Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler'sMedicinal-Plants (1887)Close-up view of raw cinnamon bark
Cinnamon is the name for several species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genusCinnamomum in the familyLauraceae. Only a fewCinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice.Cinnamomum verum (alternativelyC. zeylanicum), known as "Ceylon cinnamon" after its origins inSri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), is considered to be "true cinnamon",[1] but most cinnamon in international commerce is derived from four other species, usually and more correctly referred to as "cassia":C. burmanni (Indonesian cinnamon or Padang cassia),C. cassia (Chinese cinnamon or Chinese cassia),C. loureiroi (Saigon cinnamon or Vietnamese cassia), and the less commonC. citriodorum (Malabar cinnamon).[1][2][3]
In 2023, world production of cinnamon was 238,403tonnes, led by China with 39% of the total.[4]
The English word "cinnamon", attested in English since the 15th century, deriving from theAncient Greekκιννάμωμον (kinnámōmon, later κίνναμον :kínnamon), viaLatin andmedieval French intermediate forms. The Greek was borrowed from aPhoenician word, which was similar to the relatedHebrew wordקנמון (qinnāmōn).[5][6]
The name "cassia", first recorded inlate Old English from Latin, ultimately derives from the Hebrew wordקציעהqetsīʿāh, a form of the verbקצעqātsaʿ, "to strip off bark".[7][8]
Early Modern English also used the namescanel andcanella, similar to the current names of cinnamon in several other European languages, which are derived from the Latin wordcannella, a diminutive ofcanna, "tube", from the way the bark curls up as it dries.[9]
Cinnamon has been known from remoteantiquity.[10] It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BC, but those who reported that it had come from China had confused it withCinnamomum cassia, a related species.[3] Cinnamon was so highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a gift fit for monarchs[10] and even for a deity; an inscription records the gift of cinnamon and cassia to the temple ofApollo atMiletus.[11] Its source was kept a trade secret in the Mediterranean world for centuries by those in thespice trade, in order to protect their monopoly as suppliers.[12]
Cinnamomum verum, which translates from Latin as "true cinnamon", is native toIndia,Sri Lanka,Bangladesh andMyanmar.[13]Cinnamomum cassia (cassia) is native to China. Related species, all harvested and sold in the modern era as cinnamon, are native toVietnam ("Saigon cinnamon"), Indonesia and other southeast Asian countries with warm climates.[14]
In Ancient Egypt, cinnamon was used to embalmmummies.[15] From thePtolemaic Kingdom onward, Ancient Egyptian recipes forkyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon.[16][17]
The first Greek reference toκασίαkasía is found in a poem bySappho in the 7th century BC. According toHerodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense,myrrh andlabdanum, and were guarded bywinged serpents.[18] Herodotus, Aristotle and other authors named Arabia as the source of cinnamon; they recounted that giant "cinnamon birds" collected the cinnamon sticks from an unknown land where the cinnamon trees grew and used them to construct their nests.[18]: 111
Pliny the Elder wrote that cinnamon was brought around theArabian Peninsula on "rafts without rudders or sails or oars", taking advantage of the wintertrade winds.[19] He also mentioned cassia as a flavouring agent for wine,[20] and that the tales of cinnamon being collected from the nests of cinnamon birds was a traders' fiction made up to charge more. However, the story remained current inByzantium as late as 1310.[21]
According to Pliny the Elder, aRoman pound (327 grams [11.5 oz]) of cassia, cinnamon (serichatum), cost up to 1,500denarii, the wage of fifty months' labour.[22]Diocletian'sEdict on Maximum Prices[23] from 301 AD gives a price of 125denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25denarii per day. Cinnamon was too expensive to be commonly used on funeral pyres in Rome, but the EmperorNero is said to have burned a year's worth of the city's supply at the funeral for his wifePoppaea Sabina in AD 65.[24]
Through theMiddle Ages, the source of cinnamon remained a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up theRed Sea to the trading ports of Egypt, but where it came from was less than clear. When theSieur de Joinville accompanied his king,Louis IX of France to Egypt on theSeventh Crusade in 1248, he reported—and believed—what he had been told: that cinnamon was fished up in nets at thesource of the Nile out at the edge of the world (i.e.,Ethiopia).Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic.[25]
