Turks ever learned European languages, from early times the majority of these men were of Christian origin—in the mainAustrians,Hungarians,Poles, andGreeks.[1][2] A dragoman may have already existed underMehmed II (r. 1444–1446, 1451–1481), when Lütfi Bey was sent to conclude apeace treaty with theRepublic of Venice.[3] The first known holder of such a post was a certain Ali Bey, who conveyed a treaty to Venice in 1502. His successor was Yunus Bey, a Greek convert to Islam, who was in turn followed by Ahmad, a German convert initially called Heinz Tulman. By the middle of the 16th century there were apparently several dragomans in the service of the Ottoman government—all of whom were Christians—one of whom apparently served as chief dragoman (baş tercümân).[2]
In 1661, theGrand VizierKöprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha appointed the GreekPanagiotis Nikousios as Chief Dragoman to the Imperial Council. He was in turn succeeded in 1673 by another Greek,Alexander Mavrocordatos.[1][4] These men began a tradition where almost all subsequent Grand Dragomans of the Porte were members of a small circle ofPhanariote families.[1][4] The Phanariotes, taking their name from thedistrict ofConstantinople where thePatriarchate of Constantinople settled in 1599, were an elite group of Greek orHellenized[b] magnate families that made enormous fortunes through trade and tax-farming. Their wealth, and the close contacts they had with the Ottoman sultan and his court as purveyors, advisors, and middlemen, they acquired enormous political influence, especially over the Patriarchate and the Eastern Orthodox communities of the empire more generally.[6] During the 17th century, many Phanariotes gained political experience as representatives (kapı kehaya) of the princes (voivodes orhospodars) of the tributaryDanubian Principalities ofWallachia andMoldavia at the Sultan's court, where, in the words of C. G. Patrinelis, "their task was to sustain their masters’ always precarious position by bribing Ottoman officials in key positions and, above all, to pre-empt and disrupt, by hook or by crook, the machinations of the rivals who coveted the princes’ enviable posts".[7] Others had also served in the staffs of the European embassies in Constantinople.[8] Nikousios, for instance, had previously (and for a time concurrently) served as translator for the Austrian embassy.[9]
All dragomans had to be proficient in theelsine-i selase, the'three languages'—Arabic,Persian, andTurkish—that were commonly used in the empire's administration, as well as a number of foreign languages (usually French and Italian).[10] Due to their education in Italy, some spoke Latin as well.[11] In practice, however, the responsibilities of Dragoman of the Porte went beyond that of an interpreter; as the historianDouglas Dakin writes, "[the Dragoman] had become virtually the foreign secretary for European affairs".[12] The salary of the Dragoman of the Porte amounted to 47,000kuruş[c] annually.[14] The post was the highest public office available to non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire,[15] and bound with privileges otherwise denied to the Christian subjects of the Porte, such as permission to grow a beard; dress in the samekaftans as the Ottoman officials, and useermine fur; or the permission to ride a horse. Other privileges also followed, such as tax exemption for themselves, their sons, and 20 members of their retinue (twelve servants and eight apprentices); exemption from all customs fees for items destined for their personal use; and immunity from all courts except from that of the Grand Vizier.[d] All these privileges made the position highly coveted, and as the office was often handed down within the same family, it became a chief object of the Phanariotes' aspirations and rivalries.[17][18]
The success of the post led to the creation of a similar office, that ofDragoman of the Fleet, in 1701.[14][19] In practice, the latter often served as a stepping-stone to the office of Grand Dragoman.[14][17] There were also junior dragomans for specific jurisdictions, for example for theOttoman army, or for theMorea Eyalet, but these positions were never formalized in the same manner.[10][20] From 1711, many former Grand Dragomans or Dragomans of the Fleet were appointed to the positions of princes of the Danubian Principalities. These four offices formed the foundation of Phanariote prominence in the Ottoman Empire.[21][22] The knowledge of foreign languages also made the Phanariote dragomans crucial intermediaries for the transmission of European concepts and technologies to the Ottoman Empire during the latter's attempts at modernization. Thus the Grand DragomanConstantine Ypsilantis translated French military manuals for the reformedNizam-i Djedid Army,[23] whileIakovos Argyropoulos translated into the Ottoman Turkish language from French the first modern Ottoman geographical work, as well as a biographical history ofCatherine the Great.[24]
