This article is about the plant genus. For the variety known as "capsicum" in some countries, seeBell pepper. For discussion of culinary uses, seeChili pepper.
Capsicum is native toSouth America andCentral America.[5] These plants have been evolving for 17 million years.[6] It was domesticated andcultivated at least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains of chili peppers found in pottery fromPuebla andOaxaca.[7]
The generic name may come fromLatincapsa, meaning 'box', presumably alluding to the pods;[8][9] or possibly from theGreek wordκάπτω,kapto, 'to gulp'.[10] The namepepper comes from the similarity ofpiquance (spiciness or "heat") of the flavor to that ofblack pepper,Piper nigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with it or withSichuan pepper. The original termchilli came from theNahuatl wordchīlli, denoting a largerCapsicum varietycultivated at least since 3000 BC.[7] Different varieties were cultivated in South America, where they are known asajíes (singularají), from theQuechua term forCapsicum.
The fruit (botanically aberry) ofCapsicum plants has a variety of names depending on place and type. The more piquant varieties are calledchili peppers, or simplychilis. The large, mild form is calledbell pepper, or is named by color (green pepper,green bell pepper,red bell pepper, etc.) in North America. InSouth Africa and some other countries, it is calledsweet pepper. The name is simplypepper in theUnited Kingdom andIreland.[11] The namecapsicum is used inAustralia,India,Malaysia,New Zealand.[12]
Capsicums are solanaceous plants within the tribeCapsiceae, and are closely related toLycianthes.[13]
A 2020 study using ribosomal DNA provided the following phylogenetic tree. It can be seen that in two of the clades, the speciesC. frutescens is intermingled withC. eximium in one subclade andC. chinense in another subclade; and thatC. chacoense is intermingled withC. baccatum.[14]
Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm,loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged.[15] Extremely moist soils can cause seedlings to"damp-off" and reduce germination.[citation needed]
The plants will tolerate (but do not like) temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F) and they are sensitive to cold.[16][17] For flowering,Capsicum is a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop.[18] The flowers canself-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperature, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.[19]
Capsicum consists of 20–27 species,[20] five of which are widely cultivated:C. annuum,C. baccatum,C. chinense,C. frutescens, andC. pubescens.[21] Phylogenetic relationships between species have been investigated usingbiogeographical,[22]morphological,[23] chemosystematic,[24]hybridization,[25] and genetic[20] data. Fruits ofCapsicum can vary tremendously in color, shape, and size both between and within species, which has led to confusion over the relationships among taxa.[26] Chemosystematic studies helped distinguish the difference between varieties and species. For example,C. baccatum var.baccatum had the same flavonoids asC. baccatum var.pendulum, which led researchers to believe the two groups belonged to the same species.[24]
Many varieties of the same species can be used in many different ways; for example,C. annuum includes the "bell pepper" variety, which is sold in both its immature green state and in its red, yellow, or orange ripe state. This same species has other varieties, as well, such as theAnaheim chiles often used for stuffing, the driedancho (before being dried it is called apoblano) chile used to makechili powder, the mild-to-hot, ripejalapeno used to make smoked jalapeno, known aschipotle.[27]
Peru is thought to be the country with the highestcultivatedCapsicum diversity since varieties of all five domesticates are commonly sold in markets in contrast to other countries.Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largestdiversity of wildCapsicum peppers are consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits includingC. eximium,C. cardenasii,C. eshbaughii, andC. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis, with small elongated fruits includingC. baccatum var.baccatum andC. chacoense varieties.[28]
The amount ofcapsaicin is measured inScoville heat units (SHU) and this value varies significantly among Capsicum varieties. For example, a typicalBell pepper has a value of zero SHU and aJalapeño has a value of 4000–8000 SHU. In 2017, the Guinness Book of World Records listed the Carolina Reaper as the world's hottest pepper at 1,641,183 SHU, according to tests conducted by Winthrop University in South Carolina, United States. In 2023, theGuinness Book of Records recognizedPepper X as the world's hottest pepper.[29]
