TheCherokee language is part of theIroquoian language group. In the 19th century,James Mooney, an early Americanethnographer, recorded one oral tradition that told of thetribe having migrated south in ancient times from theGreat Lakes region, where otherIroquoian peoples have been based.[11] However, anthropologist Thomas R. Whyte, writing in 2007, dated the split among the peoples as occurring earlier. He believes that the origin of theproto-Iroquoian language was likely theAppalachian region, and the split between Northern and Southern Iroquoian languages began 4,000 years ago.[12]
By the 19th century, White Americansettlers had classified the Cherokee of the Southeast as one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" in the region. They wereagrarian, lived in permanent villages and had begun to adopt some cultural and technological practices of thewhite settlers. They also developed their own writing system.
The Cherokee Nation has more than 300,000 tribal citizens, making it the largest of the 574 federally recognized tribes in the United States.[14] In addition, numerousgroups claim Cherokee lineage, and some of these are state-recognized. A total of more than 819,000 people are estimated to have identified as having Cherokee ancestry on the U.S. census; most are not enrolled citizens of any tribe.[2]
Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the UKB have headquarters inTahlequah, Oklahoma, and most of their citizens live in the state. The UKB are mostly descendants of "Old Settlers", also called Western Cherokee: those who migrated from the Southeast toArkansas and Oklahoma in about 1817, prior toIndian removal. They are related to the Cherokee who were laterforcibly relocated there in the 1830s under theIndian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is located on land known as theQualla Boundary in western North Carolina. They are mostly descendants of ancestors who had resisted or avoided relocation, remaining in the area. Because they gave up tribal citizenship at the time, they became state and US citizens. In the late 19th century, they reorganized as a federally recognized tribe.[15]
A Cherokee-language name for Cherokee people isAniyvwiya (ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ, translating as'Principal People').[16] Another endonym isAnigiduwagi (ᎠᏂᎩᏚᏩᎩ, translating as'People from Kituwah').[17]Tsalagi Gawonihisdi (ᏣᎳᎩ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ) is the Cherokee name for theCherokee language.[18][19]
Many theories, though all unproven, abound about theorigin of the nameCherokee. It may have originally been derived from one of the competitive tribes in the area.
The earliest Spanish transliteration of the name, from 1755, is recorded asTchalaque, but it dates to accounts related to theHernando de Soto expedition in the mid-16th century.[20] Another theory is thatCherokee derives from theLower Creek wordCvlakke ("chuh-log-gee"), as the Creek were also in this mountainous region.[21]
TheIroquois Five Nations, historically based in New York and Pennsylvania, called the CherokeeOyata'ge'ronoñ ('inhabitants of the cave country').[22] It is possible the wordCherokee comes from aMuscogee Creek word meaning'people of different speech', because the two peoples spoke different languages.[23] Jack Kilpatrick disputes this idea, noting that he believes the name come from the Cherokee wordtsàdlagí meaning'he has turned aside'.
Anthropologists and historians have two main theories of Cherokee origins. One is that the Cherokee, an Iroquoian-speaking people, migrated to SouthernAppalachia from northern areas around the Great Lakes inlate prehistoric times.[clarify] The area became territory of theIroquois (also known as the "Haudenosaunee") nations and other Iroquoian-speaking peoples of the Southeast such as theTuscarora people of the Carolinas, and theMeherrin andNottaway of Virginia. The other theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years and that proto-Iroquoian developed there instead of in the north.
Supporting the first theory are recorded conversations of Cherokee elders made by ethnographerJames Mooney in the late 19th century, who recounted an oral tradition of their people migrating south from theGreat Lakes region in ancient times.[11] They occupied territories where earthworkplatform mounds were built by peoples during the earlier Woodland period.
The people of theMiddle Woodland period are believed to be ancestors of the historic Cherokee and occupied what is nowWestern North Carolina, circa 200 to 600 CE. They are believed to have built what is called theBiltmore Mound, found in 1984 south of theSwannanoa River on the Biltmore Estate, which has numerous Native American sites.[24]
Other ancestors of the Cherokee are considered to be part of the laterPisgah phase ofSouth Appalachian Mississippian culture, a regional variation of theMississippian culture that arose circa 1000 and lasted to 1500 CE.[25] There is a consensus among most specialists in Southeast archeology and anthropology about these dates. But Finger says that ancestors of the Cherokee people lived in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee for a far longer period of time.[26] Additional mounds were built by peoples during this cultural phase. Typically in this region, towns had a singleplatform mound and served as a political center for smaller villages.
The Cherokee occupied numerous towns throughout the river valleys and mountain ridges of their homelands. What were called the Lower towns were found in what is present-day westernOconee County, South Carolina, along theKeowee River (called the Savannah River in its lower portion). The principal town of the Lower Towns wasKeowee. Other Cherokee towns on the Keowee River included Estatoe and Sugartown (Kulsetsiyi), a name repeated in other areas.
In western North Carolina, what were known as the Valley, Middle, and Outer Towns were located along the major rivers of theTuckasegee, the upperLittle Tennessee,Hiwasee,French Broad and other systems. TheOverhill Cherokee occupied towns along the lower Little Tennessee River and upper Tennessee River on the western side of the Appalachian Mountains, in present-day southeastern Tennessee.
During the Mississippian culture-period (1000 to 1500 CE in the regional variation known as theSouth Appalachian Mississippian culture), local women developed a new variety of maize (corn) called easternflint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops. The successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complexchiefdoms consisting of several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in religious ceremonies, especially theGreen Corn Ceremony.
Much of what is known about pre-18th century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions. The earliest ones of the mid-16th century encountered peoples of theMississippian culture era, who were ancestral to tribes that emerged in the Southeast, such as the Cherokee,Muscogee,Cheraw, andCatawba. Specifically in 1540–41, a Spanish expedition led byHernando de Soto passed through present-day South Carolina, proceeding into western North Carolina and what is considered Cherokee country. The Spanish recorded aChalaque[28] people as living around theKeowee River, where western North Carolina, South Carolina, and northeastern Georgia meet. The Cherokee consider this area to be part of their homelands, which also extended into southeastern Tennessee.[29]
Further west, De Soto's expedition visited villages in present-day northwestern Georgia, recording them as ruled at the time by theCoosa chiefdom. This is believed to be a chiefdom ancestral to theMuscogee Creek people, who developed as a Muskogean-speaking people with a distinct culture.[30]
In 1566, theJuan Pardo expedition traveled from the present-day South Carolina coast into its interior, and into western North Carolina and southeastern Tennessee. He recorded meeting Cherokee-speaking people who visited him while he stayed at theJoara chiefdom (north of present-dayMorganton, North Carolina). The historic Catawba later lived in this area of the upper Catawba River. Pardo and his forces wintered over at Joara, building Fort San Juan there in 1567.
His expedition proceeded into the interior, noting villages near modernAsheville and other places that are part of the Cherokee homelands. According to anthropologistCharles M. Hudson, the Pardo expedition also recorded encounters withMuskogean-speaking peoples atChiaha in southeastern modern Tennessee.
Linguistic studies have been another way for researchers to study the development of people and their cultures. Unlike most other Native American tribes in the American Southeast at the start of the historic era, the Cherokee andTuscarora people spokeIroquoian languages. Since theGreat Lakes region was the territory of most Iroquoian-language speakers, scholars have theorized that both the Cherokee and Tuscarora migrated south from that region. The Cherokeeoral history tradition supports their migration from the Great Lakes.
