Brahma is frequently identified with theVedic godPrajapati.[9] During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent deity and his sect existed; however, by the 7th century, he had lost his significance. He was also overshadowed by other major deities likeVishnu,Shiva, andMahadevi[10] and demoted to the role of a secondary creator, who was created by the major deities.[11][12][13]
Brahma is commonly depicted as a red or golden-complexioned bearded man with four heads and hands. His four heads represent the fourVedas and are pointed to the four cardinal directions.[14] He is seated on a lotus and hisvahana (mount) is ahamsa (swan, goose or crane). According to the scriptures, Brahma created his children from his mind and thus, they are referred to asManasaputra.[15][16]
In contemporary Hinduism, Brahma does not enjoy popular worship and has substantially less importance than the other two members of the Trimurti. Brahma is revered in the ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a primary deity in India, owing to the absence of any significant sect dedicated to his reverence.[17] Few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being theBrahma Temple, Pushkar in Rajasthan.[18] Some Brahma temples are found outside India, such as at theErawan Shrine inBangkok, which in turn has found immense popularity within theThai Buddhist community.[19]
Origin and meaning
The origins of the termbrahmā are uncertain, partly because several related words are found in the Vedic literature, such asBrahman for the 'Ultimate Reality' andBrāhmaṇa for 'priest'. A distinction between the spiritual concept ofbrahman and the god Brahmā is that the former is a genderless abstract metaphysical concept in Hinduism,[20] while the latter is one of the many masculine gods in Hindu tradition.[21] The spiritual concept ofbrahman is quite old and some scholars suggest that the god Brahma may have emerged as a god and visible icon of the impersonal universal principleof brahman.[22] The existence of a distinct god namedBrahma is evidenced in late Vedic texts.[22]
Grammatically, the nominal stemBrahma- has two distinct forms: theneuter nounbráhman, whosenominative singular form isbrahma (ब्रह्म); and themasculine nounbrahmán, whose nominative singular form isbrahmā (ब्रह्मा). The former, the neuter form, has a generalized and abstract meaning[23] while the latter, the masculine form, is used as the proper name of the deity Brahma.
However, Brahman was sometimes used as a synonym for Brahma's name during the time theMahabharata was written.[24]
One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifthPrapathaka (lesson) of theMaitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed around the late 1st millennium BCE. Brahma is first discussed in verse 5,1, also called theKutsayana Hymn, and then expounded in verse 5,2.[27]
In the pantheisticKutsayana Hymn,[27] the Upanishad asserts that one's Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. It equates theatman (Soul, Self) within to be Brahma and various alternate manifestations of Brahman, as follows, "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Shiva, thou artAgni,Varuna,Vayu,Indra, thou art All."[27]
In verse (5,2), Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva are mapped into the theory ofGuṇas, that is qualities, psyche and innate tendencies the text describes can be found in all living beings.[28][29] This chapter of theMaitrayaniya Upanishad asserts that the universe emerged from darkness (tamas), first as passion characterized by innate quality (rajas), which then refined and differentiated into purity and goodness (sattva).[27][28] Of these three qualities,rajas are then mapped toBrahma, as follows:[30]
Now then, that part of him which belongs totamas, that, O students of sacred knowledge (Brahmacharins), is this Shiva. That part of him which belongs torajas, that O students of sacred knowledge, is thisBrahma. That part of him which belongs tosattva, that O students of sacred knowledge, is this Vishnu. Verily, that One became threefold, became eightfold, elevenfold, twelvefold, into infinite fold. This Being (neuter) entered all beings, he became the overlord of all beings. That is theAtman (Soul, Self) within and without – yea, within and without!
