Black was one of the first colors used by artists inNeolithic cave paintings.[5] It was used in ancient Egypt and Greece as the color of theunderworld.[6] In theRoman Empire, it became the color of mourning, and over the centuries it was frequently associated withdeath, evil,witches, andmagic.[7] In the 14th century, it was worn by royalty, clergy, judges, and government officials in much of Europe. It became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century.[4] According to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, fear, evil, and elegance.[8]
Black is the most commonink color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus is the easiest color to read. Similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens.[9] As of September 2019,[update] the darkest material is made byMIT engineers from vertically alignedcarbon nanotubes.[10]
Etymology
The wordblack comes fromOld Englishblæc ("black, dark",also, "ink"), fromProto-Germanic *blakkaz ("burned"), fromProto-Indo-European *bhleg- ("to burn, gleam, shine, flash"), from base *bhel- ("to shine"), related toOld Saxonblak ("ink"),Old High Germanblach ("black"),Old Norseblakkr ("dark"),Dutchblaken ("to burn"), andSwedishbläck ("ink"). More distant cognates includeLatinflagrare ("to blaze, glow, burn"), andAncient Greekphlegein ("to burn, scorch"). The Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity.Kuanos could mean both dark blue and black.[11] The Ancient Romans had two words for black:ater was a flat, dull black, whileniger was a brilliant, saturated black.Ater has vanished from the vocabulary, butniger was the source of the country nameNigeria,[12] the English wordNegro, and the word for "black" in most modernRomance languages (French:noir;Spanish andPortuguese:negro;Italian:nero;Romanian:negru).
Old High German also had two words for black:swartz for dull black andblach for a luminous black. These are parallelled inMiddle English by the termsswart for dull black andblaek for luminous black.Swart still survives as the wordswarthy, whileblaek became the modern Englishblack.[11] The former iscognate with the words used for black in most modernGermanic languages aside from English (German:schwarz,Dutch:zwart,Swedish:svart,Danish:sort,Icelandic:svartr).[13] In heraldry, the word used for the black color issable,[14] named for the black fur of thesable, an animal.
Black was one of the first colors used in art. TheLascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn bypaleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. They began by using charcoal, and later achieved darker pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder ofmanganese oxide.[11]
For the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations; being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile. It was the color ofAnubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a blackjackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead. To ancient Greeks, black represented the underworld, separated from the living by the riverAcheron, whose water ran black. Those who had committed the worst sins were sent toTartarus, the deepest and darkest level. In the center was the palace ofHades, the king of the underworld, where he was seated upon a blackebony throne. Black was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists. In the 6th century BC, they began makingblack-figure pottery and laterred figure pottery, using a highly original technique. In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a glossy clayslip on a red clay pot. When the pot was fired, the figures painted with the slip would turn black, against a red background. Later they reversed the process, painting the spaces between the figures with slip. This created magnificent red figures against a glossy black background.[15]
In the social hierarchy ofancient Rome, purple was reserved for the emperor; red was the color worn by soldiers (red cloaks for the officers, red tunics for the soldiers); white the color worn by the priests, and black was worn by craftsmen and artisans. The black they wore was not deep and rich; the vegetable dyes used to make black were not solid or lasting, so the blacks often faded to gray or brown.[16]
InLatin, the word for black,ater and to darken,atere, were associated with cruelty, brutality and evil. They were the root of the English words "atrocious" and "atrocity".[17] For the Romans, black symbolized death and mourning. In the 2nd century BC Roman magistrates wore a dark toga, called atoga pulla, to funeral ceremonies. Later, under the Empire, the family of the deceased also wore dark colors for a long period; then, after a banquet to mark the end of mourning, exchanged the black for a white toga. In Roman poetry, death was called thehora nigra, the black hour.[11]
The German and Scandinavian peoples worshipped their own goddess of the night,Nótt, who crossed the sky in a chariot drawn by a black horse. They also fearedHel, the goddess of the kingdom of the dead, whose skin was black on one side and red on the other. They also held sacred theraven. They believed thatOdin, the king of the Nordic pantheon, had two black ravens, Huginn and Muninn, who served as his agents, traveling the world for him, watching and listening.[18]
Postclassical
In the early Middle Ages, black was commonly associated with darkness and evil. In Medieval paintings, the devil was usually depicted as having human form, but with wings and black skin or hair.[19]
12th and 13th centuries
In fashion, black did not have the prestige of red, the color of the nobility. It was worn byBenedictine monks as a sign of humility and penitence. In the 12th century a famous theological dispute broke out between theCistercian monks, who wore white, and the Benedictines, who wore black. A Benedictine abbot, Pierre the Venerable, accused the Cistercians of excessive pride in wearing white instead of black. SaintBernard of Clairvaux, the founder of the Cistercians responded that black was the color of the devil, hell, "of death and sin", while white represented "purity, innocence and all the virtues".[20]
Black symbolized both power and secrecy in the medieval world. The emblem of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany was a black eagle. Theblack knight in the poetry of the Middle Ages was an enigmatic figure, hiding his identity, usually wrapped in secrecy.[21]
Blackink, invented in China, was traditionally used in the Middle Ages for writing, for the simple reason that black was the darkest color and therefore provided the greatest contrast with white paper or parchment, making it the easiest color to read. It became even more important in the 15th century, with the invention ofprinting. A new kind of ink, printer's ink, was created out ofsoot,turpentine andwalnut oil. The new ink made it possible to spread ideas to a mass audience through printed books, and to popularize art through black and white prints. Because of its contrast and clarity, black ink on white paper continued to be the standard for printing books, newspapers and documents; and for the same reason black text on a white background is the most common format used on computer screens.[9]
The black knight in a miniature painting of a medieval romance,Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris (about 1460)
Gutenberg Bible (1451–1452). Black ink was used for printing books, because it provided the greatest contrast with the white paper and was the clearest and easiest color to read.