According to Adepoju et al. (2021), the most commonly occurring Capsicum cultivars in Nigeria (and West Africa) are: C. fructescens var. fructescens L.; C. fructescens var. baccatum (L.) Irish; C. annuum var annuum L; C. annuum var. grossum (L.) Sendtn. and C. chinense Jacq.[32]
MostCapsicum species are 2n=2x=24. A few of the non-domesticated species are 2n=2x=26.[33] All arediploid. TheCapsicum annuum andCapsicum chinense genomes were completed in 2014. TheCapsicum annuum genome is approximately 3.48 Gb, making it larger than the human genome. Over 75% of the pepper genome is composed oftransposable elements, mostlyGypsy elements, distributed widely throughout the genome. The distribution of transposable elements is inversely correlated with gene density. Pepper is predicted to have 34,903 genes, approximately the same number as bothtomato andpotato, two related species within the familySolanaceae.[34]
Many types of peppers have been bred for heat, size, and yield. Along with selection of specific fruit traits such as flavor and color, specific pest, disease andabiotic stress resistances are continually being selected. Breeding occurs in several environments dependent on the use of the final variety including but not limited to: conventional,organic,hydroponic,green house and shade house production environments.
Several breeding programs are being conducted by corporations and universities. In theUnited States,New Mexico State University has released several varieties in the last few years.[35]Cornell University has worked to develop regionally adapted varieties that work better in cooler, damper climates. Other universities such asUC Davis,University of Wisconsin-Madison, andOregon State University have smaller breeding programs. Many vegetable seed companies breed different types of peppers as well.
The fruit of most species ofCapsicum containscapsaicin (methyl-n-vanillyl nonenamide), alipophilic chemical that can produce a burning sensation (pungency orspiciness) in the mouth of the eater. Mostmammals find this unpleasant, whereas birds are unaffected.[36][37] The secretion of capsaicin protects the fruit from consumption byinsects.[38]
Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the placental tissue (which holds theseeds), the internal membranes, and to a lesser extent, the other fleshy parts of the fruits of plants in this genus. The seeds themselves do not produce any capsaicin, although the highest concentration of capsaicin can be found in the whitepith around the seeds.[39] Most of thecapsaicin in a pungent (hot) pepper is concentrated in blisters on the epidermis of the interior ribs (septa) that divide the chambers, orlocules, of the fruit to which the seeds are attached.[40]
A study on capsaicin production in fruits ofC. chinense showed thatcapsaicinoids are produced only in the epidermal cells of the interlocular septa of pungent fruits, that blister formation only occurs as a result of capsaicinoid accumulation, and that pungency and blister formation are controlled by a single locus,Pun1, for which there exist at least two recessive alleles that result in non-pungency ofC. chinense fruits.[41]
The amount of capsaicin per fruit is highly variable, depending ongenetics and the environment. The most recognizedCapsicum without capsaicin is thebell pepper,[42] acultivar ofCapsicum annuum, which has a zero rating on theScoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to arecessivegene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the hot taste usually associated with the rest of the genusCapsicum.[43] There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within theCapsicum annuum species, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi,[44] Yummy Sweets,[45] Jimmy Nardello,[46] and Italian Frying peppers (Cubanelles).[47]
Chili peppers are important in the medicine ofIndigenous peoples, and capsaicin is used in modern medicine mainly intopical medications as acirculatorystimulant andanalgesic. In more recent times, anaerosol extract of capsaicin, known as capsicum orpepper spray, has become used by law enforcement as anonlethal means of incapacitating a person, and in a more widely dispersed form forriot control, or by individuals for personal defense. Capsaicin in vegetable oils or horticultural products can be used in gardening as a naturalinsecticide.[48]
This section shouldspecify the language of its non-English content, using{{langx}},{{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and{{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriateISO 639 code. Wikipedia'smultilingual support templates may also be used.See why.(November 2024)
Capsicum fruits can be eaten raw or cooked. Those used in cooking are generally varieties of theC. annuum andC. frutescens species, though a few others are used, as well. They are suitable for stuffing with fillings such as cheese, meat, or rice.
