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There were links between Buddhism and the pre-Christian Mediterranean world,[1] withBuddhist missionaries sent byEmperor Ashoka ofIndia toSyria,Egypt andGreece from 250 BC.[2] Significant differences between the two religions includemonotheism in Christianity and Buddhism's orientation towardsnontheism (the lack of relevancy of the existence of acreator Deity) which runs counter to teachings aboutGod in Christianity, andgrace in Christianity against the rejection of interference withkarma inTheravada Buddhism on.[3][4][5]
Some early Christians were aware of Buddhism which was practiced in both theGreek andRoman Empires in the pre-Christian period. The majority of modern Christian scholarship rejects any historical basis for the travels of Jesus to India or Tibet and has seen the attempts at parallel symbolism as cases ofparallelomania which exaggerate resemblances.[6][7][8][9] However, in the East,syncretism betweenNestorian Christianity and Buddhism was widespread along theSilk Road in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and was especially pronounced in the medievalChurch of the East in China, as evidenced by theJesus Sutras.[10]
Thehistory of Buddhism goes back to what is nowLumbini, Nepal almost six centuries before Christianity, making it one of the oldest religions still being practiced.[11] Theorigins of Christianity go back toRoman Judea in the early first century. The fourcanonical gospels date from around 70–90 AD, thePauline epistles having been written before them around 50–60 AD.
Starting in the 1930s, authors such asWill Durant suggested thatGreco-Buddhist representatives of Ashoka the Great who traveled to ancient Syria, Egypt and Greece may have helped prepare the ground for Christian teaching.[12] Buddhism was prominent in the eastern Greek world and became the official religion of the eastern Greek successor kingdoms toAlexander the Great's empire (Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250 BC – 125 BC) andIndo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD)). Several prominent Greek Buddhist missionaries are known (Mahadharmaraksita andDharmaraksita) and the Indo-Greek kingMenander I converted to Buddhism, and is regarded as one of the great patrons of Buddhism. (SeeMilinda Panha.) Some modern historians have suggested that the pre-Christian monastic order in Egypt of theTherapeutae is possibly a deformation of the Pāli word "Theravāda",[13] a form of Buddhism, and the movement may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism".[14] They may even have been descendants ofAsoka's emissaries to the West.[15]
Buddhist gravestones from thePtolemaic period have been found in Alexandria in Egypt decorated with depictions of thedharma wheel, showing that Buddhists were living in Hellenistic Egypt at the time Christianity began.[16] The presence of Buddhists inAlexandria has led one author to note: "It was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established."[14] Nevertheless, modern Christian scholars generally hold that there is no direct evidence of any influence of Buddhism on Christianity, and several scholarly theological works do not support these suggestions.[17][18] However, some historians such asJerry H. Bentley suggest that there is a real possibility that Buddhism influenced the early development of Christianity.[19]
It is known that prominent early Christians were aware of Buddha and some Buddhist stories.Saint Jerome (4th century AD) mentions the birth of the Buddha, who he says "was born from the side of a virgin." The early church fatherClement of Alexandria (died 215 AD) was also aware of Buddha, writing in his Stromata (Bk I, Ch XV): "The Indiangymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them calledSarmanæ and othersBrahmins. And those of the Sarmanæ who are called 'Hylobii' neither inhabit cities, nor have roofs over them, but are clothed in the bark of trees, feed on nuts, and drink water in their hands. Like those calledEncratites in the present day, they know not marriage nor begetting of children. Some, too, of the Indians obey the precepts ofBuddha (Βούττα) whom, on account of his extraordinary sanctity, they have raised to divine honours."[20]
In theMiddle Ages there was no trace of Buddhism in the West.[21] In the 13th century, international travelers, such asGiovanni de Piano Carpini andWilliam of Ruysbroeck, sent back reports of Buddhism to the West and noted some similarities withNestorian Christian communities.[22] Indeed,syncretism in the East between Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism existed along theSilk Road throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages,[23][24] and was especially pronounced in the medievalChurch of the East in China, as evidenced by theJesus Sutras.[citation needed]
When European Christians made more direct contact with Buddhism in the early 16th century, Catholic missionaries such as St.Francis Xavier sent back accounts of Buddhist practices.[22] With the arrival ofSanskrit studies in European universities in the late 18th century, and the subsequent availability of Buddhist texts, a discussion began of a proper encounter with Buddhism.[22] In time, Buddhism gathered Western followers and at the end of the 19th century the first Westerners (e.g.Sir Edwin Arnold andHenry Olcott) converted to Buddhism. In the beginning of the 20th century the first westerners (e.g.Ananda Metteyya andNyanatiloka) entered the Buddhist monastic life.[22]