14th and 15th centuries
In the early Middle Ages, princes, nobles and the wealthy usually wore bright colors, particularlyscarlet cloaks from Italy. Black was rarely part of the wardrobe of a noble family. The one exception was the fur of thesable. This glossy black fur, from an animal of themarten family, was the finest and most expensive fur in Europe. It was imported from Russia and Poland and used to trim the robes and gowns of royalty.
In the 14th century, the status of black began to change. First, high-quality black dyes began to arrive on the market, allowing garments of a deep, rich black. Magistrates and government officials began to wear black robes, as a sign of the importance and seriousness of their positions. A third reason was the passage ofsumptuary laws in some parts of Europe which prohibited the wearing of costly clothes and certain colors by anyone except members of the nobility. The famous bright scarlet cloaks fromVenice and the peacock blue fabrics fromFlorence were restricted to the nobility. The wealthy bankers and merchants of northern Italy responded by changing to black robes and gowns, made with the most expensive fabrics.[22]
The change to the more austere but elegant black was quickly picked up by the kings and nobility. It began in northern Italy, where the Duke of Milan and the Count of Savoy and the rulers of Mantua, Ferrara, Rimini and Urbino began to dress in black. It then spread to France, led byLouis I, Duke of Orleans, younger brother of KingCharles VI of France. It moved to England at the end of the reign of KingRichard II (1377–1399), where all the court began to wear black. In 1419–20, black became the color of the powerful Duke of Burgundy,Philip the Good. It moved to Spain, where it became the color of the Spanish Habsburgs, ofCharles V and of his son,Philip II of Spain (1527–1598). European rulers saw it as the color of power, dignity, humility and temperance. By the end of the 16th century, it was the color worn by almost all the monarchs of Europe and their courts.[23]
Black cats have been accused for centuries of being thefamiliar spirits of witches or of bringing bad luck.
While black was the color worn by the Catholic rulers of Europe, it was also the emblematic color of the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the Puritans in England and America.John Calvin,Philip Melanchthon and other Protestant theologians denounced the richly colored and decorated interiors of Roman Catholic churches. They saw the color red, worn by the pope and his cardinals, as the color of luxury, sin, and human folly.[24] In some northern European cities, mobs attacked churches and cathedrals, smashed the stained glass windows and defaced the statues and decoration. In Protestant doctrine, clothing was required to be sober, simple and discreet. Bright colors were banished and replaced by blacks, browns and grays; women and children were recommended to wear white.[25]
In the Protestant Netherlands,Rembrandt used this sober new palette of blacks and browns to create portraits whose faces emerged from the shadows expressing the deepest human emotions. The Catholic painters of the Counter-Reformation, likeRubens, went in the opposite direction; they filled their paintings with bright and rich colors. The newBaroque churches of theCounter-Reformation were usually shining white inside and filled with statues, frescoes, marble, gold and colorful paintings, to appeal to the public. But European Catholics of all classes, like Protestants, eventually adopted a sober wardrobe that was mostly black, brown and gray.[26]
Black painted suit of German armor crafted circa 1600.[27]
An English manual on witch-hunting (1647), showing a witch with herfamiliar spirits
In the second part of the 17th century, Europe and America experienced an epidemic of fear ofwitchcraft. People widely believed that the devil appeared at midnight in a ceremony called aBlack Mass or black sabbath, usually in the form of a black animal, often a goat, a dog, a wolf, a bear, a deer or a rooster, accompanied by theirfamiliar spirits, black cats, serpents and other black creatures. This was the origin of the widespread superstition about black cats and other black animals. In medievalFlanders, in a ceremony calledKattenstoet, black cats were thrown from the belfry of the Cloth Hall ofYpres to ward off witchcraft.[28]
Witch trials were common in both Europe and America during this period. During the notoriousSalem witch trials in New England in 1692–93, one of those on trial was accused of being able turn into a "black thing with a blue cap," and others of having familiars in the form of a black dog, a black cat and a black bird.[29] Nineteen women and men were hanged as witches.[30]
18th and 19th centuries
In the 18th century, during the EuropeanAge of Enlightenment, black receded as a fashion color. Paris became the fashion capital, and pastels, blues, greens, yellow and white became the colors of the nobility and upper classes. But after theFrench Revolution, black again became the dominant color. Black was the color of the industrial revolution, largely fueled by coal, and later by oil. Thanks to coalsmoke, the buildings of the large cities of Europe and America gradually turnedblack. By 1846 the industrial area of the West Midlands of England was "commonly called 'theBlack Country'".[31]Charles Dickens and other writers described the dark streets and smoky skies of London, and they were vividly illustrated in thewood-engravings of French artistGustave Doré.