The first mention that the spice grew in the area ofIndia was inMaimonides'sMishneh Torah, about 1180.[26] The first mention that the spice grew specifically in Sri Lanka was inZakariya al-Qazwini'sAthar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-'ibad ("Monument of Places and History of God's Bondsmen") about 1270.[27] This was followed shortly thereafter byJohn of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292.[28]
Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from theMoluccas to East Africa (see alsoRhapta), where local traders then carried it north to Alexandria in Egypt.[29][30][31]Venetian traders from Italy held amonopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria. The disruption of this trade by the rise of other Mediterranean powers, such as theMamluk sultans and theOttoman Empire, was one of many factors that led Europeans to search more widely for other routes to Asia.[32]
During the 1500s,Ferdinand Magellan was searching for spices on behalf of Spain; in thePhilippines, he foundCinnamomum mindanaense, which was closely related toC. zeylanicum, the cinnamon found in Sri Lanka. This cinnamon eventually competed with Sri Lankan cinnamon, which was controlled by the Portuguese.[33]
In 1638, Dutch traders established a trading post in Sri Lanka, took control of themanufactories by 1640, and expelled the remaining Portuguese by 1658. "The shores of the island are full of it," a Dutch captain reported, "and it is the best in all the Orient. When one is downwind of the island, one can still smell cinnamon eightleagues out to sea."[34] TheDutch East India Company continued to overhaul the methods of harvesting in the wild and eventually began to cultivate its own trees.[35][36]
Cinnamon is anevergreen tree characterized by oval-shaped leaves, thick bark and a berry fruit. When harvesting the spice, the bark and leaves are the primary parts of the plant used.[15] However, in Japan, the more pungent roots are harvested in order to producenikki (ニッキ) which is a product distinct from cinammon (シナモンshinamon). Cinnamon is cultivated by growing the tree for two years, thencoppicing it, i.e., cutting the stems at ground level. The following year, about a dozen new shoots form from the roots, replacing those that were cut. A number of pests such asColletotrichum gloeosporioides,Diplodia species andPhytophthora cinnamomi (stripe canker) can affect the growing plants.[39]
The stems must be processed immediately after harvesting while the inner bark is still wet. The cut stems are processed by scraping off the outer bark, then beating the branch evenly with a hammer to loosen the inner bark, which is then pried off in long rolls. Only 0.5 mm (0.02 in) of the inner bark is used;[40][a] the outer, woody portion is discarded, leaving metre-long cinnamon strips that curl into rolls ("quills") on drying. The processed bark dries completely in four to six hours, provided it is in a well-ventilated and relatively warm environment. Once dry, the bark is cut into 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) lengths for sale.
A less than ideal drying environment encourages the proliferation of pests in the bark, which may then require treatment byfumigation withsulphur dioxide. In 2011, the European Union approved the use of sulphur dioxide at a concentration of up to 150 mg/kg (0.0024 oz/lb) for the treatment ofC. verum bark harvested in Sri Lanka.[42]
Cassia induces a strong, spicy flavour and is often used in baking, especially associated withcinnamon rolls, as it handles baking conditions well. Among cassia, Chinese cinnamon is generally medium to light reddish-brown in colour, hard and woody in texture, and thicker (2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) thick), as all of the layers of bark are used. Ceylon cinnamon, using only the thin inner bark, has a lighter brown colour and a finer, less dense, and more crumbly texture. It is subtle and more aromatic in flavour than cassia and it loses much of its flavour during cooking.
The barks of the species are easily distinguished when whole, both in macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. Ceylon cinnamon sticks (quills) have many thin layers and can easily be made into powder using a coffee or spice grinder, whereas cassia sticks are much harder. Indonesian cinnamon is often sold in neat quills made up of one thick layer, capable of damaging a spice or coffee grinder. Saigon cinnamon (C. loureiroi) and Chinese cinnamon (C. cassia) are always sold as broken pieces of thick bark, as the bark is not supple enough to be rolled into quills.