Linguistic analysis shows a relatively large difference between Cherokee and the northern Iroquoian languages, suggesting they had migrated long ago. Scholars posit a split between the groups in the distant past, perhaps 3,500–3,800 years ago.[31]Glottochronology studies suggest the split occurred between about 1500 and 1800 BCE.[32] The Cherokee say that the ancient settlement ofKituwa on theTuckasegee River is their original settlement in the Southeast.[31] It was formerly adjacent to and is now part ofQualla Boundary (the base of the federally recognizedEastern Band of Cherokee Indians) in North Carolina.
According to Thomas Whyte, who posits that proto-Iroquoian developed in Appalachia, the Cherokee andTuscarora broke off in the Southeast from the major group of Iroquoian speakers who migrated north to the Great Lakes area. There a succession of Iroquoian-speaking tribes were encountered by Europeans in historic times.
In the 1830s, the American writerJohn Howard Payne visited Cherokee then based in Georgia. He recounted what they shared about pre-19th-century Cherokee culture and society. For instance, the Payne papers describe the account by Cherokee elders of a traditional two-part societal structure. A "white" organization of elders represented the sevenclans. As Payne recounted, this group, which washereditary and priestly, was responsible for religious activities, such as healing, purification, and prayer. A second group of younger men, the "red" organization, was responsible for warfare. The Cherokee considered warfare a polluting activity.[33]
Researchers have debated the reasons for the change. Some historians believe the decline in priestly power originated with a revolt by the Cherokee against the abuses of the priestly class known as theAni-kutani.[34]EthnographerJames Mooney, who studied and talked with the Cherokee in the late 1880s, was the first to trace the decline of the former hierarchy to this revolt.[35] By the time that Mooney was studying the people in the late 1880s, the structure of Cherokee religious practitioners was more informal, based more on individual knowledge and ability than upon heredity.[34]
Another major source of early cultural history comes from materials written in the 19th century by thedidanvwisgi (ᏗᏓᏅᏫᏍᎩ), Cherokeemedicine men, afterSequoyah's creation of theCherokee syllabary in the 1820s. Initially only thedidanvwisgi learned to write and read such materials, which were considered extremely powerful in a spiritual sense.[34] Later, the syllabary and writings were widely adopted by the Cherokee people.
In 1657, there was a disturbance inVirginia Colony as theRechahecrians orRickahockans, as well as the SiouanManahoac andNahyssan, broke through the frontier and settled near the Falls of the James River, near present-dayRichmond, Virginia. The following year, a combined force of English colonists andPamunkey drove the newcomers away. The identity of theRechahecrians has been much debated. Historians noted the name closely resembled that recorded for theEriechronon orErielhonan, commonly known as theErie tribe, another Iroquoian-speaking people based south of the Great Lakes in present-day northern Pennsylvania.[36] This Iroquoian people had been driven away from the southern shore ofLake Erie in 1654 by the powerfulIroquois Five Nations, also known asHaudenosaunee, who were seeking more hunting grounds to support their dominance in the beaver fur trade. Theanthropologist Martin Smith theorized some remnants of the tribe migrated to Virginia after the wars (1986:131–32), later becoming known as theWesto to English colonists in the Province of Carolina. A few historians suggest this tribe was Cherokee.[37]
Virginian traders developed a small-scale trading system with the Cherokee in the Piedmont before the end of the 17th century. The earliest recorded Virginia trader to live among the Cherokee was Cornelius Dougherty or Dority, in 1690.[38][39]
The Cherokee gave sanctuary to a band ofShawnee in the 1660s. But from 1710 to 1715, the Cherokee andChickasaw allied with the British, and fought the Shawnee, who were allied with French colonists, forcing the Shawnee to move northward.[40]
The Cherokee fought with theYamasee,Catawba, and British in late 1712 and early 1713 against theTuscarora in the SecondTuscarora War. The Tuscarora War marked the beginning of a British-Cherokee relationship that, despite breaking down on occasion, remained strong for much of the 18th century. With the growth of thedeerskin trade, the Cherokee were considered valuable trading partners, since deer skins from the cooler country of their mountain hunting-grounds were of better quality than those supplied by the lowland coastal tribes, who were neighbors of the English colonists.
In January 1716, Cherokee murdered a delegation ofMuscogee Creek leaders at the town ofTugaloo, marking their entry into theYamasee War. It ended in 1717 with peace treaties between the colony ofSouth Carolina and the Creek. Hostility and sporadic raids between the Cherokee and Creek continued for decades.[41] These raids came to a head at theBattle of Taliwa in 1755, at present-dayBall Ground, Georgia, with the defeat of the Muscogee.
In 1721, the Cherokee ceded lands in South Carolina. In 1730, atNikwasi, a Cherokee town and Mississippian culture site, a Scots adventurer, SirAlexander Cuming, crownedMoytoy of Tellico as "Emperor" of the Cherokee. Moytoy agreed to recognize KingGeorge II of Great Britain as the Cherokee protector. Cuming arranged to take seven prominent Cherokee, includingAttakullakulla, toLondon, England. There the Cherokee delegation signed theTreaty of Whitehall with the British. Moytoy's son,Amo-sgasite (Dreadful Water), attempted to succeed him as "Emperor" in 1741, but the Cherokee elected their own leader,Conocotocko (Old Hop) ofChota.[42]
Political power among the Cherokee remained decentralized, and towns acted autonomously. In 1735, the Cherokee were said to have 64 towns and villages, with an estimated fighting force of 6,000 men.[43] In 1738 and 1739,smallpox epidemics broke out among the Cherokee, who had no natural immunity to the new infectious disease. Nearly half their population died within a year. Hundreds of other Cherokee committedsuicide due to their losses and disfigurement from the disease.
After theAnglo-Cherokee War, bitterness remained between the two groups. In 1765,Henry Timberlake took three Cherokee chiefs to London meet the Crown and help strengthen the newly declared peace.
British colonial officerHenry Timberlake, born in Virginia, described the Cherokee people as he saw them in 1761:
The Cherokees are of a middle stature, of an olive colour, tho' generally painted, and their skins stained with gun-powder, pricked into it in very pretty figures. The hair of their head is shaved, tho' many of the old people have it plucked out by the roots, except a patch on the hinder part of the head, about twice the bigness of a crown-piece, which is ornamented with beads, feathers,wampum, stained deer hair, and such like baubles. The ears are slit and stretched to an enormous size, putting the person who undergoes the operation to incredible pain, being unable to lie on either side for nearly forty days. To remedy this, they generally slit but one at a time; so soon as the patient can bear it, they wound round with wire to expand them, and are adorned with silver pendants and rings, which they likewise wear at the nose. This custom does not belong originally to the Cherokees, but taken by them from the Shawnese, or other northern nations.They that can afford it wear a collar of wampum, which are beads cut out of clam-shells, a silver breast-plate, and bracelets on their arms and wrists of the same metal, a bit of cloth over their private parts, a shirt of the English make, a sort of cloth-boots, andmockasons (sic), which are shoes of a make peculiar to the Americans, ornamented with porcupine-quills; a large mantle or match-coat thrown over all complete their dress at home ...[44]
From 1753 to 1755, battles broke out between the Cherokee and Muscogee over disputed hunting grounds inNorth Georgia. The Cherokee were victorious in theBattle of Taliwa. British soldiers built forts in Cherokee country to defend against the French in theSeven Years' War, which was fought across Europe and was called theFrench and Indian War on the North American front. These includedFort Loudoun near Chota on the Tennessee River in eastern Tennessee. Serious misunderstandings arose quickly between the two allies, resulting in the 1760Anglo-Cherokee War.[45]
King George III'sRoyal Proclamation of 1763 forbade British settlements west of the Appalachian crest, as his government tried to afford some protection from colonial encroachment to the Cherokee and other tribes they depended on as allies. The Crown found the ruling difficult to enforce with colonists.[45]
From 1771 to 1772, North Carolinian settlers squatted on Cherokee lands in Tennessee, forming theWatauga Association.[46]Daniel Boone and his party tried to settle in Kentucky, but the Shawnee,Delaware,Mingo, and some Cherokee attacked a scouting and forage party that included Boone's son, James Boone, andWilliam Russell's son, Henry, who were killed in the skirmish.[47]
In 1776, allied with the Shawnee led byCornstalk, Cherokee attacked settlers in South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and North Carolina in theSecond Cherokee War.Overhill CherokeeNancy Ward,Dragging Canoe's cousin, warned settlers of impending attacks. Provincial militias retaliated, destroying more than 50 Cherokee towns. North Carolina militia in 1776 and 1780 invaded and destroyed theOverhill towns in what is now Tennessee. In 1777, surviving Cherokee town leaders signed treaties with the new states.