A different kind of black was an important part of theromantic movement in literature. Black was the color ofmelancholy, the dominant theme of romanticism. The novels of the period were filled with castles, ruins, dungeons, storms, and meetings at midnight. The leading poets of the movement were usually portrayed dressed in black, usually with a white shirt and open collar, and a scarf carelessly over their shoulder,Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron helped create the enduring stereotype of the romantic poet.
Wheat Field with Crows (1890), one ofVincent van Gogh's last paintings
The invention of inexpensive synthetic black dyes and the industrialization of the textile industry meant that high-quality black clothes were available for the first time to the general population. In the 19th century black gradually became the most popular color of business dress of the upper and middle classes in England, the Continent, and America. Black dominated literature and fashion in the 19th century, and played a large role in painting.James McNeill Whistler made the color the subject of his most famous painting,Arrangement in grey and black number one (1871), better known asWhistler's Mother.[32]
Some 19th-century French painters had a low opinion of black: "Reject black,"Paul Gauguin said, "and that mix of black and white they call gray. Nothing is black, nothing is gray."[33] ButÉdouard Manet used blacks for their strength and dramatic effect. Manet's portrait of painterBerthe Morisot was a study in black which perfectly captured her spirit of independence. The black gave the painting power and immediacy; he even changed her eyes, which were green, to black to strengthen the effect.[34]Henri Matisse quoted the French impressionistPissarro telling him, "Manet is stronger than us all – he made light with black."[35]
Pierre-Auguste Renoir used luminous blacks, especially in his portraits. When someone told him that black was not a color, Renoir replied: "What makes you think that? Black is the queen of colors. I always detested Prussian blue. I tried to replace black with a mixture of red and blue, I tried using cobalt blue or ultramarine, but I always came back to ivory black."[36]
Vincent van Gogh used black lines to outline many of the objects in his paintings, such as the bed in the famous painting of his bedroom. making them stand apart. His painting of black crows over a cornfield, painted shortly before he died, was particularly agitated and haunting. In the late 19th century, black also became the color ofanarchism. (See the sectionpolitical movements.)
In the 20th century, black was utilised by Italian and Germanfascism. (See the sectionpolitical movements). In art, the colour regained some of the territory that it had lost during the 19th century. The Russian painterKasimir Malevich, a member of theSuprematist movement, created theBlack Square in 1915, is widely considered the first purely abstract painting.[37] He wrote, "The painted work is no longer simply the imitation of reality, but is this very reality ... It is not a demonstration of ability, but the materialization of an idea."[38]
Black was appreciated byHenri Matisse. "When I didn't know what color to put down, I put down black," he said in 1945. "Black is a force: I used black as ballast to simplify the construction ... Since the impressionists it seems to have made continuous progress, taking a more and more important part in color orchestration, comparable to that of the double bass as a solo instrument."[39]
In the 1950s, black came to be a symbol of individuality and intellectual and social rebellion, the color of those who did not accept established norms and values. In Paris, it was worn by Left-Bank intellectuals and performers such asJuliette Gréco, and by some members of theBeat Movement in New York and San Francisco.[40] Black leather jackets were worn by motorcycle gangs such as theHells Angels and street gangs on the fringes of society in the United States. Black as a color of rebellion was celebrated in such films asThe Wild One, withMarlon Brando. By the end of the 20th century, black was the emblematic color ofpunk fashion and thegoth subculture. Goth fashion, which emerged in England in the 1980s, was inspired byVictorian era mourning dress.
In men's fashion, black gradually ceded its dominance to navy blue, particularly in business suits. Black evening dress and formal dress in general were worn less and less. In 1960,John F. Kennedy was the last American President to be inaugurated wearing formal dress;Lyndon Johnson and his successors were inaugurated wearing business suits.
Women's fashion was revolutionized and simplified in 1926 by the French designerCoco Chanel, who published a drawing of a simple black dress inVogue magazine. She famously said, "A woman needs just three things; a black dress, a black sweater, and, on her arm, a man she loves."[40] French designerJean Patou also followed suit by creating a black collection in 1929.[41] Other designers contributed to the trend of thelittle black dress. The Italian designerGianni Versace said, "Black is the quintessence of simplicity and elegance," and French designerYves Saint Laurent said, "black is the liaison which connects art and fashion.[40] One of the most famous black dresses of the century was designed byHubert de Givenchy and was worn byAudrey Hepburn in the 1961 filmBreakfast at Tiffany's.