The Phanariotes maintained this privileged position until the outbreak of theGreek Revolution in 1821: the then Dragoman of the Porte,Constantine Mourouzis [el] was beheaded, and his successor,Stavraki Aristarchi [tr], was dismissed and exiled in 1822.[1][25] The position of Grand Dragoman was then replaced by a guild-like Translation Bureau, staffed initially by converts likeYahya Efendi [tr] andIshak Efendi, but quickly exclusively by Muslim Turks fluent in foreign languages.[1][26][27]
| Name | Portrait | Tenure | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Panagiotis Nikousios | – | 1661–1673[28][29] | A native ofChios and alumnus of theUniversity of Padua, he became a confidante of Grand Vizier Köprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha as the latter's physician, before being appointed as Dragoman of the Porte.[19][30] He played a leading role in the negotiations that ended the longSiege of Candia in 1669.[31] |
| Alexander Mavrocordatos |  | 1673–1709[28][32] | Scion of a wealthy Phanariote family, alumnus of thePontifical Greek College of Saint Athanasius, theUniversity of Padua and theUniversity of Bologna, he also became physician to Köprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha before succeeding Nikousios.[19][33][34] Briefly imprisoned and relieved of his duties after theSiege of Vienna,[35] his most notable achievement was as Ottoman representative at theTreaty of Karlowitz that ended theGreat Turkish War, for which he received the title ofmahrem-i esrar ('keeper of secrets') of the Sultan, and ofImperial Count.[36][37] |
| Sefer Agha | 1683–1684[35] | A Venetian renegade called Giovanni Antonio, known in Ottoman service as Sefer Agha, he replaced Alexander Mavrocordatos during the latter's year-long imprisonment. Two months after Mavrocordatos' release, he was dismissed.[35] | |
| Nicholas Mavrocordatos |  | 1698–1709[38][39] | Son of Alexander, he deputized for his father during the latter' final years, when illness incapacitated him.[40] After his tenure as Dragoman of the Porte he became the first PhanariotePrince of Moldavia (1709–1710,[41] 1711–1715) andPrince of Wallachia (1715–1716, 1719–1730).[42] During theAustro-Turkish War he remained loyal to the Ottomans, and was captured by the Austrians and held until 1719, when he was released and resumed his post as ruler of Wallachia until his death in 1730.[43] |
| John Mavrocordatos | – | 1709–1717[28][44] | Son of Alexander, he succeeded his brother Nicholas as Grand Dragoman. He was also appointed asCaimacam of Moldavia (1711), and then as Prince of Wallachia (1716–1719) during his brother's captivity, until his own death from illness atBucharest.[28][45] |
| Gregory (II) Ghica |  | 1717–1727[28][46] | The paternal grandson ofGregory I Chica, Prince of Wallachia, and maternal grandson of Alexander Mavrocordatos, Gregory began his career as dragoman of the Austrian Embassy, before succeeding his uncle John Mavrocordatos.[47] Subsequently Prince of Moldavia (1726–1733, 1735–1739, 1739–1741, 1747–1748) and of Wallachia (1733–1735, 1748–1752).[28] |
| Alexander Ghica | – | 1727–1740[48][49] | Brother of Gregory, he succeeded him when the latter became Prince of Moldavia.[49] Participated in theRusso-Turkish War of 1735–1739, and was executed due to the enmity of the Grand Vizier in 1741.[50] |
| John Theodore Callimachi |  | 1741–1750[48][51] | 1st term. The scion of a native Moldavian family, he was related to the Ghica clan from his mother, and gained advancement as an expert on Polish affairs with the support of Gregory Ghica. His first term was ended when he was sent to exile inTenedos due to court rivalries with the Ghica.[52][53] |
| Matthew Ghica |  | 1751–1752[28][54] | Second son of Gregory, he purchased the office at a very young age without experience. For this reason his father gave him the dragoman of the Swedish Embassy, Loukakis, as an aide.[54] Subsequently he succeeded his father as Prince of Wallachia (1752–1753) and then became Prince of Moldavia (1753–1756)[28][55] |
| John Theodore Callimachi | | 1752–1758[48][56] | 2nd term. Recalled from exile after Matthew Ghica became Prince of Wallachia. Subsequently he himself became Prince of Moldavia (1758–1761).[48][56] |
| Gregory (III) Ghica |  | 1758–1764[48] | Son of Alexander and nephew of Gregory II.[57] Subsequently Prince of Moldavia (1764–1767, 1774–1782) and of Wallachia (1768–1769).[48] |
| George Caradja [el] | – | 1764–1765[48][58] | Son of Skarlatos, multilingual and a physician, he was named Dragoman of the Porte upon Gregory Ghica's promotion to Prince of Moldavia. He died of the plague after a year in office.[58] |
| Skarlatos Caradja | – | 1765–1768[48][59] | 1st term. Father of George, an experienced diplomat and polyglot and a celebrated physician, he served as his son's successor until the outbreak of theRusso-Turkish War of 1768–1774, when is advanced age precluded him from following the Grand Vizier on campaign.[59] |