Dragging Canoe and his band settled alongChickamauga Creek near present-dayChattanooga, Tennessee, where they established 11 new towns.Chickamauga Town was his headquarters and the colonists tended to call his entire band theChickamauga to distinguish them from other Cherokee. From here he fought aguerrilla war against settlers, which lasted from 1776 to 1794. These are known informally as the Cherokee–American wars, but this is not a historian's term.
The first Treaty ofTellico Blockhouse, signed November 7, 1794, finally brought peace between the Cherokee and Americans, who had achieved independence from the British Crown. In 1805, the Cherokee ceded their lands between theCumberland andDuck rivers (i.e. theCumberland Plateau) toTennessee.
Scots (and other Europeans) among the Cherokee in the 18th century
The traders and British government agents dealing with the southern tribes in general, and the Cherokee in particular, were nearly all of Scottish ancestry, with many documented as being from theHighlands. A few were Scotch-Irish, English, French, and German (seeScottish Indian trade). Many of these men married women from their host peoples and remained after the fighting had ended. Some of theirmixed-race children, who were raised in Native American cultures, later became significant leaders among theFive Civilized Tribes of theSoutheast.[48]
Notable traders, agents, and refugee Tories among the Cherokee includedJohn Stuart, Henry Stuart, Alexander Cameron, John McDonald, John Joseph Vann (father ofJames Vann), Daniel Ross (father ofJohn Ross), John Walker Sr., Mark Winthrop Battle, John McLemore (father of Bob), William Buchanan, John Watts (father ofJohn Watts Jr.),John D. Chisholm, John Benge (father ofBob Benge), Thomas Brown,John Rogers (Welsh), John Gunter (German, founder of Gunter's Landing),James Adair (Irish), William Thorpe (English), and Peter Hildebrand (German), among many others. Some attained the honorary status of minor chiefs and/or members of significant delegations.
By contrast, a large portion of the settlers encroaching on the Native American territories wereScotch-Irish, Irish fromUlster who were of Scottish descent and had been part of theplantation of Ulster. They also tended to support the Revolution. But in the back country, there were also Scotch-Irish who were Loyalists, such asSimon Girty.
The Cherokee lands between theTennessee andChattahoochee rivers were remote enough from white settlers to remain independent after theCherokee–American wars. Thedeerskin trade was no longer feasible on their greatly reduced lands, and over the next several decades, the people of the fledglingCherokee Nation began to build a new society modeled on the white Southern United States.
George Washington sought to 'civilize' Southeastern American Indians, through programs overseen by theIndian AgentBenjamin Hawkins. He encouraged the Cherokee to abandon their communal land-tenure and settle on individual farmsteads, which was facilitated by the destruction of many American Indian towns during theAmerican Revolutionary War. Thedeerskin trade broughtwhite-tailed deer to the brink of extinction, and as pigs and cattle were introduced, they became the principal sources of meat. The government supplied the tribes withspinning wheels and cotton-seed, and men were taught to fence and plow the land, in contrast to their traditional division in which crop cultivation was woman's labor. Americans instructed the women in weaving. Eventually, Hawkins helped them set up smithies, gristmills and cotton plantations.
The Cherokee allied with the U.S. against the nativist and pro-BritishRed Stick faction of the Upper Creek in theCreek War during theWar of 1812. Cherokee warriors led byMajor Ridge played a major role in GeneralAndrew Jackson's victory at theBattle of Horseshoe Bend. Major Ridge moved his family toRome, Georgia, where he built asubstantial house, developed a large plantation and ran a ferry on theOostanaula River. Although he never learned English, he sent his son and nephews to New England to be educated in mission schools. His interpreter and protégé ChiefJohn Ross, the descendant of several generations of Cherokee women and Scots fur-traders, built a plantation and operated a trading firm and a ferry at Ross' Landing (Chattanooga, Tennessee). During this period, divisions arose between the acculturated elite and the great majority of Cherokee, who clung to traditional ways of life.
Around 1809Sequoyah began developing a written form of the Cherokee language. He spoke no English, but his experiences as a silversmith dealing regularly with white settlers, and as a warrior at Horseshoe Bend, convinced him the Cherokee needed to develop writing. In 1821, he introducedCherokee syllabary, the first written syllabic form of an American Indian language outside ofCentral America. Initially, his innovation was opposed by both Cherokee traditionalists and white missionaries, who sought to encourage the use of English. When Sequoyah taught children to read and write with the syllabary, he reached the adults. By the 1820s, the Cherokee had a higher rate of literacy than the whites around them in Georgia.
In 1819, the Cherokee began holding council meetings at New Town, at the headwaters of theOostanaula (near present-dayCalhoun, Georgia). In November 1825, New Town became the capital of the Cherokee Nation, and was renamedNew Echota, after theOverhill Cherokee principal town ofChota.[50] Sequoyah's syllabary was adopted. They had developed a police force, a judicial system, and a National Committee.
In 1827, the Cherokee Nation drafted a Constitution modeled on the United States, with executive, legislative and judicial branches and a system of checks and balances. The two-tiered legislature was led by Major Ridge and his sonJohn Ridge. Convinced the tribe's survival required English-speaking leaders who could negotiate with the U.S., the legislature appointedJohn Ross as Principal Chief. A printing press was established at New Echota by theVermont missionarySamuel Worcester and Major Ridge's nephewElias Boudinot, who had taken the name of hiswhite benefactor, a leader of theContinental Congress andNew Jersey Congressman. They translated the Bible intoCherokee syllabary. Boudinot published the first edition of the bilingual 'Cherokee Phoenix,' the first American Indian newspaper, in February 1828.[51]
Before the final removal to present-day Oklahoma, many Cherokees relocated to present-dayArkansas,Missouri and Texas.[52] Between 1775 and 1786 the Cherokee, along with people of other nations such as theChoctaw andChickasaw, began voluntarily settling along theArkansas andRed Rivers.[53]
In 1802, the federal government promised to extinguish Indian titles to lands claimed byGeorgia in return for Georgia's cession of the western lands that becameAlabama andMississippi. To convince the Cherokee to move voluntarily in 1815, the US government established a Cherokee Reservation in Arkansas.[54] The reservation boundaries extended from north of theArkansas River to the southern bank of theWhite River.Di'wali (The Bowl),Sequoyah, Spring Frog and Tatsi (Dutch) and their bands settled there. These Cherokees became known as "Old Settlers."
