An oldwhiskeystillA display of various liquors in a supermarketSome single-drink liquor bottles available in Germany
Liquor (/ˈlɪkər/LIK-ər, sometimeshard liquor),spirits,distilled spirits, orspiritous liquor arealcoholic drinks produced by thedistillation ofgrains,fruits,vegetables, orsugar that have already gone throughalcoholic fermentation. While the wordliquor ordinarily refers to distilled alcoholic spirits rather than drinks produced by fermentation alone,[1] it can sometimes be used more broadly to refer to any alcoholic beverage (or even non-alcoholic ones produced by distillation or some other practices, such as the brewed liquor of atea).[2]
The distillation process concentrates the alcohol, the resulting condensate has an increasedalcohol by volume.[3] As liquors contain significantly morealcohol (ethanol) than other alcoholic drinks, they are considered "harder". InNorth America, the termhard liquor is sometimes used to distinguish distilled alcoholic drinks from non-distilled ones, whereas the termspirits is more commonly used in theUnited Kingdom. Some examples of liquors includevodka,rum,gin andtequila. Liquors are often aged inbarrels, such as for the production ofbrandy andwhiskey, or are infused with flavorings to formflavored liquors, such asabsinthe.
Like other alcoholic drinks, liquor is typically consumed for thepsychoactive effects of alcohol. Liquor may be consumed on its own (i.e. "neat"), typically in amounts of around 50 millilitres (1.7 US fluid ounces) per served drink; or frequently mixed with other ingredients to form acocktail. In an undiluted form, distilled beverages are often slightly sweet and bitter and typically impart a burning mouthfeel with an odor derived from the alcohol and the production and aging processes; the exact flavor varies between different varieties of liquor and the different impurities they impart.
The term "spirit" (singular and used without the additional term "drink") refers to liquor that should not contain added sugar[6] and is usually 35–40%alcohol by volume (ABV).[7]Fruit brandy, for example, is also known as 'fruit spirit'.
Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30% when bottled, and before being diluted for bottling, it typically has a concentration over 50%.Beer andwine, which are not distilled, typically have a maximum alcohol content of about 15% ABV, as mostyeasts cannot metabolize when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence,fermentation ceases at that point.
The origin ofliquor and its close relativeliquid is the Latin verbliquere, meaning 'to be fluid'. According to theOxford English Dictionary (OED), an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply "a liquid", can be dated to 1225. The first use documented in theOED defined as "a liquid for drinking" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for "an intoxicating alcoholic drink" appeared in the 16th century.
In accordance with the regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 17, 2019,[9] aspirit drink is analcoholic beverage that has been produced:
either directly by using, individually or in combination, any of the following methods:
distillation, with or without added flavourings or flavouring foodstuffs, offermented products;
maceration or similar processing of plant materials inethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, distillates of agricultural origin or spirit drinks or a combination thereof;
addition, individually or in combination, to ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, distillates of agricultural origin, or spirit drinks of flavourings, colours, other authorised ingredients, sweetening products, other agricultural products, and foodstuffs.
or by adding, individually or in combination, to it any of the following:
other spirit drinks;
ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin;
distillates of agricultural origin;
other foodstuffs.
Spirit drinks must contain at least 15% ABV (except in the case of egg liqueur such asAdvocaat, which must contain a minimum of 14% ABV).[9][10]
Regulation makes a difference between "ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin" and a "distillate of agricultural origin".Distillate of agricultural origin is defined as an alcoholic liquid that is the result of the distillation, after alcoholic fermentation, of agricultural products which does not have the properties of ethyl alcohol and which retain the aroma and taste of the raw materials used.[11]
Annex 1 to the regulation lists 44 categories of spirit drinks and their legal requirements.[12]
Some spirit drinks can fall into more than one category. Specific production requirements distinguish one category from another (London gin falls into the Gin category but any gin cannot be considered as London gin).
Spirit drinks that are not produced within the EU, such astequila orbaijiu, are not listed in the 44 categories.
Distillation inChina could have begun during theEastern Han dynasty (1st–2nd centuries), but the distillation of beverages began in theJin (12th–13th centuries) andSouthern Song (10th–13th centuries) dynasties according to archaeological evidence.[23]
Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice. The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use.