In the 19th century, some scholars began to perceive similarities between Buddhist and Christian practices. In 1878,T.W. Rhys Davids wrote that the earliest missionaries to Tibet observed that similarities have been seen since the first known contact.[25] In 1880, Ernest De Bunsen made similar observations in that with the exception of the death of Jesus on the cross, and of the Christian doctrine of atonement, the most ancient Buddhist records had similarities with the Christian traditions.[26]
Late in the 20th century, historianJerry H. Bentley also wrote of similarities and stated that it is possible "that Buddhism influenced the early development of Christianity" and suggested "attention to many parallels concerning the births, lives, doctrines, and deaths of the Buddha and Jesus".[19] Some high level Buddhists have drawn analogies between Jesus and Buddhism, e.g. in 2001 theDalai Lama stated that "Jesus Christ also lived previous lives", and added that "So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that."[27] Vietnamese Buddhist monkThich Nhat Hanh affirmed core Christian beliefs such as the trinity, and the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, in his bookLiving Buddha, Living Christ. Bokin Kim, similarly, sees Christ as the BuddhaDharmakaya, and Jesus as similar to Gautama who was just a historical manifestation of the transhistorical Buddha.[28] InThe Lotus & The Rose: A Conversation Between Tibetan Buddhism & Mystical Christianity,Lama Tsomo andMatthew Fox discuss the interconnections between Buddhism and Christianity. In it, Fox relates theBuddha-nature to what scholarsJohn Dominic Crossan andBruce Chilton call Paul's original "cosmic" or "metacosmic" view of Christ.[29]
There are inherent and fundamental differences between Buddhism and Christianity, one significant element being that while Christianity is at its coremonotheistic and relies on aGod as a Creator, Buddhism is generallynon-theistic and rejects the notion of a Creator God which provides divine values for the world.[3]
TheNicene Creed, currently the most widely used Christiancreed, states that "We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible".[4] However, the notion of theistic creation is generally foreign to Buddhist thought, and the question of the existence of God is perhaps one of the most fundamental barriers between the teachings of Christianity and Buddhism.[3][5] AlthoughMahayana Buddhism expresses belief in the saint-like state of aBodhisattva, this is very different from the notion of Creator God in Christianity.[5][30] While some variations of Buddhism believe in an impersonaleternal Buddha ortrikaya, in general Buddhism sees empty space as eternal and without a starting point of creation.[31][32] According to the Dalai Lama, belief in a Creator could be associated with the understanding of emptiness, but "once a certain degree of realization has been reached, a choice between the two paths will become necessary."[33]
According to theOxford Handbook of Eschatology, there are inherent differences in the Christian and Buddhist beliefs regarding the End Times andeschatology.[34]Jan Nattier states that while Buddhism has a notion of "relative eschatology" that refers to specific cycles of life, the term "Buddhist eschatology" does not relate to any "final things", or that the world will end one day – Buddhist scripture routinely referring to the "beginninglessSaṃsāra" as a never ending cycle of birth and death with no starting point.[35] However, Christian eschatology directly involves the concept of "end to all creation" at theLast Judgement when the world will reach its conclusion.[36]
There are other fundamental incompatibilities, e.g. whilegrace is part of the very fabric of Christian theology, inTheravada Buddhism no deity can interfere withkarma, and hence the notion of any type of grace is inadmissible within these teachings.[30]Mahayana Buddhism however, differs on this issue.[37]
Thecrucifixion of Jesus as a single event in history that acts for the atonement of sins is a central element of Christian belief.[11] This, however, produces a strong difference between Christian and Buddhist teachings.[11][38] Buddhist scholarMasao Abe pointed out that while "the event of the Cross" is central to Christianity, it is not possible for Buddhism to accept its importance.[38] Buddhist philosopherD. T. Suzuki stated that every time he saw a crucifixion scene it reminded him of the "gap that lies deep" between Christianity and Buddhism.[39]
Suggestions have been made that Buddhism may have influenced early Christianity.[1]Buddhist missionaries, sent byEmperor Ashoka of India toSri Lanka,Syria,Egypt andGreece, may have helped prepare for the ethics of Christ.[2][40]Gnostics (a small number of sects) are not considered part of mainstream Christianity and some have been declared heretical. However,Elaine Pagels proposes Buddhist influences on Gnosticism. Pagels suggested that there are parallels with teachings attributed to Jesus Christ and teachings found in Eastern traditions, but concludes that these parallels might be coincidental, since parallel traditions may emerge in different cultures without direct influence.[41]
