Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger.[4] However, the number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.[3][1]
Breton is spoken inLower Brittany (Breton:Breizh-Izel), roughly to the west of a line linkingPlouha (west ofSaint-Brieuc) andLa Roche-Bernard (east ofVannes). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain toArmorica (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold inGalicia (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.[9] It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by thebourgeoisie, adoptedFrench. The written language of theDuchy of Brittany wasLatin, switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a limited tradition ofBreton literature. Somephilosophical and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are:Old Breton –c. 800 toc. 1100,Middle Breton –c. 1100 toc. 1650,Modern Breton –c. 1650 to present.[10]
The French monarchy was not concerned with theminoritylanguages of France, spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During theFrench Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to aspatois. The revolutionaries assumed thatreactionary andmonarchist forces preferredregional languages to try to keep the peasant masses under-informed. In 1794,Bertrand Barère submitted his "report on thepatois" to theCommittee of Public Safety in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".[11]
Since the 19th century, under theThird,Fourth and nowFifth Republics, the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.[11]
In the early 21st century, due to the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people are active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. The majority of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as anendangered language.[3]
At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.[12] In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.[13]
1911 poster with Breton slogan,Burzudus eo! ("It's miraculous!")
In 1925, ProfessorRoparz Hemon founded the Breton-language reviewGwalarn. During its 19-year run,Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language.[14] Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946,Al Liamm replacedGwalarn. Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.[15]
In 1977,Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton byimmersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.
Today, Breton is the only livingCeltic language that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.
The first Breton dictionary, theCatholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464,[18] it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A monolingual dictionary,Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here was published in 1995. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.
In the early 21st century, theOfis Publik ar Brezhoneg ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of theSpilhennig to let speakers identify each other. The office also started anInternationalization and localization policy askingGoogle,Firefox[19] andSPIP to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, theBreton Wikipedia started, which counts more than 85,000 articles as of August 2024. In March 2007, theOfis ar Brezhoneg signed atripartite agreement withRegional Council of Brittany andMicrosoft[20] for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014,Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages[21] after three years of talks between theOfis and Facebook.
Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongsideGallo and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.
The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions. They areleoneg (léonard, of thecounty of Léon),tregerieg (trégorrois, ofTrégor),kerneveg (cornouaillais, ofCornouaille), andgwenedeg (vannetais, ofVannes).[22]Guérandais was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region ofGuérande andBatz-sur-Mer. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form adialect continuum, varying only slightly from one village to the next.[23]Gwenedeg, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.[24]
French is the soleofficial language ofFrance. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.[26]
In July 2008, the legislature amended theFrench Constitution, adding article 75-1:les langues régionales appartiennent au patrimoine de la France (theregional languages belong to the heritage ofFrance).
TheEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which obliges signatory states to recognize minority and regional languages, was signed by France in 1999 but has not been ratified. On 27 October 2015, theSenate rejected a draft constitutional law ratifying the charter.[27]
Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns.
Under the French law known asToubon, it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or French only. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.[citation needed]
Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.[28] It helped to create theYa d'ar brezhoneg campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.[29]
Sign in French and partly in Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes
In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (calledDiwan) into the state education system. This action was blocked by the FrenchConstitutional Council based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. TheToubon Law implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.[30]
TheDiwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton byimmersion. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.[31] Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.[32]
Another teaching method is a bilingual approach byDiv Yezh[33] ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979.Dihun[34] ("Awakening") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.
In 2018, 18,337[1] pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attendedDiwan,Div Yezh andDihun schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal ofJean-Yves Le Drian (president of theRegional Council), who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010, and of "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless he describes being encouraged by the growth of the movement.[35]
In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed an evening or correspondence one Breton-language course.[vague] The transmission[vague] of Breton in 1999 was estimated to be 3 percent.[1]
Growth of the percentage of pupils in bilingual education
Year
Number
Percentage of all pupils in Brittany
2005
10,397
1.24%
2006
11,092
1.30%
2007
11,732
1.38%
2008
12,333
± 1.4%
2009
13,077
1.45%
2010
13,493
1.48%
2011
14,174
1.55%
2012
14,709
1.63%
2013
15,338
1.70%
2014
15,840
1.73%
2015
16,345
1.78%
2016
17,024
1.86%
2017
17,748
1.93%
2018
18,337
2.00%
2019
18,890
2.00%
2020
19,165
2.00%
2021
19,336
± 2.2%
2022
19,765
± 2.3%
2024
20,280
± 2.5%
Percentage of pupils in bilingual education per department
The 10 communes of historic Brittany with the highest total population, listed with their percentages of pupils in bilingual primary education These figures include some cities in the department of Loire-Atlantique, which is now included in thePays de la Loire region. See for exampleBrittany (administrative region).