| Nicholas Soutzos [el] | – | 1768–1769[48][60] | A specialist in Asian languages, he was appointed to accompany the Grand VizierNişancı Mehmed Emin Pasha on campaign, but was arrested for treason in 1769 and executed.[61] |
| Mihai Racoviță | – | 1769–1770 | Son of thenamesake Prince of Moldavia and Wallachia, he served as Dragoman of the Porte for Grand VizierMoldovancı Ali Pasha, but he fell ill and died of the plague while on campaign.[62] |
| Skarlatos Caradja | – | 1770–1774[48][62] | 2nd term. Recalled to the post after the sudden death of Racoviță, he was sent to accompany the Grand Vizier on campaign and remained in office for the duration of the Russo-Turkish War.[63] |
| Alexander Ypsilantis |  | 1774[48] | Son of the distinguished diplomatJohn Ypsilantis and married to Aikaterini Mourouzi, Alexander was well versed in several languages and became Dragoman of the Porte at a relatively young age. His tenure lasted little over a month, as he was appointed Prince of Wallachia (1774–1782, 1796–1797) and then of Moldavia (1786–1788). His tenure in Moldavia was troubled by the warswith Russia andwith Austria. He was executed in 1807 due to his sonConstantine Ypsilantis's defection to the Russians.[48][64] |
| Constantine Mourouzis |  | 1774–1777[48][65] | Great-grandson of Nikousios.[66] PreviouslyDragoman of the Fleet (1764–1765),[48] and subsequently Prince of Moldavia (1777–1782).[48][65] |
| Nicholas Caradja | – | 1777–1782[48][67] | Son of Constantine Caradja. He was taken prisoner of war by the Russians during the war of 1768–1774. After his tenure he was appointed Prince of Wallachia (1782–1783), until the machinations of his rival, Michael Drakos Soutzos, led to his replacement by the latter.[48][67] |
| Michael Drakos Soutzos |  | 1782–1783[48][68] | Son of Constantine Soutzos. His tenure was brief as he managed to bribe himself to an appointment as Prince of Wallachia (1783–1786, again in 1791–1793, 1801–1802) and of Moldavia (1793–1795)[48][69] |
| Alexander Mavrocordatos Firaris |  | 1782–1783[48][70] | Son ofJohn II Mavrocordatos, Prince of Moldavia, he was intelligent and well educated.[70] He served as Dragoman of the Porte until he too was appointed as Prince of Moldavia (1785–1786).[48] During theAustro-Russian war against the Ottomans he sided with the former, forcing him to flee into exile, first toMoravia and then to Russia, whence his nickname "Firaris" (Φιραρής,lit. 'fugitive').[70] |
| Alexander Callimachi |  | 1785–1788[48][71] | 1st term.[48] A younger son of John Theodore,[53] he was a well-educated, gentle and pious man. He was replaced as Dragoman after the outbreak of theRusso-Turkish War of 1787–1792, ostensibly as he was unable to follow the army in the field,[71] but in reality due to pressure from the anti-Russian and pro-French faction at court.[53] |
| Constantine Ralettos | – | 1788[71] | Scion of a wealthy family of Italian origin and brother-in-law of Alexander Ypsilantis, he followedKoca Yusuf Pasha into campaign, but was arrested after a couple of months and exiled toGallipoli on suspicion of collusion with Ypsilantis against the Porte.[72] |
| Manuel Caradja | – | 1788–1790[48][73] | Holding the rank of GrandPostelnic, he accompanied Ralettos as an aide and succeeded him upon the latter's arrest. He remained in office until replaced by his rival, Alexander Mourouzis.[74] |
| Alexander Mourouzis |  | 1790–1792[48][75] | Son of Constantine. During his tenure he helped mediate the treaties ofSistova (1791) andJassy (1792), ending theAustro-Turkish andRusso-Turkish wars.[75] As a reward he was made Prince of Moldavia (1792), leaving the office of Grand Dragoman to his younger brother, George.[76] Subsequently several times Prince of Moldavia (1802–1806, 1806–1807) and of Wallachia (1793–1796, 1799–1801).[48] |
| George Mourouzis | – | 1792–1794[48][77] | 1st term.[48] Son of Constantine and brother of Alexander, whom he represented at the Grand Vizier's camp while he was absent in negotiations of the peace treaties. Initially he refused the office, recommending his younger brother Demetrios instead, but the latter also refused. His tenure was cut short by palace intrigues that resulted in the recall of Alexander Callimachi.[78] |
| Alexander Callimachi | | 1794–1795[48][79] | 2nd term until his appointment as Prince of Moldavia (1795–1799).[48][79] Died atBolu in 1821, in exile after the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence.[53] |
| George Mourouzis | – | 1795–1796[48][80] | 2nd term.[48] His tenure was ended in August 1796 due to the enmity of theKapudan Pasha. He was appointed to a post inCyprus instead, but died there, possibly poisoned.[80] |