Buddhist Jack Maguire has suggested that in the 4th century, Christian monasticism developed in Egypt, and it emerged with a corresponding structure comparable to the Buddhist monasticism of its time and place.[40] InAlexandria, Indian gravestones dating from thePtolemaic period (c. 305 BC – 30 BC) have been discovered inAlexandria.[42] Alexandria served as thePtolemaic trading centre between theMediterranean Sea and the Indian subcontinent,[43] later encompassing "some of the most active centers of Christianity" and becoming the third-most important seat of Christianity in the world.[44]
After studyingEastern philosophy, German philosopherArthur Schopenhauer states that "[the]New Testament must be of Indian origin [...] Everything true in Christianity is also to be discovered inBrahmanism and Buddhism," theorizing that after theflight into Egypt, Jesus was "brought up by Egyptian priests, whose religion was of Indian origin." Schopenhauer elaborates:
[When] this Indian doctrine entered into thePromised Land there arose the task of uniting the knowledge of the corruption and misery of the world, of its need for redemption and of salvation through anavatar, together with the morality ofself-denial and atonement, with Jewish monotheism and its 'Behold, it was very good'.[45]
The suggestion that an adult Jesus traveled to India and was influenced by Buddhism before startinghis ministry inGalilee was first made byNicolas Notovitch in 1894 in the bookThe Unknown Life of Jesus Christ which was widely disseminated and became the basis of other theories.[46][47] Notovitch's theory was controversial from the beginning and was widely criticized.[48][49] Once his story had been re-examined by historians, Notovitch confessed to having fabricated the evidence.[49][50]
A number of scholars have stated that suggestions of an influence from Buddhism on Christianity, particularly Jesus's alleged travels to Buddhist India, are fanciful and without any historical basis:
Christian influence on Buddhism in the 18th and 19th centuries was primarily by example of modern forms ofreligious education.[52][53] During the last centuries, Christian missionaries have influenced many Buddhist groups such as the Buddhist nunCheng Yen who, after being inspired by the humanitarian aid done by Catholic nuns, decided that Buddhists need "to do more than simply encourage the private cultivation of people's souls". Her works eventually led to the foundation ofTzu Chi, a non-profit humanitarian group in Asia.[54]
“Ask and it shall be given, seek and ye shall find, knock and it shall be opened unto you. For everyone that asketh receiveth, and he that seeketh findeth, and to him that knocketh, it shall be opened.”
Gasan remarked: “That is excellent. Whoever said that is not far from Buddhahood.”
Buddhism has been gaining popularity in the west. Starting with a cultural and academic elite in the 19th century, it is now widespread in western culture, especially since the 1960s.[55]
In the 20th centuryChristian monastics such asThomas Merton,Wayne Teasdale,David Steindl-Rast and the former nunKaren Armstrong, andBuddhist monastics such asAjahn Buddhadasa,Thich Nhat Hanh and theDalai Lama have taken part in aninterfaith dialogue about Buddhism and Christianity.[56][57] This dialogue aims to shed light on the common ground between Buddhism and Christianity.[58][59][60] TheDIMMID (Dialogue Interreligieux Monastique - Monastic Interreligious Dialogue) has hosted several encounters between Buddhist and Catholic monks, such as the Gethsemani Encounters at theAbbey of Our Lady of Gethsemani which were attended also by the Dalai Lama, as well as exchange programs in which Buddhist monks and nuns visit Catholic monasteries and vice versa.[61][62]
Although the prevalent romantic view on Buddhism sees it as an authentic and ancient practice, contemporary Buddhism is deeply influenced by the western culture. With the rise of western colonialism in the 19th century, Asian cultures and religions developed strategies to adapt to the western hegemony, without losing their own traditions. Western discourses were taken over, and western polemic styles were applied to defend indigenous traditions.[55]
In 1989 the Catholic Church, through theCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, rejected attempts at mixing some aspects of Christian and Buddhist practices, in a letter titled "Letter to the Bishops of theCatholic Church on some aspects of Christian meditation", generally known as theAspects of Christian meditation letter.[63][64][65]
The document issues warnings on differences and potential incompatibilities betweenChristian meditation and the styles ofmeditation used in eastern religions such asBuddhism.[66][67] Referring to some elements of Buddhism as "negative theology" the document states:
Still others do not hesitate to place that absolute without image or concepts, which is proper to Buddhist theory, on the same level as the majesty of God revealed in Christ, which towers above finite reality. To this end, they make use of a "negative theology", which ... denies that the things of this world can offer traces of the infinity of God.[65]
Similar warnings were issued in 2003 inA Christian reflection on the New Age which also referred to Buddhism.[68][69] TheSouthern Baptist Convention expressed agreement with those views.[70]
Richard Gombrich and Gananath Obeyesekere have mapped similar trends specifically in Sinhalese Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Emphasizing the Christian influence on modernizing forms of Sinhalese Buddhism in the late nineteenth and ...
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