In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. These "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games.
Schools in secondary education (collèges andlycées) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.[38] Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department offering courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.
Vowels in Breton may beshort or long. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (vowel lengths are not noted in usual orthographies as they are implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long). An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position, among different dialects.
All vowels can also benasalized,[39] which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done fora ando due to thePortuguese letters), or more commonly by non-ambiguously appending an⟨ñ⟩ letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).
The pronunciation of the letter⟨r⟩ varies nowadays:[ʁ] is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille) whereas[r] is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), though in rapid speech mostly a tapped[ɾ] occurs. In the other regions of Trégor[ɾ] or even[ɹ] may be found.
The voiced dental fricative (/ð/) is a conservative realisation of thelenition (or the "spirant mutation" in cases where the phenomenon originates from the mutation of/t~θ/, respectively) of the consonants/d/ and/t/ which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and thus it is mostly not orthographically fixed. ThePeurunvan, for instance, uses⟨z⟩ for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced[z] in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are employed for representing the dental fricative, depending on the scripture's historical period. There once was a time when⟨d⟩ was used to transcribe the sound, but today mostly the regular⟨z⟩ is instead used, and this practice can be traced back to at least the end of the 17th century.[40] The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns ofPontivy andBaud and surrounding smaller villages likeCléguérec,Noyal-Pontivy,Pluméliau,St. Allouestre,St. Barthélemy,Pluvigner and also parts ofBelle-Île. The only known place where the mutation occurs outside of the Vannes country is theÎle de Sein, an island located offFinistère's coast. Some scholars also used[ẓ] as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol/ð/ is usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect ofSauzon in Belle-Île) or due to the fact that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions were not in need of a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation as it was a clearly distinguishable phoneme.[41][42]
The digraphzh represents a variable sound that may exhibit as/s/,/z/, or/h/, and descends from a now-extinct sound/θ/, which is still extant in Welsh asth.
Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.
Breton has two genders: masculine (gourel) and feminine (gwregel), having largely lost its historic neuter (nepreizh) as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (-ach/-aj,[43] -(a)dur,[43] -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va[44]) are masculine, while others (-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i,-eg,-ell, and the singulative-enn) are feminine.[44] The suffix-eg can be masculine or feminine.[43]
There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except foreur "hour",noz "night" andsizhun "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.[43]
However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.[43]
Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.[45] However, the system is full of complexities[46] in how this distinction is realized.
Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed indaou,di ordiv) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two.[45][46] The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes (daoulagad) and ears (divskouarn) can be pluralized "again" to formdaoulagadoù anddiskouarnoù.[45][44]
Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has asingulative suffix that is used to form singulars out ofcollective nouns, for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collectivelogod "mice" islogodenn "mouse".[45] However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective--pesk "fish" (singular) is pluralized topesked, singulativized topeskedenn, referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to makepeskedennoù "fishes".[46]
On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out ofpark:parkoù "parks" andparkeier "various different parks".[46] Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.[45] Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology:dour "water" pluralized formsdourioù which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", whiledoureier now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm:keloù means "news" and*kel is not used, whilekeleier has become the regular plural,[45] 'different news items'.
Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings –bugel "child" is pluralized once intobugale "children" and then pluralized a second time to makebugaleoù "groups of children".[46]
The diminutive suffix-ig also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural:bugelig means "little child", but the doubly pluralizedbugaleigoù means "little children";bag boat has a singular diminutivebagig and a simple pluralbagoù, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralizedbagoùigoù.[46][45]
As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.
The most common plural marker is-où, with its variant-ioù;[45] most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.[45]
Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in-ed.[45] However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the wordSaoz ("Englishman", pluralSaozon) take the suffix-ien, with a range of variants including-on,-ion,-an and-ian.[45]
The rare pluralizing suffixes-er/-ier and-i are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root:-i triggers avowel harmony effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed toi (kenderv "cousin" →kindirvi "cousins";bran "crow" →brini "crows";klujur "partridge" →klujiri "partridges"); the changes associated with-er/-ier are less predictable.[45]
Various nouns instead form their plural merely withablaut:a oro in thestem being changed toe:askell "wing" →eskell "wings";dant "tooth" →dent "teeth";kordenn "rope" →kerdenn "ropes".[45]
Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These includeplacʼh "girl" →mercʼhed,porcʼhell "pig" →mocʼh,buocʼh "cow" →saout, andki "dog" →chas.[45]
In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.[45]
As in other Celtic languages as well asEnglish, a variety of verbal constructions is available to expressgrammatical aspect, for example: showing a distinction betweenprogressive and habitual actions:
In the examples above theGoidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaningat to show possession, whereas theBrittonic languages usewith. The Goidelic languages, however, do use the prepositionwith to express "belong to" (Irishis liom an leabhar, Scottishis leam an leabhar, Manxs'lhiams yn lioar, The book belongs to me).