The powdered bark is harder to distinguish, but if it is treated withtincture of iodine (atest for starch), little effect is visible with pure Ceylon cinnamon; however, when Chinese cinnamon is present, a deep-blue tint is produced.[10][44][45]
The Sri Lankan grading system divides the cinnamon quills into four groups:
Alba, less than 6 mm (0.24 in) in diameter
Continental, less than 16 mm (0.63 in) in diameter
Mexican, less than 19 mm (0.75 in) in diameter
Hamburg, less than 32 mm (1.3 in) in diameter
These groups are further divided into specific grades. For example, Mexican is divided into M00000 special, M000000 and M0000, depending on quill diameter and number of quills per kilogram. Any pieces of bark less than 106 mm (4.2 in) long are categorized as quillings. Featherings are the inner bark of twigs and twisted shoots. Chips are trimmings of quills, outer and inner bark that cannot be separated, or the bark of small twigs.[citation needed]
True cinnamon fromC. verum bark can be mixed with cassia (C. cassia) ascounterfeit and falsely marketed as authentic cinnamon. In one analysis, authenticCeylon cinnamon bark contained 12-143 mg/kg ofcoumarin – aphenolic typically low in content in true cinnamon – but market samples contained coumarin with levels as high as 3462 mg/kg, indicating probable contamination with cassia in the counterfeit cinnamon.[46]ConsumerLab.com found the same problem in a 2020 analysis; "a supplement that contained the highest amount of coumarin was labeled as Ceylon cinnamon".[47]
Cinnamon bark is used as a spice. It is principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material. It is used in the preparation ofchocolate, especially in Mexico. Cinnamon is often used in savoury dishes of chicken and lamb. In the United States and Europe, cinnamon and sugar are often used to flavourcereals, bread-based dishes such as toast, and fruits, especiallyapples; a cinnamon and sugar mixture (cinnamon sugar) is sold separately for such purposes. It is also used inPortuguese andTurkish cuisine for both sweet and savoury dishes. Cinnamon can also be used inpickling, and in Christmas drinks such aseggnog. Cinnamon powder has long been an important spice in enhancing the flavour ofPersian cuisine, used in a variety of thick soups, drinks and sweets.[48]
The flavour of cinnamon is due to the aromatic essential oils that makes up 0.5 to 1% of its composition.
Cinnamon bark can be macerated, then extracted in 80% ethanol, to a tincture.[54]
Cinnamon essential oil can be prepared by roughly pounding the bark,macerating it in sea water, and then quicklydistilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the characteristic odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste.
Cinnamon oil nanoemulsion can be made withpolysorbate 80, cinnamon essential oil, and water, by ultrasonic emulsification.[55][56]
Cinnamon oil macroemulsion can be made with a dispersing emulsifying homogenizer.[56][57]
The pungent taste and scent come from cinnamaldehyde, about 90% of theessential oil from cinnamon bark.[58] Cinnamaldehyde decomposes, in high humidity and high temperatures, tostyrene,[59] and, by reaction with oxygen as it ages, it darkens in colour and forms resinous compounds.[10][60]
Cinnamon constituents include some 80aromatic compounds,[61] including eugenol, found in the oil from leaves or bark of cinnamon trees.[62]
Cinnamon is used as a flavoring incinnamon liqueur,[63] such as cinnamon-flavoredwhiskey in the United States, andrakomelo, a cinnamon brandy in Greece.