While theMaitrayaniya Upanishad maps Brahma with one of the elements ofthe guṇas theory of Hinduism, the text does not depict him as one of the trifunctional elements of the HinduTrimurti idea found in later Puranic literature.[31]
During the post-Vedic period, Brahma was a prominent god and his sect existed during the 2nd century CE to 6th century CE. Early texts like theBrahmanda Purana describe that there was nothing but an eternal ocean. From this, a golden egg calledHiranyagarbha, emerged. The egg broke open and Brahma, who had created himself within it, came into existence (gaining the nameSvayambhu). Then, he created the universe, the earth, and other things. He also created people to populate and live on his creation.[32][33][10]
Various Puranic legends mention various reasons for his decline in worship now. There are primarily two prominent versions of why Brahma lost his ground in worship popularly. The first version refers to theShiva Purana, where Brahma and Vishnu argued about who was the greatest among them. While they debated, they saw a huge column of fire piercing through the sky which was Shiva asLingodbhava. They decided to locate the beginning and end of this column of fire which is Shiva. Vishnu assumed the form of a boar asVaraha and journeyed towards the earth and Brahma assumed the form of a swan asHamsa and journeyed towards the sky. Vishnu found about his defeat, revealing that he had been unable to locate the end, which was at the end of the universe and he got tired before he reached that so he was defeated in it there. However, Brahma had recruited theketaki flower which fell from Shiva's head by his powers to end the debate here now, which was at the beginning of the universe with his beginning at there now and he got tired before he reached that so he was defeated in it there and this came to him and he took him as a false witness to support his lie that he had located the beginning. Shiva then took his true form and cut off one of Brahma's five heads for his dishonesty, proclaiming that he would no longer receive an active following to his worship and would get a low status of popularity. Pleased with Vishnu's honesty, he offered him a high status of popularity and an active following dedicated to his worship and took the ketaki flower as an ornament on his head then and fused that head into him then. The second version refers to theVishnu Purana, where Vishnu created Brahma and Shiva from his navel and forehead respectively, thus making Brahma along with Shiva both as inferior to Vishnu, who created them both as the supreme god above them in all aspects of power in this universe and after that, when the creation of the universe was completed, Brahma lost all of his importance after his role as creator of the universe ended and was removed from worship by everyone in the world, while Shiva was always worshipped as the destroyer of the universe after his role of the destruction of the universe was always happening and Vishnu was always worshipped as he was the preserver of the universe and his preserving role in the universe was always happening and he was the supreme god of this universe.[34]
The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories ofcosmogony, many involving Brahma. These includeSarga (primary creation of the universe) andVisarga (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging (metaphysical) and other secondary that is always changing (empirical), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endlessly repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created.[35] The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies withBrahman orPurusha orPrakrti among the terms used for the primary creator,[35][36] In contrast the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle (kalpa, that is an aeon).[12][35]
Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in theMahabharata andPuranas, and among the most studied and described.[37][38][39] Vishnu-focused Puranas describe that Brahma was born from a lotus emerging from the navel of the godVishnu andShiva was born from a fire emerging from the forehead of the godVishnu.[40][41] In contrast, theShiva-focused Puranas describe Brahma andVishnu to be born from Shiva's right and left sides of his waist; and in otherPuranas,Shiva andVishnu were born from Brahma's right and left sides of his waist or Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpas).[12][42] Yet others describe that theTridevi created Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva,[43] and these texts then state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.[43][44] Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself.[45] Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god or higher goddess.[46] Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that thesaguna (representation with face and attributes)[47] Brahma is Vishnu,[48] Shiva,[49] or Tridevi,[50] respectively.
In the post-Vedic Puranic literature,[51] Brahma creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysicalBrahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other deities, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where the deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal god like all deities and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, and then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts and all of them are recreated.[51][52]