The Cherokee eventually migrated as far north as theMissouri Bootheel by 1816. They lived interspersed among theDelawares andShawnees of that area.[55] The Cherokee inMissouri Territory increased rapidly in population, from 1,000 to 6,000 over the next year (1816–1817), according to reports by GovernorWilliam Clark.[56] Increased conflicts with theOsage Nation led to theBattle of Claremore Mound and the eventual establishment ofFort Smith between Cherokee and Osage communities.[57] In theTreaty of St. Louis (1825), the Osage were made to "cede and relinquish to the United States, all their right, title, interest, and claim, to lands lying within the State of Missouri and Territory of Arkansas..." to make room for the Cherokee and theMashcoux,Muscogee Creeks.[58] As late as the winter of 1838, Cherokee and Creek living in the Missouri and Arkansas areas petitioned the War Department to remove the Osage from the area.[59]
A group of Cherokee traditionalists led byDi'wali moved toSpanish Texas in 1819. Settling nearNacogdoches, they were welcomed by Mexican authorities as potential allies against Anglo-American colonists. TheTexas Cherokees were mostly neutral during theTexas War of Independence. In 1836, they signed a treaty with Texas PresidentSam Houston, an adopted member of the Cherokee tribe. His successorMirabeau Lamar sent militia to evict them in 1839.
Following the War of 1812, and the concurrentRed Stick War, the U.S. government persuaded several groups of Cherokee to a voluntary removal to the Arkansas Territory. These were the "Old Settlers", the first of the Cherokee to make their way to what would eventually becomeIndian Territory (modern dayOklahoma). This effort was headed by Indian AgentReturn J. Meigs, and was finalized with the signing of theJackson and McMinn Treaty, giving the Old Settlers undisputed title to the lands designated for their use.[60]
During this time, Georgia focused on removing the Cherokee's neighbors, theLower Creek. Georgia GovernorGeorge Troup and his cousinWilliam McIntosh, chief of the Lower Creek, signed theTreaty of Indian Springs in 1825, ceding the lastMuscogee (Creek) lands claimed by Georgia. The state's northwestern border reached theChattahoochee, the border of the Cherokee Nation. In 1829, gold was discovered atDahlonega, on Cherokee land claimed by Georgia. TheGeorgia Gold Rush was the first in U.S. history, and state officials demanded that the federal government expel the Cherokee. WhenAndrew Jackson was inaugurated as president in 1829, Georgia gained a strong ally inWashington. In 1830 Congress passed theIndian Removal Act, authorizing the forcible relocation of American Indians east of theMississippi to a new Indian Territory.
Jackson claimed the removal policy was an effort to prevent the Cherokee from facing extinction as a people, which he considered the fate that "...theMohegan, theNarragansett, and theDelaware" had suffered.[61] There is, however, ample evidence that the Cherokee were adapting to modern farming techniques. A modern analysis shows that the area was in general in a state of economic surplus and could have accommodated both the Cherokee and new settlers.[62]
In 1831, Georgia militia arrestedSamuel Worcester for residing on Indian lands without a state permit, imprisoning him inMilledgeville. InWorcester v. Georgia (1832), the USSupreme CourtChief JusticeJohn Marshall ruled that American Indian nations were "distinct, independent political communities retaining their original natural rights," and entitled to federal protection from the actions of state governments that infringed on theirsovereignty.[63]Worcester v. Georgia is considered one of the most important dicta in law dealing with Native Americans.
Jackson ignored the Supreme Court's ruling, as he needed to conciliate Southern sectionalism during the era of theNullification Crisis. His landslide reelection in 1832 emboldened calls for Cherokee removal. Georgia sold Cherokee lands to its citizens in aLand Lottery, and the state militia occupiedNew Echota. The Cherokee National Council, led by John Ross, fled toRed Clay, a remote valley north of Georgia's land claim. Ross had the support of Cherokee traditionalists, who could not imagine removal from their ancestral lands.
A small group known as the "Ridge Party" or the "Treaty Party" saw relocation as inevitable and believed the Cherokee Nation needed to make the best deal to preserve their rights in Indian Territory. Led byMajor Ridge,John Ridge andElias Boudinot, they represented the Cherokee elite, whose homes, plantations and businesses were confiscated, or under threat of being taken by white squatters with Georgia land-titles. With capital to acquire new lands, they were more inclined to accept relocation. On December 29, 1835, the "Ridge Party" signed theTreaty of New Echota, stipulating terms and conditions for the removal of the Cherokee Nation. In return for their lands, the Cherokee were promised a large tract in theIndian Territory, $5 million, and $300,000 for improvements on their new lands.[64]
John Ross gathered over 15,000 signatures for a petition to the U.S. Senate, insisting that the treaty was invalid because it did not have the support of the majority of the Cherokee people. The Senate passed the Treaty of New Echota by a one-vote margin. It was enacted into law in May 1836.[65]
Two years later, PresidentMartin Van Buren ordered 7,000 federal troops and state militia under GeneralWinfield Scott into Cherokee lands to evict the tribe. Over 16,000 Cherokee were forcibly relocated westward toIndian Territory in 1838–1839, a migration known as theTrail of Tears or in CherokeeᏅᎾ ᏓᎤᎳ ᏨᏱ orNvna Daula Tsvyi (The Trail Where They Cried), although it is described by another wordTlo-va-sa (The Removal). Marched over 800 miles (1,300 km) acrossTennessee,Kentucky,Illinois,Missouri andArkansas, the people suffered from disease, exposure and starvation, and as many as 4,000 died, nearly a fifth of the population.[66] As some Cherokees were slaveholders, they tookenslaved African Americans with them west of the Mississippi. Intermarried European Americans andmissionaries also walked the Trail of Tears. Ross preserved a vestige of independence by negotiating permission for the Cherokee to conduct their own removal under U.S. supervision.[67]
In keeping with the tribe's "blood law" that prescribed the death penalty for Cherokee who sold lands, Ross's son arranged the murder of the leaders of the "Treaty Party". On June 22, 1839, a party of twenty-five Ross supporters assassinated Major Ridge, John Ridge and Elias Boudinot. The party included Daniel Colston, John Vann, Archibald, James and Joseph Spear. Boudinot's brotherStand Watie fought and survived that day, escaping toArkansas.
In 1827,Sequoyah had led a delegation of Old Settlers to Washington, D.C., to negotiate for the exchange of Arkansas land for land in Indian Territory. After the Trail of Tears, he helped mediate divisions between the Old Settlers and the rival factions of the more recent arrivals. In 1839, as President of the Western Cherokee, Sequoyah signed an Act of Union with John Ross that reunited the two groups of the Cherokee Nation.
Cól-lee, a Band Chief, painted byGeorge Catlin, 1834
The Cherokee living along theOconaluftee River in theGreat Smoky Mountains were the most conservative and isolated from European–American settlements. They rejected the reforms of the Cherokee Nation. When the Cherokee government ceded all territory east of theLittle Tennessee River toNorth Carolina in 1819, they withdrew from the Nation.[68]William Holland Thomas, a white store owner and state legislator fromJackson County, North Carolina, helped over 600 Cherokee fromQualla Town obtain North Carolina citizenship, which exempted them from forced removal. Over 400 Cherokee either hid from Federal troops in the remote Snowbird Mountains, under the leadership ofTsali (ᏣᎵ),[69] or belonged to the former Valley Towns area around theCheoah River who negotiated with the state government to stay in North Carolina. An additional 400 Cherokee stayed on reserves in Southeast Tennessee, North Georgia, and Northeast Alabama, as citizens of their respective states. They were mostly mixed-race and Cherokee women married to white men. Together, these groups were the ancestors of the federally recognizedEastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and some of the state-recognized tribes in surrounding states.