Cinnamon has a long history of use intraditional medicine as a digestive aid. However, contemporary studies are unable to find evidence of any significant medicinal or therapeutic effect.[64]
Reviews of clinical trials reported lowering of fastingplasma glucose and inconsistent effects onhemoglobin A1C (HbA1c, an indicator of chronically elevated plasma glucose).[65][66][67][68][69] Four of the reviews reported a decrease in fasting plasma glucose,[65][66][67][69] only two reported lower HbA1c,[65][67] and one reported no change to either measure.[68] TheCochrane review noted that trial durations were limited to 4 to 16 weeks, and that no trials reported on changes toquality of life,morbidity ormortality rate. The Cochrane authors' conclusion was: "There is insufficient evidence to support the use of cinnamon for type 1 or type 2diabetes mellitus."[68] Citing the Cochrane review, the U.S.National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health stated: "Studies done in people don't support using cinnamon for any health condition."[64] However, the results of the studies are difficult to interpret because it is often unclear what type of cinnamon and what part of the plant were used.[70]
A meta-analysis of cinnamon supplementation trials with lipid measurements reported lower total cholesterol and triglycerides, but no significant changes inLDL-cholesterol orHDL-cholesterol.[71] Another reported no change to body weight or insulin resistance.[69]
A systematic review ofadverse events as a result of cinnamon use reported gastrointestinal disorders and allergic reactions as the most frequently reported side effects.[72]
In 2008, theEuropean Food Safety Authority considered the toxicity of coumarin, a component of cinnamon, and confirmed a maximum recommendedtolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.1 mg of coumarin per kg of body weight. Coumarin is known to cause liver and kidney damage in high concentrations and metabolic effect in humans withCYP2A6polymorphism.[73][74] Based on this assessment, theEuropean Union set a guideline for maximum coumarin content in foodstuffs of 50 mg per kg of dough in seasonal foods, and 15 mg per kg in everyday baked foods.[75] The maximum recommended TDI of 0.1 mg of coumarin per kg of body weight equates to 5 mg of coumarin (or 5.6 g C. verum with 0.9 mg coumarin per gram) for a body weight of 50 kg. C as shown in the table below:
Due to the variable amount of coumarin inC. cassia, usually well over 1.0 mg of coumarin per g of cinnamon and sometimes up to 12 times that,C. cassia has a low safe-intake-level upper limit to adhere to the above TDI.[76] In contrast,C. verum has only trace amounts of coumarin.[77]
In March 2024, the USFood and Drug Administration recommended a voluntary recall on 6 brands of cinnamon due to contamination withlead,[78] after an investigation stemming from 500 reports of child lead poisoning across the US.[79] The FDA determined that cinnamon was adulterated withlead chromate.[80]
^abToussaint-Samat, Maguelonne (2009).A history of food. Translated by Anthea Bell (New expanded ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-1405181198.Cassia, also known as cinnamon or Chinese cinnamon is a tree that has bark similar to that of cinnamon but with a rather pungent odour
^"Cinnamon".Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2008.ISBN978-1-59339-292-5.Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved17 April 2017.(species Cinnamomum zeylanicum), bushy evergreen tree of the laurel family (Lauraceae) native to Malabar Coast of India, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Bangladesh and Myanmar (Burma).
^Pliny the Elder; Bostock, J.; Riley, H. T. (1855)."42, Cinnamomum. Xylocinnamum".Natural History of Pliny, book XII, The Natural History of Trees. Vol. 3. London:Henry G. Bohn. pp. 137–140.
^Pliny the Elder (1855).Natural History. Vol. 3. London, UK:Taylor & Francis. p. 140 – via Internet Archive.The right of regulating the sale of the cinnamon belongs solely to the king of the Gebanitæ, who opens the market for it by public proclamation. The price of it was formerly as much as a thousand denarii per pound; which was afterwards increased to half as much again, in consequence, it is said, of the forests having been set on fire by the barbarians, from motives of resentment[...]
^Graser, E. R. (1940). "A text and translation of the Edict of Diocletian". In Frank, Tenney (ed.).An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome. Vol. V: Rome and Italy of the Empire.Johns Hopkins Press.ISBN978-0374928483.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Tennent, James Emerson (1860).Account of the Island of Ceylon. Vol. 1. Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts.Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved8 November 2014.
^Jayaprakasha, G. K.; Rao, L. J. (2011). "Chemistry, biogenesis, and biological activities of Cinnamomum zeylanicum".Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.51 (6):547–62.doi:10.1080/10408391003699550.PMID21929331.S2CID34530542.
^abcNamazi, Nazli; Khodamoradi, Kajal; Khamechi, Seyed Peyman; Heshmati, Javad; Ayati, Mohammad Hossein; Larijani, Bagher (April 2019). "The impact of cinnamon on anthropometric indices and glycemic status in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials".Complementary Therapies in Medicine.43:92–101.doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2019.01.002.PMID30935562.S2CID81727505.
^"Cinnamon".Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved20 June 2021.
^"Coumarin in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC)".EFSA Journal.6 (10): 793. 7 October 2008.doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2008.793.
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