Chhayavad (ISO:Chāyāvād) refers to the era ofmystical-romanticism inHindi literature, particularly poetry, spanning approximately from mid-1910s to early-1940s. It emerged as a reaction to the didacticism of its previous poetic movement - the Dwivedi era - as well as the courtly traditions of poetry.
It was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression with an increase in romantic and humanist content. It is known for its leaning towards themes oflove and nature, as well as an individualistic reappropriation in a new form ofmysticism.
The movement is typically attributed toJaishankar Prasad,Suryakant Tripathi Nirala,Sumitranandan Pant, andMahadevi Varma, often cited as the four pillars of Chāyāvād. Their writings reflected a conscious blending of classical Indian heritage with occidental sensibilities. The movement delved into love as a spiritual and transformative force, reverence for nature as a source of solace, and the individual’s quest for identity and connection with the divine. These themes incorporated traditional values with the evolving ideas of freedom and self-expression during the country’s struggle forindependence.
It is characterized by a lyrical, poetic, and musical accomplishment of modernHindi literature. Anchored in new sensibilities, it concluded with the rise of the experimental spirit ofPrayogvad and the socially engagedPragativad, together reflecting the dynamic evolution of Hindi poetry in the early 20th century.
The literal meaning ofchāyā carries various interpretations, including shade, such as from a tree or cloud; reflection, like that in a mirror; and shadow, as cast by an object.[1][2][3]
The term chāyā appears in theUpanishads, where it refers to the universe as a phenomenal reflection of transcendental reality. This interpretation is supported by the broader intellectual environment of that time, when figures likeVivekananda andRabindranath Tagore were revisiting the Upanishads and introducing modern interpretations of ancient texts.[4]
Researchers have also proposed that the term may be associated with the reflection of the literary expression exemplified inTagore'sGitanjali which itself was influenced byRomanticism ofEnglish literature.[5]
The first use of the term chāyāvād in the context of Hindi poetry is attributed to Mukutdhar Pandey, who introduced it through his collection of essays in 1920.Namvar Singh notes that the essays were presented with annotations, suggesting that commentaries on this poetic style already existed. Scholars agree that the essence of chāyāvād' began to take shape around the mid-1910s, predating its formal recognition in 1920.[6]
Until the early 20th century, Hindi poetry followed traditions that had developed over several centuries through various medieval literary forms and dialects. The first attempts at modern standardized Hindi poetry, based onKhari Boli, emerged during a surge of literary activity inVaranasi in the 1860s, centered aroundBharatendu Harishchandra. It was primarily characterized bybhakti (religious devotion) orriti (courtly love) themes. TheBhartendu yug introduced innovations, such as using verses inBraj Bhasha for dramas to comment on contemporary issues, but these did not gain lasting traction.[7]
A significant shift in Hindi poetry occurred with the founding of the magazineSarasvatī in 1900, under the editorship ofMahavir Prasad Dwivedi. While initially appreciated more for its social and literary goals than for its aesthetic value, theDwivedi yug marked a transformation in the content of Hindi poetry. Poets of this era moved away from the limited scope ofrītī poetry and began addressing themes such asnationalism andsocial reform. A defining work of this period isMaithilisharan Gupt’s 1912 poemBhārat-Bhāratī, which exemplifies the nationalist sentiment of the time. Dwivedi-era introduced didactic themes that shaped the discourse of Hindi literature through the second and third decades of the 20th century.[8]
Simultaneously, a younger generation of poets emerged on the fringes of the literary establishment, rejecting both the ideal prosaic moral earnestness of Dwivedi-era poetry and the narrow scope ofrītī traditions. Their reaction against earlier styles and themes led to a revolution in poetic sensibility, ultimately giving rise to theChhayavad yug.[9][10]
The Chhayawad period is generally dated between 1918 and 1938, though some critics and scholars propose slight variations for its inception. This period of literary flourishing coincided with the aftermath ofWorld War I, and extended through the interwar years, culminating in the early 1940s asWorld War II commenced. Hence, this poetic stream aligns with global trends ofintrospection, andcultural revival inpost-war societies. The Chhayawad era also coincided with India's escalating struggle forindependence, intertwining personal emotions with the collective aspirations for cultural identity and an implicit desire for political independence.[11]
Prominent criticRamchandra Shukla in hisHindi Sahitya ka Itihas asserts that:
Chāyāvād should be understood in two senses. First, in the context of mysticism, where it relates to the subject matter of poetry, depicting the poet's eternal and unknown beloved through highly imaginative language. Second, as a particular poetic style, where the focus lies in expressing the unmanifest through the shadow of the manifest. Chhayavad generally represents an artistic response against the dry, narrative style of the Dwivedi era. (English translation)[12][13]
Hazari Prasad Dwivedi asserted that Chāyāvād stemmed from an inward orientation of the mind and a steadfast belief in the changing human condition. The poets of this era were endowed with exceptional sensitivity and keen awareness of social disparities and discord. Stylistically, they were markedly distinct from their predecessors, focusing primarily on subjectivity. By 1920, Khadi Boli poetry still emphasized themes, but subsequently, the poet’s own emotions and sentiments took precedence. The significance of the theme itself became secondary, while the poet’s inner resonance with it became paramount.[14]
Namwar Singh wrote:
Regardless of its literal meaning, the term chāyāvād practically refers to the collected works of poets like Prasad, Nirala, Pant, and Mahadevi written between 1918 and 1936. It is the poetic manifestation of the national awakening of that era, striving to break free from old traditions on one hand and foreign domination on the other. (English translation)[15]
Nand Dulare Bajpai defined Chāyāvād as the subtle yet manifest beauty of nature imbued with a spiritual aura, offering a universally accepted explanation of the movement.