In theBhagavata Purana, Brahma is portrayed several times as the one who rises from the "Ocean of Causes".[53] Brahma, states this Purana, emerges at the moment when time and universe are born, inside a lotus rooted in the navel of Vishnu, along with Shiva, who emerged inside a fire rooted in the forehead of the god Vishnu. This Purana states that both Brahma and Shiva are drowsy, err, are temporarily incompetent as they put together the universe.[53] They then become aware of their confusion and drowsiness, meditates as two ascetics, then realizes Vishnu in their bodies, see the beginning and end of the universe, and then their creative powers are revived. Brahma and Shiva, states the Bhagavata Purana, thereafter combinePrakriti (nature, matter) andPurusha (spirit, soul) to create a dazzling variety of living creatures, and a tempest of causal nexus.[53] The Bhagavata Purana thus attributes the creation ofMaya to Brahma and Shiva,[citation needed] wherein they creates for the sake of creation, imbuing everything with both the good and the evil, the material and the spiritual, a beginning and an end.[54]
The Puranas describe Brahma as the god creating time.[citation needed] They correlate human time to Brahma's time, such as amahākalpa being a large cosmic period, correlating to one day and one night in Brahma's existence.[46][citation needed]
The stories about Brahma in various Puranas are diverse and inconsistent. InSkanda Purana, for example, the Tridevi are called the "mothers of the universe", and they are credited with creating Brahma, all the complete other gods including Vishnu, Shiva, the three worlds, the entire universe. They are the ones, states Skanda Purana, who combined the threeGunas - Sattva, Rajas, Tamas - into matter (Prakrti) to create the empirically observed world.[55]
The Vedic discussion of Brahma as aRajas-quality god expands in the Puranic andTantric literature. However, these texts state that his wifeSarasvati hasSattva (quality of balance, harmony, goodness, purity, holistic, constructive, creative, positive, peaceful, virtuous), thus complementing Brahma'sRajas (quality of passion, activity, neither good nor bad and sometimes either, action qua action, individualizing, driven, dynamic) with herSattva qualities.[56][57][58]
Sangam literature
TheSangam literature mentions allHindu gods and goddesses andVedic practices inTamilakam. Tamilians considered theVedas as books of Hinduism and used it to performYajnas.[59][60] Several Tamil Hindu kings and queens have performed Vedic sacrifices and worshipped various gods and goddesses ofHinduism. Several Sangam texts mention that Brahma as a creator god born from the navel ofVishnu along withShiva as a destroyer god born from his forehead while he was the preserver god. As he is a direct biological ancestor of all royal families, theCholas said that Brahma and Shiva as their direct biological ancestors and Vishnu as their creator and the creator of this entireuniverse.[61]Cilappatikaram also has several mentions of Brahma as the creator god.[62]
Iconography
Left: 19th century CE painting of four-headed Brahma as an aged man, holding lotus, manuscript (Vedas) and aladle; Right: 6th century CE statue of Brahma as a middle-aged man inBadami cave temples holding a stylus, ladle, mala.
Brahma is traditionally depicted with four faces and four arms.[63] Each face of his points to a cardinal direction. His hands hold no weapons, rather symbols of knowledge and creation. In one hand, he holds the sacred texts ofVedas, in the other hand, he holds amala, symbolizing the time to create the universe, in the other hand, he holds ashruka, — aladle symbolizing the means to feed sacrificial fire, and in the even another hand, akamandalu – a utensil with water symbolizing the means from where all creation emits.[64][65] His four mouths are credited with creating the four Vedas.[7] He is often depicted with a white beard, implying his sage-like experience. He sits on lotus, dressed in white (or red and pink), with his vehicle (vahana) –hamsa, a swan – nearby.[63][66]
Chapter 51 of theManasara, an ancient design manual in Sanskrit for makingmurtis and temples, states that a Brahma statue should be gold in color.[67] The text recommends that the statue have four faces and four arms, havejata-mukuta-mandita (matted hair of an ascetic), and wear adiadem (crown).[67] Two of his hands should be in refuge granting and gift givingmudra, while he should be shown withkundika (water pot),akshamala (rosary), a smallshruka and a largeshruka (two ladles used in yajna ceremonies).[67] The text details the different proportions of themurti, describes the ornaments, and suggests that the idol wearchira (bark strip) as a lower garment, and either be alone or be accompanied with goddessSarasvati. Brahma is associated largely with the Vedic culture ofyajna and knowledge. In some Vedicyajna, Brahma is summoned in the ritual to reside and supervise the ritual in the form ofPrajapati.
Brahma's wife is the goddess Sarasvati.[68][69] She is the embodiment of his power, the instrument of creation and the energy that drives his actions.