TheAmerican Civil War was devastating for both East and Western Cherokee. The Eastern Band, aided byWilliam Thomas, became the Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders, fighting for the Confederacy in theAmerican Civil War.[70] Cherokee in Indian Territory divided into Union and Confederate factions.
Stand Watie, the leader of the Ridge Party, raised a regiment forConfederate service in 1861.John Ross, who had reluctantly agreed to ally with the Confederacy, was captured by Federal troops in 1862. He lived in a self-imposed exile inPhiladelphia, supporting the Union. In the Indian Territory, the national council of those who supported the Union voted to abolish slavery in the Cherokee Nation in 1863, but they were not the majority slaveholders and the vote had little effect on those supporting the Confederacy.
Watie was elected Principal Chief of the pro-Confederacy majority. A master of hit-and-run cavalry tactics, Watie fought those Cherokee loyal to John Ross and Federal troops inIndian Territory andArkansas, capturing Union supply trains andsteamboats, and saving a Confederate army by covering their retreat after theBattle of Pea Ridge in March 1862. He became a Brigadier General of theConfederate States; the only other American Indian to hold the rank in the American Civil War wasEly S. Parker with the Union Army. On June 25, 1865, two months afterRobert E. Lee surrendered atAppomattox, Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to stand down.
William Penn (Cherokee), His Shield (Yanktonai), Levi Big Eagle (Yanktonai), Bear Ghost (Yanktonai) and Black Moustache (Sisseton).
After the Civil War, the U.S. government required the Cherokee Nation to sign a new treaty, because of its alliance with the Confederacy. The U.S. required the 1866 Treaty to provide for theemancipation of all Cherokee slaves, and full citizenship to allCherokee Freedmen and all African Americans who chose to continue to reside within tribal lands, so that they "shall have all the rights of native Cherokees."[71] Both before and after the Civil War, some Cherokee intermarried or had relationships with African Americans, just as they had with whites. Many Cherokee Freedmen have been active politically within the tribe.
The US government also acquiredeasement rights to the western part of the territory, which became theOklahoma Territory, for the construction of railroads. Development and settlers followed the railroads. By the late 19th century, the government believed that Native Americans would be better off if each family owned its own land. TheDawes Act of 1887 provided for the breakup of commonly held tribal land into individual household allotments. Native Americans were registered on the Dawes Rolls and allotted land from the common reserve. The U.S. government counted the remainder of tribal land as "surplus" and sold it to non-Cherokee individuals.
TheCurtis Act of 1898 dismantled tribal governments, courts, schools, and other civic institutions. For Indian Territory, this meant the abolition of the Cherokee courts and governmental systems. This was seen as necessary before the Oklahoma and Indian territories could be admitted as a combined state. In 1905, theFive Civilized Tribes of theIndian Territory proposed the creation of theState of Sequoyah as one to be exclusively Native American but failed to gain support in Washington, D.C.. In 1907, theOklahoma andIndian Territories entered the union as the state ofOklahoma.
Map of present-day Cherokee Nation Tribal Jurisdiction Area (red)
By the late 19th century, the Eastern Band of Cherokee were laboring under the constraints of asegregated society. In the aftermath ofReconstruction, conservative white Democrats regained power in North Carolina and other southern states. They proceeded to effectivelydisenfranchise all blacks and many poor whites by new constitutions and laws related to voter registration and elections. They passedJim Crow laws that divided society into "white" and "colored", mostly to control freedmen. Cherokee and other Native Americans were classified on the colored side and suffered the same racial segregation and disenfranchisement as former slaves. They also often lost their historical documentation for identification as Indians, when the Southern states classified them as colored. Black Americans and Native Americans would not have their constitutional rights as U.S. citizens enforced until after theCivil Rights Movement secured passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s, and the federal government began to monitor voter registration and elections, as well as other programs.[citation needed]
On July 9, 2020, theUnited States Supreme Court decided in theMcGirt v Oklahoma decision in a criminal jurisdiction case that roughly half the land of the state of Oklahoma made up of tribal nations like the Cherokee are officially Native American tribal land jurisdictions.[72] Oklahoma GovernorKevin Stitt, himself a Cherokee Nation citizen, sought to reverse the Supreme Court decision. The following year, the state of Oklahoma couldn't block federal action to grant the Cherokee Nation—along with the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek), andSeminole Nations—reservation status.[73]
John R. Swanton enumerates 201 Cherokee villages and towns.[74] The Cherokee had 6,000 warriors (and therefore around 30,000 people) in years 1730–35 according toJ. Adair. In 1738 they also had 6,000 warriors, but down to 5,000 in 1740 (according to Ga. Hist. Coll., II). ColonelJames Oglethorpe confirms that they had 5,000 warriors in 1739 (Ga. Coll. Rec., V). Also according to Ga. Coll. Rec., V an epidemic reduced them "by almost one-half" in 1738, but this source doesn't specify how numerous they were before the epidemic. Perhaps this source exaggerates the casualties caused by that epidemic, and in fact it killed just around 1,000 warriors.Arthur Dobbs estimated the Cherokee warrior strength in 1755 at 2,590 (but W. Douglas at about the same time reported 6,000 warriors). In 1761 soon after the end of theAnglo-Cherokee War there were 2,300 warriors according toJ. Adair. By year 1768 their number recovered back to 3,000 warriors, and B. R. Carroll in "Historical Collections of South Carolina" also reported that they had 3,000 warriors.[75] By 1819 there were 4,000 warriors (and therefore around 20,000 people - including about 5,000 to the west of the Mississippi).George Catlin estimated 22,000 Cherokees in 1832, before theirremoval. But according to a report by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs dated November 25, 1841, the number of Cherokees who had already been removed west of the Mississippi (to Oklahoma,Indian Territory) was 25,911.[76]Henry Schoolcraft reported 21,707 Cherokees in 1857. Indian Affairs 1861 reported 22,000. Enumeration published in 1886 counted 23,000 Cherokee in Oklahoma (Indian Territory) as of year 1884.[77] Indian Affairs reported in 1890 around 25,000 among the Western Cherokee (in Oklahoma) and in years 1884 and 1889 around 3,000 among theEastern Cherokee. The Cherokee national census of 1890 in Oklahoma gave the total number of the nation under Cherokee law to be 25,978. In 1900 there were 35,000 in Oklahoma. According toJames Mooney (quoted byFrederick Webb Hodge) the majority of the earlier estimates of the Cherokee population are probably too low as the Cherokee occupied so extensive a territory that only a part of them came into contact with the Whites. Indian Affairs 1910 reported that in 1910 the Cherokee in Oklahoma contained 41,701 people, including 36,301 by blood, 286 by intermarriage and 4,917 Freedmen.[78] While the census of 1910 counted 31,489 Cherokees.
In the 2020 census a total of 1,130,730 people claimed Cherokee ancestry.[79] However the percentage of full-blood individuals is probably very low considering that theEastern Band of Cherokee Indians reported having only 395 full-blood members.[80] Perhaps there is a larger number of full-blood individuals among theUnited Keetoowah Band and among theCherokee Nation.