Black can be defined as the color perceived when novisible light reaches the eye.Pigments ordyes that absorb almost all light rather than reflect it back to the eye look black. A black pigment can, however, result from a combination of several pigments that collectively absorb all wavelengths of visible light. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called black. This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the color produced by the absorption of all wavelengths of visible light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.
In physics, ablack body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in theinfrared as well. In elementary science, farultraviolet light is called "black light" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances tofluoresce.
Absorption of light is contrasted bytransmission,reflection anddiffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light isabsorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in thevisible spectrum)interacts with theatoms andmolecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (seeSolar thermal collector).
As of September 2019, the darkest material is made from vertically aligned carbon nanotubes. The material was grown by MIT engineers and was reported to have a99.995% absorption rate of any incoming light.[10] This surpasses any former darkest materials includingVantablack, which has a peak absorption rate of 99.965% in the visible spectrum.[43]
Chemistry
Pigments
The earliest pigments used by Neolithic man werecharcoal,red ocher andyellow ocher. The black lines of cave art were drawn with the tips of burnt torches made of a wood withresin.[44] Different charcoal pigments were made by burning different woods and animal products, each of which produced a different tone. The charcoal would be ground and then mixed with animal fat to make the pigment.
Vine black was produced in Roman times by burning the cut branches of grapevines. It could also be produced by burning the remains of the crushed grapes, which were collected and dried in an oven. According to the historianVitruvius, the deepness and richness of the black produced corresponded to the quality of the wine. The finest wines produced a black with a bluish tinge the color ofindigo.
The 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described how this pigment was made during the Renaissance in his famous handbook for artists: "...there is a black which is made from the tendrils of vines. And these tendrils need to be burned. And when they have been burned, throw some water onto them and put them out and then mull them in the same way as the other black. And this is a lean and black pigment and is one of the perfect pigments that we use."[45]
Cennini also noted that "There is another black which is made from burnt almond shells or peaches and this is a perfect, fine black."[45] Similar fine blacks were made by burning the pits of the peach, cherry or apricot. The powdered charcoal was then mixed withgum arabic or the yellow of an egg to make a paint.
Different civilizations burned different plants to produce their charcoal pigments. TheInuit of Alaska used wood charcoal mixed with the blood ofseals to paint masks and wooden objects. The Polynesians burned coconuts to produce their pigment.
Lamp black was used as a pigment for painting and frescoes, as a dye for fabrics, and in some societies for making tattoos. The 15th century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini described how it was made during the Renaissance: "... take a lamp full of linseed oil and fill the lamp with the oil and light the lamp. Then place it, lit, under a thoroughly clean pan and make sure that the flame from the lamp is two or three fingers from the bottom of the pan. The smoke that comes off the flame will hit the bottom of the pan and gather, becoming thick. Wait a bit. take the pan and brush this pigment (that is, this smoke) onto paper or into a pot with something. And it is not necessary to mull or grind it because it is a very fine pigment. Re-fill the lamp with the oil and put it under the pan like this several times and, in this way, make as much of it as is necessary."[45] This same pigment was used by Indian artists to paint theAjanta Caves, and as dye in ancient Japan.[44]
Ivory black, also known asbone char, was originally produced by burning ivory and mixing the resulting charcoal powder with oil. The color is still made today, but ordinary animal bones are substituted for ivory.
Mars black is a black pigment made of syntheticiron oxides. It is commonly used in water-colors and oil painting. It takes its name fromMars, the god of war and patron of iron.
Dyes
Good-quality blackdyes were not known until the middle of the 14th century. The most common early dyes were made from bark, roots or fruits of different trees; usually walnuts, chestnuts, or certain oak trees. The blacks produced were often more gray, brown or bluish. The cloth had to be dyed several times to darken the color. One solution used by dyers was add to the dye some iron filings, rich in iron oxide, which gave a deeper black. Another was to first dye the fabric dark blue, and then to dye it black.
A much richer and deeper black dye was eventually found made from theoak apple or "gall-nut". The gall-nut is a small round tumor which grows on oak and other varieties of trees. They range in size from 2–5 cm, and are caused by chemicals injected by the larva of certain kinds ofgall wasp in the family Cynipidae.[46] The dye was very expensive; a great quantity of gall-nuts were needed for a very small amount of dye. The gall-nuts which made the best dye came from Poland, eastern Europe, the near east and North Africa. Beginning in about the 14th century, dye from gall-nuts was used for clothes of the kings and princes of Europe.[47]
Another important source of natural black dyes from the 17th century onwards was thelogwood tree, orHaematoxylum campechianum, which also produced reddish and bluish dyes. It is a species offlowering tree in thelegume family,Fabaceae, that is native to southern Mexico and northern Central America.[48] The modern nation of Belize grew from 17th century English logwood logging camps.