They are frequently used both chopped and raw in salads, or cooked in stir-fries or other mixed dishes. They can be sliced into strips and fried, roasted whole or in pieces, or chopped and incorporated into salsas or other sauces, of which they are often a main ingredient.
They can be preserved in the form of ajam,[49] or by drying, pickling, or freezing. Dried Capsicum may be reconstituted whole, or processed into flakes or powders. Pickled or marinated Capsicum are frequently added to sandwiches or salads. Frozen Capsicum are used in stews, soups, and salsas. Extracts can be made and incorporated into hot sauces.
The Spanishconquistadores soon became aware of their culinary properties, and brought them back to Europe, together with cocoa, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tobacco, maize, beans, and turkeys. They also brought it to the Spanish Philippines colonies, whence it spread to Asia. The Portuguese brought them to their African and Asiatic possessions such as India. All varieties were appreciated but the hot ones were particularly appreciated, because they could enliven an otherwise monotonous diet during times of dietary restriction, such as during religious observances.
Spanish cuisine soon benefited from the discovery of chiles in the New World, and it would become very difficult to untangle Spanish cooking from chiles. Ground chiles, or paprika, hot or otherwise, are a key ingredient inchorizo, which is then called picante (if hot chile is added) or dulce (if otherwise). Paprika is an important ingredient in rice dishes, and plays a definitive role in squid Galician style (polbo á feira). Chopped chiles are used in fish or lamb dishes such asajoarriero orchilindrón.Pisto is a vegetarian stew with chilies and zucchini as main ingredients. They can also be added, finely chopped, togazpacho as a garnish. In some regions, bacon is salted and dusted in paprika for preservation. Cheese can also be rubbed with paprika to lend it flavor and colour. Dried round chiles calledñoras are used forarroz a banda.
After being introduced by the Portuguese, chile peppers saw widespread adoption throughout South, Southeast, and East Asia, especially in India, Thailand, Vietnam, China, and Korea. Several newcultivars were developed in these countries, and their use in combination with (or as a substitute for) existing 'hot' culinary spices such asblack pepper andSichuan pepper spread rapidly, giving rise to the modern forms a number of staple dishes such asChanna masala,Tom yum,Laziji, andKimchi. This in turn influencedAnglo-Indian andAmerican Chinese cuisine, most notably with the development of British and American forms ofcurry powder (based on Indian spice preparations such asgaram masala), and dishes such asGeneral Tso's chicken andchicken tikka masala.
Crushed red pepperStuffed capsicum with a spicy filling of potatoes, Kolkata, India
According toRichard Pankhurst,C. frutescens (known asbarbaré) was so important to thenational cuisine of Ethiopia, at least as early as the 19th century, "that it was cultivated extensively in the warmer areas wherever the soil was suitable." Although it was grown in every province,barbaré was especially extensive inYejju, "which supplied much ofShowa, as well as other neighbouring provinces." He mentions the upperGolima River valley as being almost entirely devoted to the cultivation of this plant, where it was harvested year-round.[50]
In 2005, a poll of 2,000 people revealed the capsicum to be Britain's fourth-favourite culinary vegetable.[51]
InHungary, sweet yellow capsicum – along with tomatoes – is the main ingredient oflecsó.
InBulgaria, SouthSerbia, andNorth Macedonia, capsicum are very popular, too. They can be eaten in salads, likeshopska salata; fried and then covered with a dip of tomato paste, onions, garlic, and parsley; or stuffed with a variety of products, such as minced meat and rice, beans, or cottage cheese and eggs. Capsicum are the main ingredient in the traditional tomato and capsicum diplyutenitsa andajvar. They are in the base of different kinds of pickled vegetables dishes,turshiya.
Capsicum is also used widely inItalian cuisine, and the hot species are used all around the southern part of Italy as a common spice (sometimes served witholive oil). Capsicums are used in many dishes; they can be cooked by themselves in a variety of ways (roasted, fried, deep-fried) and are a fundamental ingredient for somedelicatessen specialities, such asnduja.