The Cherokee believe that the world is divided into two major spiritual forces: "red" (war, success, youth) and "white" (peace, introspection, old age).[81][82][83]
The Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual, Inc., ofCherokee, North Carolina, is the oldest continuing Native American art co-operative. They were founded in 1946 to provide a venue for traditional Eastern Band Cherokee artists.[84] TheMuseum of the Cherokee Indian, also in Cherokee, displays permanent and changing exhibits, houses archives and collections important to Cherokee history, and sponsors cultural groups, such as the Warriors of the AniKituhwa dance group.[85]
In 2007, theEastern Band of Cherokee Indians entered into a partnership withSouthwestern Community College andWestern Carolina University to create the Oconaluftee Institute for Cultural Arts (OICA), to emphasize native art and culture in traditional fine arts education. This is intended both to preserve traditional art forms and encourage exploration of contemporary ideas. Located in Cherokee, OICA offered an associate degree program.[86] In August 2010, OICA acquired a letterpress and had theCherokee syllabary recast to begin printing one-of-a-kind fine art books and prints in theCherokee language.[87] In 2012, the Fine Art degree program at OICA was incorporated intoSouthwestern Community College and moved to the SCC Swain Center, where it continues to operate.[88]
TheCherokee Heritage Center, ofPark Hill, Oklahoma, is the site of a reproduction of an ancient Cherokee village, Adams Rural Village (including 19th-century buildings), Nofire Farms, and the Cherokee Family Research Center for genealogy.[89] The Cherokee Heritage Center also houses the Cherokee National Archives. Both theCherokee Nation (of Oklahoma) and theUnited Keetoowah Band of Cherokee, as well as other tribes, contribute funding to the CHC.
Before the 19th century,polygamy was common among the Cherokee, especially by elite men.[90] Thematrilineal culture meant that women controlled property, such as their dwellings, and their children were considered born into their mother'sclan, where they gained hereditary status. Advancement to leadership positions was generally subject to approval by the women elders. In addition, the society wasmatrifocal; customarily, a married couple lived with or near the woman's family, so she could be aided by her female relatives. Her eldest brother was a more important mentor to her sons than was their father, who belonged to another clan. Traditionally, couples, particularly women, can divorce freely.[91]
It was unusual for a Cherokee man to marry a European-American woman. The children of such a union were disadvantaged, as they would not belong to the nation. They would be born outside the clans and traditionally were not considered Cherokee citizens. This is because of the matrilineal aspect of Cherokee culture.[90] As the Cherokee began to adopt some elements of European-American culture in the early 19th century, they sent elite young men, such asJohn Ridge andElias Boudinot to American schools for education. After Ridge had married a European-American woman from Connecticut and Boudinot was engaged to another, the Cherokee Council in 1825 passed a law making children of such unions full citizens of the tribe, as if their mothers were Cherokee. This was a way to protect the families of men expected to be leaders of the tribe.[92]
In the late nineteenth century, the U.S. government put new restrictions on marriage between a Cherokee and non-Cherokee, although it was still relatively common. A European-American man could legally marry a Cherokee woman by petitioning the federal court, after gaining the approval of ten of her blood relatives. Once married, the man had status as an "Intermarried White," a member of the Cherokee tribe with restricted rights; for instance, he could not hold any tribal office. He remained a citizen of and under the laws of the United States.Common law marriages were more popular. Such "Intermarried Whites" were listed in a separate category on the registers of theDawes Rolls, prepared for allotment of plots of land to individual households of members of the tribe, in the early twentieth-century federal policy forassimilation of the Native Americans.
Ethnobotany is the study of interrelations between humans and plants; however, current use of the term implies the study of Indigenous or traditional knowledge of plants. It involves the Indigenous knowledge of plant classification, cultivation, and use as food, medicine and shelter.
Men and women have historically played important yet, at times, different roles in Cherokee society. Historically, women have primarily been the heads of households, owning the home and the land, farmers of the family's land, and "mothers" of theclans. As in manyNative American cultures, Cherokee women are honored as life-givers.[93] As givers and nurturers of life via childbirth and the growing of plants, and community leaders as clan mothers, women are traditionally community leaders in Cherokee communities. Some have served as warriors, both historically and in contemporary culture in military service. Cherokee women are regarded as tradition-keepers and responsible for cultural preservation.[94]
The redefining of gender roles inCherokee society first occurred in the time period between 1776 and 1835.[95] This period is demarcated by theDe Soto exploration and subsequent invasion, was followed by the American Revolution in 1776, and culminated with the signing ofTreaty of New Echota in 1835. The purpose of this redefinition was to push European social standards and norms on theCherokee people.[95] The long-lasting effect of these practices reorganized Cherokee forms of government towards a male-dominated society which has affected the nation for generations.[96] Miles argues white agents were mainly responsible for the shifting ofCherokee attitudes toward women's role in politics and domestic spaces.[96] These "white agents" could be identified aswhite missionaries and whitesettlers seeking out "manifest destiny".[96] By the time of removal in the mid-1830s, Cherokee men and women had begun to fulfill different roles and expectations as defined by the "civilization" program promoted by US presidentsWashington andJefferson.[95]
While there is a record of a non-Native traveler in 1825 noticing what he considered to be "men who assumed the dress and performed the duties of women", this observer was unfamiliar with how the Natives in that region dressed. There is no evidence of what would now be considered "two-spirit" individuals in Cherokee society; this is generally the case in matriarchal and matrilineal cultures, asthird gender roles are usually found inpatriarchal societies and cultures with more rigid gender roles.[97]
Slavery was a component of Cherokee society prior toEuropean colonization, as they frequently enslaved enemy captives taken during times of conflict with other Indigenous tribes.[98] By their oral tradition, the Cherokee viewed slavery as the result of an individual's failure in warfare and as a temporary status, pending release or the slave's adoption into the tribe.[99] During thecolonial era,Carolinian settlers purchased or impressed Cherokeesas slaves during the late 17th and early 18th century.[100] The Cherokee were also among the Native American peoples who soldIndian slaves to traders for use as laborers in Virginia and further north. They took them as captives in raids on enemy tribes.[101]
As the Cherokee began to adopt some European-American customs, they began to purchaseenslaved African Americans to serve as workers on their farms or plantations, which some of the elite families had in the antebellum years. When the Cherokee were forcibly removed on theTrail of Tears, they took slaves with them, and acquired others inIndian Territory.[102]
Sequoyah, the inventor of the Cherokee syllabaryA Cherokee speaker speaking English and Cherokee
The Cherokee speak a SouthernIroquoian language, which ispolysynthetic and is written in asyllabary invented bySequoyah (ᏍᏏᏉᏯ) in the 1810s.[103] For years, many people wrote and transliterated Cherokee or used poor intercompatible fonts to type out the syllabary. However, since the fairly recent addition of the Cherokee syllables toUnicode, the Cherokee language is experiencing a renaissance in its use on the Internet.
Because of the polysynthetic nature of the Cherokee language, new and descriptive words in Cherokee are easily constructed to reflect or express modern concepts. Examples includeditiyohihi (ᏗᏘᏲᎯᎯ), which means "he argues repeatedly and on purpose with a purpose," meaning "attorney." Another example isdidaniyisgi (ᏗᏓᏂᏱᏍᎩ) which means "he catches them finally and conclusively," meaning "policeman."