Since the mid-19th century, synthetic black dyes have largely replaced natural dyes. One of the important synthetic blacks isNigrosin, a mixture of synthetic black dyes (CI 50415, Solvent black 5) made by heating a mixture ofnitrobenzene,aniline and aniline hydrochloride in the presence of a copper or ironcatalyst. Its main industrial uses are as a colorant for lacquers and varnishes and in marker-pen inks.[49]
Inks
The first known inks were made by the Chinese, and date back to the 23rd century B.C. They used natural plant dyes and minerals such asgraphite ground with water and applied with anink brush. Early Chinese inks similar to the moderninkstick have been found dating to about 256 BC at the end of theWarring States period. They were produced fromsoot, usually produced by burning pine wood, mixed withanimal glue. To make ink from an inkstick, the stick is continuously ground against aninkstone with a small quantity of water to produce a dark liquid which is then applied with anink brush. Artists and calligraphists could vary the thickness of the resulting ink by reducing or increasing the intensity and time of ink grinding. These inks produced the delicate shading and subtle or dramatic effects ofChinese brush painting.[50]
India ink (or "Indian ink" inBritish English) is a black ink once widely used for writing and printing and now more commonly used for drawing, especially when inking comic books and comic strips. The technique of making it probably came from China. India ink has been in use in India since at least the 4th century BC, where it was calledmasi. In India, the black color of the ink came frombone char, tar,pitch and other substances.[51][52]
The ancient Romans had a black writing ink they calledatramentum librarium.[53] Its name came from the Latin wordatrare, which meant to make something black. (This was the same root as the English wordatrocious.) It was usually made, like India ink, from soot, although one variety, calledatramentum elephantinum, was made by burning the ivory of elephants.[54]
Gall-nuts were also used for making fine black writing ink.Iron gall ink (also known as iron gall nut ink or oak gall ink) was a purple-black or brown-black ink made from iron salts andtannic acids from gall nut. It was the standard writing and drawing ink in Europe, from about the 12th century to the 19th century, and remained in use well into the 20th century.
Sticks of vine charcoal and compressed charcoal. Charcoal, along with red and yellow ochre, was one of the first pigments used by Paleolithic man.
A Chineseinkstick, in the form of lotus flowers and blossoms. Inksticks are used in Chinese calligraphy and brush painting.
Ivory black orbone char, a natural black pigment made by burning animal bones.
Theoak apple or gall-nut, a tumor growing on oak trees, was the main source of black dye and black writing ink from the 14th century until the 19th century.
The industrial production oflamp black, made by producing, collecting and refining soot, in 1906.
Astronomy
Ablack hole is a region ofspacetime where gravity prevents anything, includinglight, from escaping.[55] The theory ofgeneral relativity predicts that a sufficiently compactmass will deform spacetime to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined boundary called anevent horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfectblack body inthermodynamics.[56][57] Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes,supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of mostgalaxies. Although a black hole itself is black, infalling material forms anaccretion disk, one of the brightest types of object in the universe.
Black-body radiation refers to the radiation coming from a body at a given temperature where all incoming energy (light) is converted to heat.
Black sky refers to the appearance of space as one emerges from Earth's atmosphere.
Image of the NGC 406 galaxy from the Hubble Space Telescope
The night sky seen from Mars, with the two moons of Mars visible, taken by the NASA Spirit Rover.
Outside Earth's atmosphere, the sky is black day and night.
Image of the central black hole of Messier 87 taken by the Event Horizon Telescope.
Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox
The fact thatouter space is black is sometimes calledOlbers' paradox. In theory, because the universe is full of stars, and is believed to be infinitely large, it would be expected that the light of an infinite number of stars would be enough to brilliantly light the whole universe all the time. However, the background color of outer space is black. This contradiction was first noted in 1823 by German astronomerHeinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers, who posed the question of why the night sky was black.
The current accepted answer is that, although the universe may be infinitely large, it is not infinitely old. It is thought to be about 13.8 billion years old, so we can only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through theDoppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.[58]
The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue. This is known asRayleigh scattering.
The nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity. Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue. On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is virtually no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night. This also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere, such asMercury.
Biology
The Americancrow is one of the most intelligent of all animals.[59]
American black bear (Ursus americanus) near Riding Mountain Park, Manitoba, Canada
Theblack mamba of Africa is one of the most venomous snakes, as well as the fastest-moving snake in the world.
The black widow spider, orlatrodectus, The females frequently eat their male partners after mating. The female's venom is at least three times more potent than that of the males, making a male's self-defense bite ineffective.
In China, the color black is associated with water, one of the five fundamental elements believed to compose all things; and with winter, cold, and the direction north, usually symbolized by a black tortoise. It is also associated with disorder, including the positive disorder which leads to change and new life. When the first emperor of ChinaQin Shi Huang seized power from theZhou dynasty, he changed the Imperial color from red to black, saying that black extinguished red. Only when theHan dynasty appeared in 206 BC was red restored as the imperial color.[60]
Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day
In Japan, black is associated with mystery, the night, the unknown, the supernatural, the invisible and death. Combined with white, it can symbolize intuition.[61] In 10th- and 11th-century Japan, it was believed that wearing black could bring misfortune. It was worn at court by those who wanted to set themselves apart from the established powers or who had renounced material possessions.[62]
In Japan black can also symbolize experience, as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté. The black belt in martial arts symbolizes experience, while a white belt is worn by novices.[63] Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day.