Epochs of Brahma
Brahma, despite being believed to be the creator, is considered mortal according to scriptures. The Age of Brahma, according toHindu cosmology, spans vast epochs of time. Akalpa is a day of Brahmā, and one day of Brahmā consists of a thousand cycles of fouryugas, or ages: Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga. These four yugas, rotating a thousand times, comprise one day of Brahmā, and the same number comprise one night. Brahmā lives one hundred of such "years" and then dies. These "hundred years" total 311 trillion 40 billion (311,040,000,000,000) earth years. Brahma's lifespan is 311.04 trillion solar years, and humanity is in the 28th Kali Yuga of the 51st year of the current Brahma's life.[70][71]
Very few temples in India are primarily dedicated to Brahma and his worship.[17] The most prominent Hindu temple for Brahma is theBrahma Temple, Pushkar.[18] Others include:[4]
In Kerala, there is also a shrine for Brahma inKandiyoor Mahadeva Temple where according to legend, Lord Shiva beheaded Brahma.[74]
Chaturmukeshvara temple at the temple town ofSrikalahasti nearTirupati,Andhra Pradesh has an image of Lord Shiva with four faces and has bas-relief carvings. At this temple, Lord Brahma and Lord Shiva are both worshipped. According to a legend, this is the place where Lord Brahma regained His ability to create after He pleaded forgiveness from Lord Shiva for getting rid of His Sisihathya sins.[75]
There is a Chaturmukha Brahma temple inChebrolu, Andhra Pradesh, and a seven feet height of Chatrumukha (Four Faces) Brahma temple atBangalore,Karnataka. In the coastal state ofGoa, a shrine belonging to the fifth century, in the small and remote village ofCarambolim,Sattari Taluka in the northeast region of the state is found.[76][77][78]
Left: The four-faced Brahma (Phra Phrom) statue, Erawan Shrine,Thailand Center: 12th-century CE Brahma with missing book and water pot,Cambodia Right: 9th-century CE Brahma Sculpture inPrambananJava,Indonesia
A shrine of Brahma can be found in Cambodia'sAngkor Wat. One of the three largest temples in the 9th-century CEPrambanan temples complex in Yogyakarta, centralJava (Indonesia) is dedicated to Brahma, the other two to Shiva (largest of three) and Vishnu respectively.[80] The temple dedicated to Brahma is on the southern side of Shiva temple and Vishnu temple.
The name of the countryBurma is derived from Brahma. In medieval texts, it is referred to asBrahma-desa.[82][83]
Brahma in Buddhism is known in Chinese asSimianshen (四面神, "Four-Faced God"),Simianfo (四面佛, "Four-Faced Buddha") orFantian (梵天),Tshangs pa (ཚངས་པ) in Tibetan,Phạm Thiên (梵天) in Vietnamese,Bonten (梵天) in Japanese,[84] and Beomcheon (범천,梵天) in Korean.[85] InChinese Buddhism, he is regarded as one of theTwenty Devas (二十諸天Èrshí Zhūtiān) or theTwenty-Four Devas (二十四諸天Èrshísì zhūtiān), a group of protectivedharmapalas.[86]
Hindus in Indonesia still have a high regard for Brahma (Indonesian andJavanese:Batara Brahma andSanghyang Brahma). InPrambanan there is a special temple made for Brahma, side by side with Vishnu and Shiva, and inBali there is Andakasa Temple dedicated to Brahma.[87]
In the past, although not as popular as Vishnu and Shiva, the name Brahma appeared on several occasions. In the legend that developed inEast Java about Ken Arok, for example, Brahma is believed to be the biological father ofKen Arok. It is said that Brahma was fascinated by the beauty of Ken Arok's mother, Ken Endok and made her a lover. From this relationship was born Ken Arok.
The name Brahma is also used as the name of a mountain in the Tengger mountain range, Mount Bromo. Mount Bromo is believed to be derived from the word Brahma and there was once a sect that believed that Brahmaloka - the universe where Brahma resides - was connected to Mount Bromo. To this day, Mount Bromo is still considered a sacred place for Javanese Hindus, making it the location for the annual Yadnya Kasada or Kasodo ceremony. People around Mount Bromo will celebrate the Kasodo festival every year by presenting offerings such as vegetables, chickens and money that are revealed to the Gods and poured into the crater of Mount Bromo as a sign of gratitude to the Almighty.[88]
In theJavanese version ofwayang (shadow puppet play), Brahma has a very different role from his initial role. When Hindu society began to disappear fromJava and the era ofWalisongo'swayang kulit began to emerge, Brahma's role as creator in the shadow puppet standard was given to a figure named Sang Hyang Wenang, while Brahma himself was renamed to Brama (fire) where he was a ruling god. Brama, the son of the figure ofBatara Guru (Shiva). The figure of Brahma in Javanese wayang is fused and mixed with the figure of Agni.[89]
^Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia (2013).Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. p. 240.ISBN978-1-135-96397-2., Quote: "Brahma, a creator god, received the basics of his mythological history from Purusha. During the Brahmanic period, the Hindu Trimurti was represented by Brahma with his attribute of creation, Shiva with his attribute of destruction and Vishnu with his attribute of preservation."
^abSullivan, Bruce (1999).Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 85–86.ISBN978-8120816763.