The Welsh examples are inliterary Welsh. The order and preposition may differ slightly incolloquial Welsh (Formalmae car gennym, North Walesmae gynnon ni gar, South Walesmae car gyda ni).
Breton has four initialconsonant mutations: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation ofWelsh (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.
This sectionneeds expansion with: V2 word order. You can help byadding to it.(May 2022)
Normal word order, like the otherInsular Celtic languages, is at its coreVSO (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs inmain clauses are additionally subject toV2 word order in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.[47] That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):
the first places the verbalinfinitive in initial position (as in (1)), followed by theauxiliaryober 'to do'.
the second places the Auxiliary verbbezañ 'to be' in initial position (as in (2)), followed the Subject, and the constructiono(cʼh)+ infinitive. At the end comes the Object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.
the third places the constructiono(cʼh)+ infinitive in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the Auxiliary verbbezañ, the Subject, and the Object.
the fourth option places the Object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Subject.
the fifth, and originally least common, places the Subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Object, just like in English (SVO).
Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loans from French.[46]
The first extant Breton texts, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: 50 years prior to theStrasbourg Oaths, considered to be the earliest example ofFrench. Like many medievalorthographies, Old- and Middle Breton orthography was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at authors' discretion. In 1499, however, theCatholicon, was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in theCatholicon was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinatedigraph⟨qu⟩—a remnant of the sound change/kʷ/ >/k/ in Latin—and Brittonic⟨cou-⟩ or⟨cu-⟩ to represent/k/ before front vowels.
As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies. Many of these orthographies were more closely related to the French model, albeit with some modifications. Examples of these modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -⟨z⟩ with -⟨h⟩ to denote word-final/x~h/ (an evolution of Old Breton/θ/ in the Vannes dialect) and use of -⟨h⟩ to denote the initial mutation of/k/ (today this mutation is written⟨cʼh⟩).[48] and thus needed another transcription.
During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known asEmglev ar Skrivanerien elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects ofCornouaille, Leon and Trégor (known as fromKernev,Leon andTreger in Breton). ThisKLT orthography was established in 1911. At the same time writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system also based on that of Le Gonidec.
Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. ThisPeurunvan ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph⟨zh⟩, which represents a/h/ in Vannetais and corresponds to a/z/ in the KLT dialects.
In 1955François Falcʼhun and the groupEmgleo Breiz [fr;br] proposed a new orthography. It was designed to use a set ofgraphemes closer to the conventions of French. ThisOrthographe universitaire ("University Orthography", known in Breton asSkolveurieg) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education." It was opposed in the region and today is used only by the magazineBrud Nevez and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.
In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised – theetrerannyezhel orinterdialectale. This system is based on the derivation of the words.[49]
Today the majority of writers continue to use thePeurunvan orthography, and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.
Both orthographies use the above alphabet, although⟨é⟩ is used only inSkolveurieg.
Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, finalobstruents, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced insandhi before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes:braz "big",brasocʼh "bigger".
In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation, e.g.brezhoneg "Breton language" vs.brezhonek "Breton (adj)".
^ Unstressed⟨e, eu, o⟩ represent[ɛ,œ,ɔ] in Leoneg but[e,ø,o] in the other dialects. The realisations[ɛ̞,œ̞,ɔ̞] appear mainly before⟨rr⟩ (also less often before⟨cʼh⟩), semivowels[j,w], consonant clusters beginning with⟨r⟩ or⟨l⟩. Stressed long⟨e, eu, o⟩ represent[eː,øː,oː].
^ In Gwenedeg velars are palatalized before⟨e⟩ and⟨i⟩, i.e.⟨k⟩,⟨g⟩,⟨kw/kou⟩,⟨cʼhw/cʼhou⟩,⟨gw/gou⟩,⟨w/ou⟩,⟨sk⟩ represent[c~tʃ,ɟ~dʒ,cɥ,hɥ,ɟɥ,ɥ,sc~ʃc]. In the case of word-final⟨g⟩ and⟨k⟩ palatalization to[c] also occurs after⟨i⟩.