| Constantine Ypsilantis |  | 1796–1799[48][81] | Son of Alexander. He was involved in an abortive anti-Ottoman conspiracies in 1782,[82][83] which led him to flee to Germany with his brother Demetrios, where he was educated.[82] He returned to Constantinople and became Grand Dragoman in 1796, in conjunction with his father's appointment as Prince of Moldavia.[84] He played a role in the anti-French turn of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in its joining theSecond Coalition, and sponsored the creation of theSeptinsular Republic.[85] Subsequently he was appointed Prince of Moldavia (1799–1801) and of Wallachia (1802–1806).[48] |
| Alexandros Soutzos |  | 1799–1801[48] | Son of Nicholas. Previously Dragoman of the Fleet (1797–1799).[48] He played a major role in the creation of theSeptinsular Republic.[86] Subsequently Prince of Moldavia (1801–1802) and of Wallachia (1819–1821).[48] |
| Scarlat Callimachi |  | 1801–1806[48] | Son of Alexander, he received an excellent education and was active in the office of the Grand Dragoman from an early age. Due to services rendered to the French mission underGeneral Sebastiani, he received promotion to the post of Prince of Moldavia in 1806.[53] Subsequently again Prince of Moldavia (1812–1819).[48] Intended to replaceMichael Soutzos in Wallachia in 1821, after the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence he was exiled toBolu and executed.[87] |
| Alexandros M. Soutzos [el] | – | 1802–1807[88][86] | Son of Michael Drakos Soutzos.[89] He was decapitated in October 1807 due to British pressure, accused of having leaked confidential agreements between the Porte, Russia, and Britain to Sebastiani.[90] |
| Alexander Hangerli |  | 1806–1807[48] | Subsequently Prince of Moldavia (1807).[48] After the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence, he fled to Russia, where he compiled a celebrated French-Arabic-Persian-Turkish dic- |
| John Caradja |  | 1807–1808[48] | Son of George Caradja.[93] 1st term in succession to Alexandros M. Soutzos, deposed after a short period of time.[48][94] |
| John N. Caradja [el] | – | 1808[48][94] | Son of Nicholas and previously Dragoman of the Fleet (1799–1800[48] or 1802–1806[95]). He died of pleurisy after only two months in office.[93][96] |
| Demetrios Mourouzis [el] | – | 1808–1812[88] | He spent much of his time on campaign alongside the Grand Vizier, due to theRusso-Turkish War of 1806–1812, leaving his brother Panagiotis as his deputy in Constantinople. He negotiated theTreaty of Bucharest that concluded the war, but after protests byNapoleon he was recalled and executed in October 1812.[97] |
| Panagiotis Mourouzis | – | 1809–1812[48] | Younger brother of Demetrios. Previously Dragoman of the Fleet (1803–1806),[48] he replaced his brother while the latter was absent from the capital. He was also executed in 1812.[97] |
| John Caradja | | 1812[48][98] | 2nd term, also cut short on his promotion to Prince of Wallachia (1812–1819).[48][99] |
| Iakovos Argyropoulos | – | 1812–1815[100][101] | Previously Dragoman of the Fleet (1809),[88] and envoy to thePrussian court inBerlin.[102][103] He remained in office for three years, until he was ousted following the intrigues ofMichael Soutzos.[100] |
| Michael Soutzos |  | 1815–1818[104][105] | Grandson of Michael Drakos Soutzos, he became secretary of John Caradja in 1812, and married the latter's daughter,Roxani.[106] During his tenure as Grand Dragoman, he was the sole Christian member of the eight-member privy council of SultanMahmud II.[107] He subsequently was ppointed Prince of Moldavia (1819–1821),[88] serving in the post until the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence, when he surrendered his authority toAlexander Ypsilantis.[108][109] In later life he served as ambassador of theKingdom of Greece in Paris, St. Petersburg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen.[110] |
| John Callimachi [el] | – | 1818–1821[48][111] | Younger brother of Scarlat.[87] Previously Dragoman of the Fleet (1800–1803),[48] he was exiled atKayseri soon after news of the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence reached Constantinople, and executed there after theFall of Tripolitsa.[87][111] |
| Constantine Mourouzis [el] | – | 1821[88] | Son of Alexander, he was appointed to the office mere weeks before the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence. In April he was arrested and executed in the presence of the Sultan, followed soon after by his brother, Demetrios, who was Dragoman of the Fleet.[112][113] |
| Stavraki Aristarchi [tr] | – | 1821–1822[88] | Originally a banker for Scarlat Callimachi and appointedpostelnic by the latter, he was selected as Grand Dragoman because he did not belong to the traditional Phanariote families. The convertYahya Efendi [tr] was also installed as his deputy, to be trained in his profession and eventually replace him. Aristarchi's chief duty during his tenure was supervising the execution of PatriarchGregory V of Constantinople. He was exiled toBolu in June 1822, where he was later executed.[114][115] |
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