Black is associated with depth in Indonesia, as well as the subterranean world, demons, disaster, and the left hand. When combined with white, however, it symbolizes harmony and equilibrium.[64]
Political movements
Anarchism
Anarchism is a political philosophy, most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which holds that governments and capitalism are harmful and undesirable. Thesymbols of anarchism was usually either a black flag or a black letter A. More recently it is usually represented with a bisected red and black flag, to emphasise the movement's socialist roots in theFirst International. Anarchism was most popular in Spain, France, Italy, Ukraine and Argentina. There were also small but influential movements in the United States, Russia and many other countries all around the world.[65]
Fascism
TheBlackshirts (Italian:camicie nere, 'CCNN) wereFascistparamilitary groups inItaly during the period immediately followingWorld War I and until the end ofWorld War II. The Blackshirts were officially known as the Voluntary Militia for National Security (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale, or MVSN).
Inspired by the black uniforms of theArditi, Italy's elite storm troops of World War I, the Fascist Blackshirts were organized byBenito Mussolini as the military tool of his political movement.[66] They used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents. The emblem of the Italian fascists was a black flag withfasces, an axe in a bundle of sticks, an ancient Roman symbol of authority. Mussolini came to power in 1922 through hisMarch on Rome with the blackshirts.
Black was also adopted byAdolf Hitler and theNazis in Germany. Red, white and black were the colors of the flag of the German Empire from 1870 to 1918. InMein Kampf, Hitler explained that they were "revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past." Hitler also wrote that "the new flag ... should prove effective as a large poster" because "in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement." The blackswastika was meant to symbolize theAryan race, which, according to the Nazis, "was always anti-Semitic and will always be anti-Semitic."[67] Several designs by a number of different authors were considered, but the one adopted in the end was Hitler's personal design.[68] Black became the color of the uniform of theSS, theSchutzstaffel or "defense corps", the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, and was worn by SS officers from 1932 until the end of World War II.
The Nazis used ablack triangle to symbolize anti-social elements. The symbol originates fromNazi concentration camps, where every prisoner had to wear one of theNazi concentration camp badges on their jacket, the color of which categorized them according to "their kind". Many Black Triangle prisoners were either mentally disabled or mentally ill. The homeless were also included, as were alcoholics, theRomani people, the habitually "work-shy", prostitutes, draft dodgers and pacifists.[69] More recently the black triangle has been adopted as a symbol inlesbian culture and by disabled activists.
Black shirts were also worn by theBritish Union of Fascists before World War II, and members of fascist movements in the Netherlands.[70]
Patriotic resistance
TheLützow Free Corps, composed of volunteer German students and academics fighting againstNapoleon in 1813, could not afford to make special uniforms and therefore adopted black, as the only color that could be used to dye their civilian clothing without the original color showing. In 1815 the students began to carry a red, black and gold flag, which they believed (incorrectly) had been the colors of the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial flag had actually been gold and black). In 1848, this banner became the flag of theGerman confederation. In 1866,Prussia unified Germany under its rule, and imposed the red, white and black of its own flag, which remained the colors of the German flag until the end of the Second World War. In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany returned to the original flag and colors of the students and professors of 1815, which is the flag of Germany today.[71]
Hussar from Husaren-Regiment Nr.5 (von Ruesch) in 1744 with theTotenkopf on the mirliton (ger. Flügelmütze).
Black has been a traditional color of cavalry and armoured or mechanized troops. German armoured troops (Panzerwaffe) traditionally wore black uniforms, and even in others, ablack beret is common. In Finland, black is the symbolic color for both armoured troops and combat engineers, and military units of these specialities have black flags and unit insignia.
Theblack beret and the color black is also a symbol of special forces in many countries. Soviet and RussianOMON special police andRussian naval infantry wear a black beret. A black beret is also worn by military police in the Canadian, Czech, Croatian, Portuguese, Spanish and Serbian armies.
InChristiantheology, black was the color of the universe before God created light. In many religious cultures, fromMesoamerica toOceania to India and Japan, the world was created out of a primordial darkness.[72] In theBible the light of faith and Christianity is often contrasted with the darkness of ignorance and paganism.
InIslam, black, along with green, plays an important symbolic role. It is the color of theBlack Standard, the banner that is said to have been carried by the soldiers ofMuhammad. It is also used as a symbol inShi'a Islam (heralding the advent of theMahdi), and the flag of followers ofIslamism andJihadism.
InHinduism, the goddessKali, goddess of time and change, is portrayed with black or dark blue skin. wearing a necklace adorned with severed heads and hands. Her name means "The black one". She destroys anger and passion according to Hindu mythology and her devotees are supposed to abstain from meat or intoxication.[75][76][77] Kali does not eat meat, but it is the śāstra's injunction that those who are unable to give up meat-eating, they may sacrifice one goat, not cow, one small animal before the goddess Kali, on amāvāsya (new moon) day, night, not day, and they can eat it.