^Holdrege, Barbara (2012).Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. State University of New York Press. pp. 88–89.ISBN978-1438406954.
^Leeming, David (2009).Creation Myths of the World (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury Academic. p. 146.ISBN978-1598841749.; David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195156690, page 54,Quote: "Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman. In this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman"; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: "Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...)Moksha, the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absoluteAtman."
^Charles Coulter and Patricia Turner (2000), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Routledge,ISBN978-0786403172, page 258, Quote: "When Brahma is acknowledged as the supreme god, it was said that Kama sprang from his heart."
^abCharkravarti, SS (2001).Hinduism, a Way of Life. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 15.ISBN978-8120808997.
^abLondon, Ellen (2008).Thailand Condensed: 2,000 Years of History & Culture. Marshall Cavendish. p. 74.ISBN978-9812615206.
^James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing.ISBN978-0823931798, page 122
^James Lochtefeld, Brahma, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing.ISBN978-0823931798, page 119
^abBruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120816763, pages 82-83
^Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.).India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 79.
^"The Bimaran Reliquary, a Gandharan work, which is now housed in the British Museum, London, is of great historical and iconographic significance. It shows Buddha in the centre, attended by Brahma to his right and Indra to the left." inBanerjee, Priyatosh (2001).Central Asian art: new revelations from Xinjiang. Abha Prakashan. p. 48.ISBN9788185704241.
^"Standing Buddha in the arched compartment, flanked by figures of Brahma and Indra standing in similar compartments, detail of the side of Bimaran gold casket" inAgrawala, Prithvi Kumar (1977).Early Indian Bronzes. Prithvi Prakashan. p. 152.
^Philip Wilkinson and Neil Philip (2009), Mythology, Penguin,ISBN978-0756642211, page 156
^abcPK Acharya, A summary of the Mānsāra, a treatise on architecture and cognate subjects, PhD Thesis awarded by Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden, published by BRILL,OCLC898773783, page 50
^Elizabeth Dowling and W George Scarlett (2005), Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development, SAGE Publications,ISBN978-0761928836 page 204
^David Kinsley (1988), Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press,ISBN0-520063392, pages 55-64
^Johnson, W.J. (2009).A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. p. 165.ISBN978-0-19-861025-0.
^Gupta, S. V. (2010)."Ch. 1.2.4 Time Measurements". In Hull, Robert;Osgood, Richard M. Jr.; Parisi, Jurgen; Warlimont, Hans (eds.).Units of Measurement: Past, Present and Future. International System of Units. Springer Series in Materials Science: 122.Springer. pp. 6–8.ISBN9783642007378.Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved14 February 2024.Paraphrased: Deva day equals solar year. Deva lifespan (36,000 solar years) equals 100 360-day years, each 12 months. Mahayuga equals 12,000 Deva (divine) years (4,320,000 solar years), and is divided into 10 charnas consisting of four Yugas: Satya Yuga (4 charnas of 1,728,000 solar years), Treta Yuga (3 charnas of 1,296,000 solar years), Dvapara Yuga (2 charnas of 864,000 solar years), and Kali Yuga (1 charna of 432,000 solar years). Manvantara equals 71 Mahayugas (306,720,000 solar years). Kalpa (day of Brahma) equals an Adi Sandhya, 14 Manvantaras, and 14 Sandhya Kalas, where 1st Manvantara preceded by Adi Sandhya and each Manvantara followed by Sandhya Kala, each Sandhya lasting same duration as Satya yuga (1,728,000 solar years), during which the entire earth is submerged in water. Day of Brahma equals 1,000 Mahayugas, the same length for a night of Brahma (Bhagavad-gita 8.17). Brahma lifespan (311.04 trillion solar years) equals 100 360-day years, each 12 months. Parardha is 50 Brahma years and we are in the 2nd half of his life. After 100 years of Brahma, the universe starts with a new Brahma. We are currently in the 28th Kali yuga of the first day of the 51st year of the second Parardha in the reign of the 7th (Vaivasvata) Manu. This is the 51st year of the present Brahma and so about 155 trillion years have elapsed. The current Kali Yuga (Iron Age) began at midnight on 17/18 February 3102 BC in the proleptic Julian calendar.
^History of Suchindram temples". The Hindu. 29 January 2002. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^Sri Ponmeri Shiva Temple". templesofindia.org. Retrieved 3 January 2024
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