An illustration of brewing and distilling industry methods in England, 1858
The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such asAristotle (384–322 BCE),Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BCE), andPliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE).[24] This did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, however, despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-centuryRoman Egypt.[25] An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed toJābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that byadding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine'srelative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced.[26] The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed toal-Kindī (c. 801–873 CE) and toal-Fārābī (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book ofal-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013)Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin asLiber servatoris).[27] In the twelfth century, recipes for the production ofaqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.[28] Its medicinal properties were studied byArnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) andJohn of Rupescissa (c. 1310–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (theaqua vitae or "water of life", also called by John thequintessence of wine).[29]
In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th centuryJin orSouthern Song dynasties.[23]Astill has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong,Hebei, dating to the 12th century.[23]
In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from theMiddle East and was in wide use in theDelhi Sultanate by the 14th century.[22][30]
The works ofTaddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeatedfractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.[31]
It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries, including New Zealand[33] and the Netherlands.[note 1]
In many others including theUnited States, it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license, and the licensing process is too arduous for hobbyist-scale production. In some parts of the U.S., it is also illegal to sell a still without a license. Nonetheless, all states allow unlicensed individuals tomake their own beer, and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine (although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions).[citation needed]
Some countries and sub-national jurisdictions limit or prohibit the sale of certain high-percentage alcohol, commonly known asneutral spirit. Due to its flammability (see below) alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 70% by volume are not permitted to be transported in aircraft.[34]
Microdistilling (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following themicrobrewing andcraft beer movement in the last decades of the 20th century.
These flaming cocktails illustrate that some liquors will readily catch fire and burn.
Liquor that contains 40%ABV (80US proof) will catch fire if heated to about 26 °C (79 °F) and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called itsflash point.[35] The flash point ofpure alcohol is 16.6 °C (61.9 °F), less than average room temperature.[36]
The flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking techniqueflambé.
The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% to 96% by weight are:[37]
10% – 49 °C (120 °F) –ethanol-based water solution
Map of Europe with individual countries grouped by preferred type of alcoholic drink, based on recorded alcohol consumption per capita (age 15+) (in liters of pure alcohol) in 2016.[40]
Wine
Beer
Spirits
TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries. The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumedper capita in a given year in a country.[41]
In Europe, spirits (especially vodka) are more popular in the north and east of the continent.
Distilled spirits containethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present inbeer andwine, and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan over which the consumption took place.[42]
The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills andeuphoria at lower doses tointoxication (drunkenness), tostupor, unconsciousness,anterograde amnesia (memory "blackouts"), andcentral nervous system depression at higher doses.Cell membranes are highly permeable toalcohol, so once it is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body. Alcohol can greatly exacerbate sleep problems. Duringabstinence, residual disruptions in sleep regularity and sleep patterns are the greatest predictors ofrelapse.[42]
Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.[45] Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years[46] and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States.[43]
A survey of high school students in Alstahaug, Nordland county, revealed that adolescents consume alcohol at rates above the national average, with home-made liquor being prevalent and easily accessible, highlighting an urgent need for preventive measures.[48]
^Levey, Martin (1959).Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia.Elsevier. p. 36.As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.
^abFrank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?"Man, New Series14:1:55-63 (1979)full textArchived December 20, 2019, at theWayback Machine
^Javed Husain, "The So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri - A Case Study",Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society41:3:289-314 (July 1, 1993)
^abcHaw, Stephen G. (2006)."Wine, women and poison".Marco Polo in China. Routledge. pp. 147–148.ISBN978-1-134-27542-7. RetrievedJuly 10, 2016.The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties
^Berthelot, Marcellin; Houdas, Octave V. (1893).La Chimie au Moyen Âge. Vol. I–III. Paris: Imprimerie nationale. vol. I, p. 137.
^al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (2009). "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine inArabic Sources from the 8th Century".Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. pp. 283–298. (same content also available onthe author's websiteArchived December 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine).
^abcFeige B, Scaal S, Hornyak M, Gann H, Riemann D (January 2007). "Sleep electroencephalographic spectral power after withdrawal from alcohol in alcohol-dependent patients".Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.31 (1):19–27.doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00260.x.PMID17207097.
^Jaegtvik, T; Schei, E (May 30, 1999). "[Home-brew and alcohol drinking of adolescents]".Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening.119 (14):2010–4.PMID10394274.
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004).The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.ISBN0-06-054218-7.
Forbes, Robert (1997).Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN90-04-00617-6.
Multhauf, Robert (1993).The Origins of Chemistry. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers.ISBN2-88124-594-3.
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