Capsicums are also used extensively inSri Lanka cuisine as side dishes.[52]
The name given to theCapsicum fruits varies between English-speaking countries.
In Australia, New Zealand andIndian English, heatless varieties are called "capsicums", while hot ones are called "chilli"/"chillies" (double L). The term "bell peppers" is never used, although in AustraliaC. annuum and other varieties which have a bell shape and are fairly hot, are often called "bell chillies".
InCanada, Ireland, South Africa and the United Kingdom, the heatless varieties are known simply as "peppers" (or more specifically "green peppers", "red peppers", etc.), while the hot ones are "chilli"/"chillies" (double L) or "chilli peppers".
In the United States, the common heatless varieties are referred to as "bell peppers", "sweet peppers", "red/green/etc. peppers", or simply "peppers", while the hot varieties are collectively called "chile"/"chiles", "chili"/"chilies", or "chili"/"chile peppers" (one L only), "hot peppers", or named as a specific variety (e.g.,banana pepper).
The ground spice made from hot capsicums is calledpaprika in bothU.S. English andCommonwealth English. The name derives from Central Europe; inPolish and inHungarian, the termpapryka andpaprika (respectively) is used for all kinds of capsicums and the spice made from them.
^"Capsicum L."Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 1 September 2009. Archived fromthe original on 18 January 2010. Retrieved1 February 2010.
^ab"Species records ofCapsicum".Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. Archived fromthe original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved23 June 2010.
^Wells, John C. (2008),Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, p. 123,ISBN978-1-4058-8118-0
^abGil-Jurado, A.T. (2006). "Il senso del chile e del piccante: dalla traduzione culturale alla rappresentazione visiva". In Manetti, G. (ed.).Semiofood : communicazione e cultura del cibo. XXXI convegno dell'Associazione Italiana di Studi Semiotici, Castello Pasquini, Castiglioncello, 3-5 ottobre 2003 (in Italian). Torino: Centro Scientifico Ed. pp. 34–58.ISBN88-7640-757-X.OCLC255660829.
^Y. H. Hui, ed. (2005).Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering. 4 Volume Set. United States: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC (Version date:20131106). pp. 20–13.ISBN978-1-4665-0787-6.
^Heiser Jr, C.B.; Pickersgill, B. (1969). "Names for the Cultivated Capsicum Species (Solanaceae)".Taxon.18 (3):277–283.doi:10.2307/1218828.JSTOR1218828.
^abBallard, R.E.; McClure, J.W.; Eshbaugh, W.H.; Wilson, K.G. (1970). "A Chemosystematic Study of Selected Taxa of Capsicum".American Journal of Botany.57 (2):225–233.doi:10.2307/2440517.JSTOR2440517.
^Pickersgill, B. (1971). "Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus capsicum)".Evolution.25 (4):683–691.doi:10.2307/2406949.JSTOR2406949.PMID28564789.
^Eshbaugh, W.H. (1975). "Genetic and Biochemical Systematic Studies of Chili Peppers (Capsicum-Solanaceae)".Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.102 (6):396–403.doi:10.2307/2484766.JSTOR2484766.
^Mason, J. R.; N. J. Bean; P. S. Shah; L. Clark Shah (December 1991). "Taxon-specific differences in responsiveness to capsaicin and several analogues: Correlates between chemical structure and behavioral aversiveness".Journal of Chemical Ecology.17 (12):2539–51.Bibcode:1991JCEco..17.2539M.doi:10.1007/BF00994601.PMID24258646.S2CID23135946.
^Zamski, E.; Shoham, O.; Palevitch, D.; Levy, A. (1987). "Ultrastructure of Capsaicinoid-Secreting Cells in Pungent and Nonpungent Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Cultivars".Botanical Gazette.148 (1):1–6.doi:10.1086/337620.JSTOR2995376.S2CID83791254.
.jpg)