InPaganism, black represents dignity, force, stability, and protection. The color is often used to banish and release negative energies,[78] or binding. Anathame is a ceremonial blade often having a black handle, which is used in some forms ofwitchcraft.[79]
Sports
The nationalrugby union team of New Zealand is called theAll Blacks, in reference to their black outfits, and the color is also shared by other New Zealand national teams such as theBlack Caps (cricket) and theKiwis (rugby league).
In baseball, "the black" refers to thebatter's eye, a blacked out area around the center-field bleachers, painted black to give hitters a decent background for pitched balls.
A large number of teams have uniforms designed with black colors even when the team does not normally feature that color. Many feel the color sometimes imparts a psychological advantage in its wearers. Black is used by numerous professional andcollegiate sports teams
Idioms and expressions
Namesake of the idiom "black sheep"
In general, theNegrorace of African origin is called "Black", while theCaucasian race of European origin is called "White".
In the United States, "Black Friday" (the day afterThanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in November) is traditionally the busiest shopping day of the year. Many Americans are on holiday because of Thanksgiving, and many retailers open earlier and close later than normal, and offer special prices. The day's name originated inPhiladelphia sometime before 1961, and originally was used to describe the heavy and disruptive downtown pedestrian and vehicle traffic which would occur on that day.[80][81] Later an alternative explanation began to be offered: that "Black Friday" indicates the point in the year that retailers begin to turn a profit, or are "in the black", because of the large volume of sales on that day.[80][82]
"In the black" means profitable. Accountants originally used black ink in ledgers to indicate profit, and red ink to indicate a loss.
Black Friday also refers to any particularly disastrous day on financial markets. The firstBlack Friday (1869), 24 September 1869, was caused by the efforts of two speculators,Jay Gould andJames Fisk, to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange.
Ablacklist is a list of undesirable persons or entities (to be placed on the list is to be "blacklisted").
A black mark against a person relates to something bad they have done.
A black mood is a bad one (cfWinston Churchill's clinical depression, which he called "my black dog").[83]
Black market is used to denote the trade of illegal goods, or alternatively the illegal trade of otherwise legal items at considerably higher prices, e.g. to evaderationing.
Black propaganda is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent.
Blackmail is the act of threatening someone to do something that would hurt them in some way, such as by revealing sensitive information about them, in order to force the threatened party to fulfill certain demands. Ordinarily, such a threat is illegal.
If the black eight-ball, inbilliards, is sunk before all others are out of play, the player loses.
Theblack sheep of the family is the ne'er-do-well.
Toblackball someone is to block their entry into a club or some such institution. In the traditional Englishgentlemen's club, members vote on the admission of a candidate by secretly placing a white or black ball in a hat. If upon the completion of voting, there was even one black ball amongst the white, the candidate would be denied membership, and he would never know who had "blackballed" him.
Black tea in the Western culture is known as "crimson tea" in Chinese andculturally influenced languages (紅茶 [zh],Mandarin Chinesehóngchá; Japanesekōcha; Koreanhongcha).
"The black" is awildfire suppression term referring to a burned area on awildfire capable of acting as a safety zone.
Black coffee refers to coffee without sugar or cream.
Associations and symbolism
In the West, black is commonly associated withmourning and bereavement,[84][7] and usually worn at funerals and memorial services. In some traditional societies, for example in Greece and Italy, some widows wear black for the rest of their lives. In contrast, across much of Africa and parts of Asia like Vietnam, white is a color of mourning.
A "black day" (or week or month) usually refers to tragic date. TheRomans markedfasti days with white stones andnefasti days with black. The term is often used to remember massacres. Black months include theBlack September in Jordan, when large numbers of Palestinians were killed, andBlack July inSri Lanka, the killing of members of theTamil population by theSinhalese government. In the financial world, the term often refers to a dramatic drop in the stock market. For example, theWall Street crash of 1929, thestock market crash on 29 October 1929, which marked the start of theGreat Depression, is nicknamed Black Tuesday, and was preceded by Black Thursday, a downturn on 24 October the previous week.
Black is frequently used as a color of power, law and authority. In many countries judges and magistrates wear black robes. That custom began in Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries. Jurists, magistrates and certain other court officials in France began to wear long black robes during the reign ofPhilip IV of France (1285–1314), and in England from the time ofEdward I (1271–1307). The custom spread to the cities of Italy at about the same time, between 1300 and 1320. The robes of judges resembled those worn by the clergy, and represented the law and authority of the King, while those of the clergy represented the law of God and authority of the church.[85] Until the 20th century most police uniforms were black, until they were largely replaced by blue in France, the U.S. and other countries. In the United States, police cars are frequentlyBlack and white. Theriot control units of theBasque Autonomous Police in Spain are known asbeltzak ("blacks") after their uniform.