Many words, however, have been borrowed from the English language, such asgasoline, which in Cherokee isga-so-li-ne (ᎦᏐᎵᏁ). Many other words were borrowed from the languages of tribes who settled in Oklahoma in the early 20th century. One example relates to a town in Oklahoma named "Nowata". The wordnowata is aDelaware Indian word for "welcome" (more precisely the Delaware word isnu-wi-ta which can mean "welcome" or "friend" in the Delaware Language). The white settlers of the area used the name "nowata" for the township, and local Cherokees, being unaware the word had its origins in the Delaware Language, called the townAmadikanigvnagvna (ᎠᎹᏗᎧᏂᎬᎾᎬᎾ) which means "the water is all gone from here", i.e. "no water".
Other examples of borrowed words arekawi (ᎧᏫ) forcoffee andwatsi (ᏩᏥ) forwatch (which led toutana watsi (ᎤᏔᎾ ᏩᏥ) or "big watch" forclock).
The following table is an example of Cherokee text and its translation:
Tsalagi:Nigada aniyvwi nigeguda'lvna ale unihloyi unadehna duyukdv gesv'i. Gejinela unadanvtehdi ale unohlisdi ale sagwu gesv junilvwisdanedi anahldinvdlv adanvdo gvhdi.[104]
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.(Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights)[104]
After being ravaged by smallpox, and feeling pressure from European settlers, the Cherokee adopted a European-AmericanRepresentative democracy form of government in an effort to retain their lands. They established a governmental system modeled on that of the United States, with an elected principal chief, senate, and house of representatives. On April 10, 1810 the seven Cherokee clans met and began the abolition of blood vengeance by giving the sacred duty to the new Cherokee National government. Clans formally relinquished judicial responsibilities by the 1820s when the Cherokee Supreme Court was established. In 1825, the National Council extended citizenship to the children of Cherokee men married to white women. These ideas were largely incorporated into the 1827 Cherokee constitution.[106] The constitution stated that "No person who is of negro ormulatto [sic] parentage, either by the father or mother side, shall be eligible to hold any office of profit, honor or trust under this Government," with an exception for, "negroes and descendants of white and Indian men by negro women who may have been set free."[107] This definition to limit rights of multiracial descendants may have been more widely held among the elite than the general population.[108]
During 1898–1906 the federal government dissolved the former Cherokee Nation, to make way for the incorporation ofIndian Territory into the new state ofOklahoma. From 1906 to 1975, the structure and function of the tribal government were defunct, except for the purposes of DOI management. In 1975 the tribe drafted a constitution, which they ratified on June 26, 1976,[109] and the tribe received federal recognition.
In 1999, the CN changed or added several provisions to its constitution, among them the designation of the tribe to be "Cherokee Nation," dropping "of Oklahoma." According to a 2009 statement by BIA headLarry Echo Hawk, the Cherokee Nation is not legally considered the "historical Cherokee tribe" but instead a "successor in interest." The attorney of the Cherokee Nation has stated that they intend to appeal this decision.[110]
The modern Cherokee Nation, in recent times, has expanded economically, providing equality and prosperity for its citizens. Under the leadership of Principal ChiefBill John Baker, the Nation has significant business, corporate, real estate, and agricultural interests. The CN controls Cherokee Nation Entertainment, Cherokee Nation Industries, and Cherokee Nation Businesses. CNI is a very large defense contractor that creates thousands of jobs in eastern Oklahoma for Cherokee citizens.
The CN has constructed health clinics throughout Oklahoma, contributed to community development programs, built roads and bridges, constructed learning facilities and universities for its citizens, instilled the practice ofGadugi and self-reliance, revitalized language immersion programs for its children and youth, and is a powerful and positive economic and political force in Eastern Oklahoma.
The CN hosts theCherokee National Holiday on Labor Day weekend each year, and 80,000 to 90,000 Cherokee citizens travel toTahlequah, Oklahoma, for the festivities. It publishes theCherokee Phoenix, the tribal newspaper, in both English and Cherokee, using the Sequoyah syllabary. The Cherokee Nation council appropriates money for historic foundations concerned with the preservation of Cherokee culture.
The Cherokee Nation supports the Cherokee Nation Film festivals in Tahlequah, Oklahoma and participates in theSundance Film Festival inPark City, Utah.
The Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians in North Carolina, led by Chief Richard Sneed,hosts over a million visitors a year to cultural attractions of the 100-square-mile (260 km2) sovereign nation. The reservation, the "Qualla Boundary", has a population of over 8,000 Cherokee, primarily direct descendants of Indians who managed to avoid "The Trail of Tears".
Attractions include the Oconaluftee Indian Village, Museum of the Cherokee Indian, and the Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual. Founded in 1946, the Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual is the country's oldest and foremost Native American crafts cooperative.[111] The outdoor dramaUnto These Hills, which debuted in 1950, recently broke record attendance sales. Together with Harrah's Cherokee Casino and Hotel, Cherokee Indian Hospital and Cherokee Boys Club, the tribe generated $78 million in the local economy in 2005.
The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians formed their government under theIndian Reorganization Act of 1934 and gained federal recognition in 1946. Enrollment in the tribe is limited to people with a quarter or more of Cherokee blood. Many members of the UKB are descended from Old Settlers – Cherokees who moved to Arkansas and Indian Territory before the Trail of Tears.[112] Of the 12,000 people enrolled in the tribe, 11,000 live in Oklahoma. Their chief is Joe Bunch.
The UKB operate a tribal casino, bingo hall, smokeshop, fuel outlets, truck stop, and gallery that showcases art and crafts made by tribal members. The tribe issues their own tribal vehicle tags.[113]
Relations among the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes
The Cherokee Nation participates in numerous joint programs with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. It also participates in cultural exchange programs and joint Tribal Council meetings involving councilors from both Cherokee Tribes. These are held to address issues affecting all of the Cherokee people.
174 years after theTrail of Tears, on July 12, 2012, the leaders of the three separate Cherokee tribes met in North Carolina.[where?][114]
Cherokee people are most concentrated in Oklahoma and North Carolina, but some reside in theUS West Coast, due to economic migrations caused by theDust Bowl during the Great Depression, job availability during the Second World War, and theFederal Indian Relocation program during the 1950s–1960s. Destinations for Cherokee diaspora included multi-ethnic/racial urban centers of California (i.e. theGreater Los Angeles andSan Francisco Bay Areas). They frequently live in farming communities, or by military bases and other Indian reservations.[115]
The three Cherokee tribes have differing requirements for enrollment. The Cherokee Nation determines enrollment by lineal descent from Cherokees listed on theDawes Rolls and has no minimumblood quantum requirement.[116] Currently, descendants of the Dawes Cherokee Freedman rolls are citizens of the tribe, pending court decisions. The Cherokee Nation includes numerous citizens who have mixed ancestry, including African-American, Latino American, Asian American, European-American, and others. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians requires a minimum of one-sixteenth Cherokee blood quantum (genealogical descent, equivalent to one great-great-grandparent) and an ancestor on theBaker Roll. The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians requires a minimum of one-quarter Keetoowah Cherokee blood quantum (equivalent to one grandparent). The UKB does not allow citizens who have relinquished their citizenship to re-enroll in the UKB.[117]
The 2000United States census reported 729,533 Americans self-identified as Cherokee. The 2010 census reported an increased number of 819,105 with almost 70% being mixed-race Cherokees. In 2015, the Cherokee Nation, the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, and the Eastern Band of Cherokees had a combined enrolled population of roughly 344,700.[2]
Over 200 groups claim to be Cherokee nations, tribes, or bands.[118] Cherokee Nation spokesman Mike Miller has suggested that some groups, which he callsCherokee Heritage Groups, are encouraged.[119] Others, however, are controversial for their attempts to gain economically through their claims to be Cherokee. The three federally recognized groups note that they are the only groups having the legal right to present themselves as Cherokee Indian Tribes and only their enrolled citizens are legally Cherokee.[120]
One exception to this may be theTexas Cherokee. Before 1975, they were considered part of the Cherokee Nation, as reflected in briefs filed before theIndian Claims Commission. At one time W.W. Keeler served as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation and, at the same time, held the position as Chairman of the Texas Cherokee and Associated Bands (TCAB) Executive Committee.Following the adoption of the Cherokee constitution in 1976, TCAB descendants whose ancestors had remained a part of the physical Mount Tabor Community inRusk County, Texas, were excluded from CN citizenship. Because they had already migrated from Indian Territory at the time of theDawes Commission, their ancestors were not recorded on the Final Rolls of the Five Civilized Tribes, which serve as the basis for tracing descent for many individuals. But, most if not all TCAB descendants did have an ancestor listed on either the Guion-Miller or Old settler rolls.