^ Before a vowel other than⟨i⟩ the digraph⟨ni⟩ is written instead of⟨gn⟩, e.g.bleniañ "to drive", radicalblegn, 1PS preteriteblegnis, 3PS preteriteblenias.
^ Silent in words such asha(g),he(cʼh),ho(cʼh),holl,hon,hor andhol. Always silent in Gwenedeg and Leoneg.
^⟨i⟩ is realized as[j] when it precedes or follows a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such aslien,liorzh,rakdiazezañ it represents[iː] (in orthography⟨ï⟩ may be used:lïen,lïorzh,rakdïazezañ).
^⟨ilh⟩ represents[ʎ] when it follows a vowel, after a consonant it represents[iʎ]. But before a vowel other than⟨i⟩,⟨li⟩ is written instead of⟨ilh⟩, e.g.heuliañ "to follow", radicalheuilh, 1PS preteriteheuilhis, 3PS preteriteheulias. In some regions[j] may be heard instead of[ʎ].
^ Word-finally after a cluster of unvoiced consonants.
^ The digraph⟨ou⟩ is realized like⟨w⟩ when preceded or followed by a vowel (or when between vowels), but in words such asDoue,douar,gouarn it represents[uː].
^ The digraph⟨où⟩ represents plural endings. Its pronunciation varies by dialect:[u,o,ø,ow,aw,aɥ,ɔɥ] rating geographically from Northwest Leon to Southeast Gwened.
^⟨v⟩ usually represents[v], but word-finally (except in word-final⟨ñv⟩) it represents[w] in KLT,[ɥ] in Gwenedeg and[f] in Goëlo. The pronunciation[v] is retained word-finally in verbs. In wordsbliv,Gwiskriv,gwiv,liv,piv,riv it represents[u] in KLT,[ɥ] in Gwenedeg and[f] in Goëlo. Word-finally following⟨r, l, n, z⟩ it represents[o].
^ But silent in words such asgouez,bloaz,goaz,ruziañ,kleiz,rakdïazezañ,bezañ,Roazhon,dezhañ,kouezhañ, 'z,az,ez,da'z,gwirionez,enep(g)wirionez,moneiz,falsvoneiz,karantez,kengarantez,nevez,nevezcʼhanet,nadozioù,abardaez,gwez,bemdez,kriz,bleiz,morvleiz,dezhi.⟨z⟩ is generally silent in Kerneweg, Tregerieg and Gwenedeg, but in Leoneg⟨z(h)⟩ is always pronounced.
^ Used to distinguish words such asstêr "river",hêr "heir",kêr "town" (also writtenkaer) fromster "sense",her "bold",ker "dear".
^ Used to distinguishtrôad "circuit/tour" fromtroad "foot".
^ In northern dialects (mainly in Leoneg), there is a tendency to voice⟨cʼh⟩ between vowels.[ɣ] also appears as the lenition of⟨g, cʼh⟩ and mixed mutation of⟨g⟩.
^ The lenition of⟨d⟩ and the spirantization of⟨t⟩ are both represented by⟨z⟩ is mainly pronounced[z] although in certain regions[s] (especially for the spirantization of⟨t⟩ in Cornouaille) and[ð] (in some Haut-Vannetais varieties)31 also occur.
^ The pronunciation of⟨r⟩ varies by dialect, nowadays uvular[ʀ] (or[ʁ]) is standard;[r] occurs in Leoneg,[ɾ] or[ɹ] in Tregerieg, and[ʀ],[ʁ],[r],and[ɾ] in Gwenedeg.
^ In Gwenedeg an unstressed⟨e⟩ often represents[ə].
^ Lenited varieties of⟨r, l, n⟩ may appear word-initially in case of soft mutation.
Breton: Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.[50]
English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[51]
The English wordsdolmen andmenhir have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance,menhir ispeulvan ormaen hir ("long stone"),maen sav ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton.Dolmen is a misconstructed word (it should betaol-vaen). Some studies state[52] that these words were borrowed fromCornish.Maen hir can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what amenhir ormaen hir is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornishmenhyr ("long stone"), as doesTremenheere "settlement by the long stone".
The French wordbaragouiner ("to jabber in a foreign language") is derived from Bretonbara ("bread") andgwin ("wine"). The French wordgoéland ("large seagull") is derived from Bretongwelan, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welshgwylan, Cornishgoelann).