Jaishankar Prasad noted that this new form of poetry relied more on Indian aesthetics of experience and expression. Its distinctive features included suggestiveness, figurativeness, the depiction of nature, and the nuanced articulation of personal emotions. He said:
When poetry moved away from the mythological narratives or external descriptions of women’s beauty in different lands and began expressing self-experienced emotions rooted in pain, it came to be termed Chāyāvād in Hindi.[16]
Mahadevi Varma viewed the philosophy of Chhayavad as rooted inuniversalism (sarvātmavād) and identified nature as its medium. She believed this poetry established a profound emotional bond with nature, evoking universal empathy and unity with all elements of the world. She regardedmysticism as a natural progression of Chāyāvād.[17]
Sumitranandan Pant considered Chāyāvād to be influenced by Western Romanticism.[18]
One of the central themes is the profound connection between humans and nature. The natural world is often depicted as a mirror reflecting human emotions, with the elements of theearth,sky, andseasons, as in Pant'sGramya andGunjan serving as metaphors for internal states of being. In this regard, nature becomes both a symbol of the poet’s emotional experiences and a vehicle for spiritual transcendence.[19]
Another key theme is the idealization of love and theromantic quest for the eternal, most prominent in the poems of Mahadevi. She frequently portrayed love as a divine force, representing the ideal of untainted beauty and connection, transcending the physical realm.[20][21]
Spirituality andmysticism are also prevalent themes, with an emphasis on the search for truth, self-realization, and the connection between the individual and the divine. The movement was also marked by an engagement with theexistential concerns of human life. Poets explored the duality of existence, such as life and death, material and spiritual worlds, and the transient nature of time, as evident in works of likeSaroj Smriti,Sneh nirjhar (Nirala), andAansu (Prasad). This theme is often reflected through melancholic expressions, contemplating the impermanence of life and the inevitability of death.[22][23]
Although Chāyāvād is primarily associated with poetry, it is noteworthy that all the prominent figures also made significant contributions toprose. Interestingly, much of their prose, both in style and more so in the time-period, aligns with the essence of Chāyāvād.[24] For instance, Prasad's historical plays, Nirala's story collections, and Mahadevi's distinctive memoirs reflect this connection. Beyond this, themes of nationalism and freedom—both personal and political—are evident in works likeKankal (Prasad),Kulli Bhat (Nirala),Shrinkhla ki Kadiyan (Mahadevi), and Pant's essay collections. The prose of this era predominantly embodied nationalistic and emotional fervor, in contrast to the mystical and romantic themes characteristic of its poetry.[25][26][27]
Jaishankar Prasad,Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala',Sumitranandan Pant andMahadevi Varma are considered as the four pillars of theChhayavadi school of Hindi literature.
Prasad was born in 1889 in Varanasi into a prosperous family with a strong association toShaivism. His family’s enterprise was focused on the trade of snuff and tobacco. His early education began at home, studyingSanskrit,Hindi,Persian, andUrdu, before he got enrolled at Queen's College.
He had a deep interest in religion, history, archaeology, and gardening. Music was a lifelong inclination, and he appreciated bothclassical forms and lighter styles. His works often include love in its diverse forms, the profound exploration of pain and anguish, the complexities of the human condition, the pursuit of spiritual ideals, and the examination of historical and mythological narratives—elements that are evident in both his poetry and prose.[28]
Nirala was born towards the end of the 19th century at Mahishadal inMidnapore inBengal Presidency. He independently started deciphering the grammar of modern standard Hindi by studying two Hindi journals available to him in Bengal:Sarasvatī andMaryādā.
He revolutionized Hindi poetry by pioneering the use of free verse. Nirala's poetry illustrated a profound connection with the living spirits of nature. His mystical poems, rich with the devotion of medieval Bhakti poetry, explored nature within a metaphysical framework that aligned with his Advaita beliefs. Themes of minority subjectivity, social critique, and social upliftment also appeared frequently in his writings.[29]
Pant was born inKausani in 1900. He grew up in a village and always cherished a love for the beauty and flavor of rural India, which is reflected in all his major works. He was known for romanticism in his poems which were inspired by nature, people and beauty within.
His works showcase a blend of innovation and emotional depth, marked by free verse and prose poems. Renowned for his vivid imagery, rhythmic variety, and charm, his contributions extend beyond poetry, highlighting his brilliance as a prose stylist, essayist, and critic.[30]
Verma was born on 26 March 1907 inFarrukhabad,Uttar Pradesh. She significantly impacted Hindi literature by refining the language and infusing poetry with heartfelt acceptance of Indian philosophy.
Her unique blend of emotional intensity, lyrical simplicity, and evocative imagery, along with her contributions as a translator and scholar, solidified her position as a leading figure of the Chhayavad movement. Her poetry, along with her work towards social upliftment and women's education, were depicted in her writings. These works greatly influenced both readers and critics.[31]
Other important figures of this literary movement wereRamdhari Singh 'Dinkar',Harivansh Rai Bachchan,Makhanlal Chaturvedi,Ramkumar Verma andPandit Narendra Sharma.
Some of the important works of this school include:
Initially, Chhayavad was very well received by readers and critics alike. However, subsequent scholars have criticized Chhayavad for excessive use of decorative language, romanticism aloof from contemporary social and economic malaise, and setting stricter rules on meter and rhyme.[citation needed]
Harivansh Rai Bachchan became excessively critical of Chhayavad later in his career and was associated with other genres likePragativaad.
Chhayavad continued until the latter half of the 1930s, when the golden era of modern Hindi poetry was gradually replaced by social didacticism inspired by rising nationalist fervour. Some of the later poets of this era, like Dinkar, Mahadevi and Bachchan took nationalist and social critiquing within their poetry.
{{cite news}}:no-break space character in|last1= at position 8 (help)