While most Mount Tabor residents returned to the Cherokee Nation after the Civil War and following the death ofJohn Ross in 1866, in the 21st century, there is a sizable group that is well documented but outside that body. It is not actively seeking a status clarification. They have treaty rights going back to theTreaty of Bird's Fort. From the end of the Civil War until 1975, they were associated with the Cherokee Nation.
Other remnant populations continue to exist throughout the Southeast United States and individually in the states surrounding Oklahoma. Many of these people trace descent from persons enumerated on official rolls such as the Guion-Miller, Drennan, Mullay, and Henderson Rolls, among others. Other descendants trace their heritage through the treaties of 1817 and 1819 with the federal government that gave individual land allotments to Cherokee households. State-recognized tribes may have different membership requirements and genealogical documentation than to the federally recognized ones.
Current enrollment guidelines of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma have been approved by the USBureau of Indian Affairs. The CN noted such facts during the Constitutional Convention held to ratify a new governing document. The document was eventually ratified by a small portion of the electorate. Any changes to the tribe's enrollment procedures must be approved by the Department of Interior. Under 25 CFR 83, the Office of Federal Acknowledgment is required to first apply its own anthropological, genealogical, and historical research methods to any request for change by the tribe. It forwards its recommendations to the Assistant Secretary - Indian Affairs for consideration.[121]
The Cherokee Freedmen, descendants of African American slaves owned by citizens of the Cherokee Nation during theAntebellum Period, were first guaranteed Cherokee citizenship under a treaty with the United States in 1866. This was in the wake of theAmerican Civil War, when the U.S. emancipated slaves and passed US constitutional amendments granting freedmen citizenship in the United States.
In 1988, the federal court in the Freedmen case ofNero v. Cherokee Nation[122] held that Cherokees could decide citizenship requirements and exclude Freedmen. On March 7, 2006, the Cherokee Nation Judicial Appeal Tribunal ruled that the Cherokee Freedmen were eligible for Cherokee citizenship. This ruling proved controversial; while the Cherokee Freedman had historically been recorded as "citizens" of the Cherokee Nation at least since 1866 and the laterDawes Commission Land Rolls, the ruling "did not limit membership to people possessing Cherokee blood".[123] This ruling was consistent with the 1975 Constitution of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, in its acceptance of the Cherokee Freedmen on the basis of historical citizenship, rather than documented blood relation.
On March 3, 2007, a constitutional amendment was passed by a Cherokee vote limiting citizenship to Cherokees on the Dawes Rolls for those listed as Cherokee by blood on the Dawes roll, which did not include partial Cherokee descendants of slaves, Shawnee and Delaware.[124] The Cherokee Freedmen had 90 days to appeal this amendment vote which disenfranchised them from Cherokee citizenship and file appeal within the Cherokee Nation Tribal Council, which is currently pending inNash, et al. v. Cherokee Nation Registrar. On May 14, 2007, the Cherokee Freedmen were reinstated as citizens of the Cherokee Nation by the Cherokee Nation Tribal Courts through a temporary order and temporary injunction until the court reached its final decision.[125] On January 14, 2011, the tribal district court ruled that the 2007 constitutional amendment was invalid because it conflicted with the 1866 treaty guaranteeing the Freedmen's rights.[126]
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^Whyte, Thomas (June 2007). "Proto-Iroquoian divergence in the Late Archaic-Early Woodland period transition of the Appalachian highlands".Southeastern Archaeology.26 (1):134–144.JSTOR40713422.
^"Cherokee Indians".Encyclopedia of North Carolina. The University of North Carolina Press. Archived fromthe original on December 23, 2016. RetrievedJune 3, 2014.
^Clark, Patricia Roberts (October 21, 2009).Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced. McFarland. p. 11.ISBN978-0-7864-5169-2.
^Lewis Preston Summers, 1903,History of Southwest Virginia, 1746–1786, p. 40
^Vicki Rozema,Footsteps of the Cherokees (1995), p. 14.
^Oatis, Steven J. (2004).A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.ISBN0-8032-3575-5.
^Yarbough, Fay (2004). "Legislating Women's Sexuality: Cherokee Marriage Laws".Journal of Social History.38 (2): 385–406 [p. 388].doi:10.1353/jsh.2004.0144.S2CID144646968.
^Mize, Jamie Myers (2017).Sons of Selu: Masculinity and Gendered Power in Cherokee Society, 1775–1846 (Thesis).ProQuest1954047274.
^Connell-Szasz, Margaret; Perdue, Theda (December 1999). "Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835".The American Historical Review.104 (5): 1659.doi:10.2307/2649389.JSTOR2649389.
^abcPaulk-Kriebel, Virginia Beth (1999). "Review of Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835".The North Carolina Historical Review.76 (1):118–119.JSTOR23522191.
^Russell (2002) p. 70. Ray (2007) p. 423, says that the peak of enslavement of Native Americans was between 1715 and 1717; it ended after theRevolutionary War.
^Morand, Ann, Kevin Smith, Daniel C. Swan, and Sarah Erwin.Treasures of Gilcrease: Selections from the Permanent Collection. Tulsa, OK: Gilcrease Museum,2003.ISBN0-9725657-1-X
^This constitution was approved by Cherokee Nation voters in 2003 but was not approved by the BIA. The Cherokee Nation then amended their 1975 constitution to not require BIA approval. The 1999 constitution has been ratified but the Cherokee Nation Supreme Court is currently deciding what year the 1999 constitution officially went into effect.Constitution of the Cherokee Nation.Archived March 25, 2009, at theWayback Machine (pdf file).Cherokee Nation. Retrieved March 5, 2009.
^Leeds, George R.United Keetoowah Band.Archived July 20, 2010, at theWayback MachineOklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. (retrieved October 5, 2009)
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Finger, John R.Cherokee Americans: The Eastern Band of Cherokees in the 20th century. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991.ISBN0-8032-6879-3.
Glenn, Eddie."A league of nations?"Tahlequah Daily Press. January 6, 2006 (Accessed May 24, 2007)
Halliburton, R., jr.:Red over Black – Black Slavery among the Cherokee Indians, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut 1977.
Irwin, Lee (1992). "Cherokee Healing: Myth, Dreams, and Medicine".American Indian Quarterly.16 (2):237–257.doi:10.2307/1185431.JSTOR1185431.
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of the Cherokees and Certain Place andProper Names Derived from Cherokee" Journal of the Graduate Research Center 30:37-41, 1962, Southern Methodist University.
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