.bzh is an approved Internetgeneric top-level domains intended for Brittany and the Breton culture and languages.[53] In 2023, the Breton internet extension .bzh had more than 12,000 registrations. Alongside the promotion of the .bzh internet extension, the www.bzh association promotes other services to develop Brittany's image on the web: campaign for a Breton flag emoji (),[54] and email service.[55]
^Broudic, Fañch (1999).Qui parle breton aujourd'hui? Qui le parlera demain? (in French). Brest: Brud Nevez.
^"Breton".Endangered Language Alliance. 2012.Archived from the original on 21 July 2021.
^Francis Favereau, "Anthologie de la littérature bretonne au XXe siècle : 1919–1944", "Tome 2 : Breiz Atao et les autres en littérature", Skol Vreizh, 2003,ISBN2-911447-94-8.
^Calin, William (2000).Minority Literatures and Modernism: Scots, Breton, and Occitan, 1920–1990. University of Toronto Press.ISBN9780802083654.
^an Henaff, Goulwena; Strubel, Etienne (2008).Ken Tuch' (Web videos) (in Breton). An Oriant, Breizh: Dizale. Archived fromthe original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved25 February 2015.
^Adkins, Madeleine; Davis, Jenny L. (September 2012). "The naïf, the sophisticate, and the party girl: Regional and gender stereotypes in Breton language web videos".Gender and Language.6 (2):291–308.doi:10.1558/genl.v6i2.291.Pdf.
^Wmffre, Iwan (2008).Breton Orthographies and Dialects: The Twentieth-century, Vol. 2. Peter Lang AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. p. 3.ISBN978-3039113651.
^Hemon, Roparz, ed. (1956).Christmas Hymns in the Vannes Dialect of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. x, xxvi.
^Jackson, Kenneth H. (1968).A Historical Phonology of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. 661 ff.
^Hemon, Roparz (1975).A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. p. 5.ISBN978-0901282637.
^abcdeMartin J. Ball (1993).The Celtic Languages. p. 364.
^abcStephens, Janig (2002). "Breton". In Ball, Martin; Fife, James (eds.).The Celtic Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. London: Routledge. p. 379.ISBN041528080X.
^abcdefghijklmnoMartin J. Ball (1993).The Celtic Languages. pp. 365–369.
^abcdefgFortson, Benjamin W. 2005.Indo-European Language and Culture. Page 295: "Breton has also borrowed much more heavily from French throughout its history than any of the other British Celtic languages ever have from English, to the extent that two-fifths of the ordinary vocabulary is of French origin, according to some extents".
Press, Ian (2010). "Breton". In Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (eds.).The Celtic languages, 2nd Edition. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 427–487.
Stephens, Janig (1993)."Breton". In Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (eds.).The Celtic languages. Routledge language family descriptions. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 349–409.ISBN978-0415280808.
Ternes, Elmar (1992)."The Breton language". In MacAulay, Donald (ed.).The Celtic languages. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge; New York; Oakleigh: Cambridge University Press. pp. 371–452.ISBN978-0521231275.
Historical development
Hemon, Roparz.A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975.
Schrijver, Peter (2011). "Middle and early modern Breton". In Ternes, Elmar (ed.).Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From medieval British to modern Breton. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 359–430.ISBN9783934106802.
Schrijver, Peter (2011). "Old British". In Ternes, Elmar (ed.).Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From medieval British to modern Breton. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 1–84.ISBN9783934106802.
Ternes, Elmar (2011). "Neubretonisch". In Ternes, Elmar (ed.).Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From medieval British to modern Breton. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. pp. 431–530.ISBN9783934106802.
Grammars and handbooks
Desbordes, Yann (1990).Petite grammaire du breton moderne. Lesneven: Mouladurioù Hor Yezh.ISBN978-2868630520.
Falcʼhun, François (1951).Le système consonantique du breton avec une étude comparative de phonétique expérimentale. Rennes: Plihon.
Favereau, Francis.Grammaire du breton contemporain. Morlaix: Skol Vreizh, 1997.
Hemon, Roparz.Breton Grammar, 3rd edn. Trans. & rev'd by Michael Everson. Westport: Evertype, 2011.
Kervella, Frañsez (1947).Yezhadur bras ar brezhoneg. Brest: Al Liamm.
McKenna, Malachy.A handbook of modern spoken Breton. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1988 (repr. 2015).
Press, Ian (1986).A grammar of modern Breton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. (repr. 2011).
Press, Ian & Hervé Le Bihan.Colloquial Breton: the complete course for beginners. London: Routledge, 2004 (repr. 2007, 2015).
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