Black formal attire is still worn at many solemn occasions or ceremonies, from graduations to formal balls. Graduation gowns are copied from the gowns worn by university professors in the Middle Ages, which in turn were copied from the robes worn by judges and priests, who often taught at the early universities. Themortarboard hat worn by graduates is adapted from a square cap called abiretta worn by Medieval professors and clerics.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, many machines and devices, large and small, were painted black, to stress their functionality. These included telephones, sewing machines, steamships, railroad locomotives, and automobiles. TheFord Model T, the first mass-produced car, was available only in black from 1914 to 1926. Of means of transportation, only airplanes were rarely ever painted black.[86]
The term "Black" is often used in the West to describe people whose skin is darker. In the United States, it is particularly used to describeAfrican Americans. Black is also commonly used as a racial description in the United Kingdom, since ethnicity was first measured in the 2001 census.[87] In Canada, census respondents can identify themselves as Black.[88] InBrazil, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) asks people to identify themselves asbranco (white),pardo (brown),preto (black), oramarelo (yellow).[89]
Heroes in Americanwesterns, like theLone Ranger, traditionally wore a white hat, while the villains wore black hats.
Black and white have often been used to describe opposites, particularly light and darkness and good and evil. InMedieval literature, thewhite knight usually represented virtue, theblack knight something mysterious and sinister. In Americanwesterns, the hero often wore a white hat, the villain a black hat. In philosophy and arguments, the issue is often described asblack-and-white, meaning that the issue at hand isdichotomized (having two clear, opposing sides with no middle ground).Black is commonly associated withsecrecy.
TheBlack Chamber was a term given to an office which secretly opened and read diplomatic mail and broke codes. QueenElizabeth I had such an office, headed by her Secretary, SirFrancis Walsingham, which successfully broke the Spanish codes and broke up several plots against the Queen. In France acabinet noir was established inside the French post office byLouis XIII to open diplomatic mail. It was closed during theFrench Revolution but re-opened underNapoleon I. TheHabsburg Empire andDutch Republic had similar black chambers.
The United States created a secret peacetimeBlack Chamber, called the Cipher Bureau, in 1919. It was funded by theState Department and Army and disguised as a commercial company in New York. It successfully broke a number of diplomatic codes, including the code of the Japanese government. It was closed down in 1929 after the State Department withdrew funding, when the new Secretary of State,Henry Stimson, stated that "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail." The Cipher Bureau was the ancestor of the U.S.National Security Agency.[90]
Black ops are covert operations carried out by a government, government agency or military.
Ablack budget is a government budget that is allocated for classified or other secret operations of a nation. The black budget is an account expenses and spending related to military research and covert operations. The black budget is mostly classified due to security reasons.
Black is the color most commonly associated with elegance in Europe and the United States.[91] Black first became a fashionable color for men in Europe in the 17th century, in the courts of Italy and Spain. In the 19th century, it was the fashion for men both in business and for evening wear.[92] For women's fashion, the defining moment was the invention of thesimple black dress byCoco Chanel in 1926. Thereafter, a long black gown was used for formal occasions, while the simple black dress could be used for everything else.[91] The expression "X is the new black" is a reference to the latest trend or fad that is considered a wardrobe basic for the duration of the trend, on the basis that black is always fashionable. The phrase has taken on a life of its own and has become acliché.
^abcdMichel Pastoureau,Noir – Histoire d'une couleur, p. 34.
^"African nation, named for the river Niger, mentioned by that name 1520s (Leo Africanus), probably an alteration (by influence of Latin niger "black") of a local Tuareg name, egereou n-igereouen, from egereou "big river, sea" + n-igereouen, plural of that word. Translated in Arabic as nahr al-anhur "river of rivers." (Online Etymological Dictionary)
^Green F. J. (1990),The Sigma-Aldrich Handbook of Dyes, Stains and Indicators, pp. 513–15. Milwaukee: Aldrich.ISBN0-941633-22-5
^蔡, 玫芬,二、墨的發展史 [Second, the ink history of the development], National Chang-Hua Hall of Social Education, archived fromthe original on 26 November 2004
^"Why is space black?".starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov.Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved30 December 2016.
^"A Murder of Crows".Nature. PBS video. 24 October 2010.Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved6 February 2011.New research indicates that crows are among the brightest animals in the world.
^Anne Varichon,Couleurs – pigments et teintures dans les mains des peuples, pp. 223–24.
^"Japanese art & design: colour". Archived fromthe original on 22 March 2013. Retrieved12 March 2013. Exhibit at the Victoria and Albert Museum on color in Japanese art and design
^Eva Heller,Psychologie de la couleur – effets et symboliques, p. 109. In the survey cited, 80 percent of respondents said black was the color of mourning.
^Michel Pastoureau,Noir – histoire d'une couleur, pp. 114–15.
^Eva Heller,Psychologie de la couleur – effets et symboliques, p. 226.
Broecke, Lara (2015).Cennino Cennini'sIl Libro dell'Arte: a New English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription. Archetype.ISBN978-1-909492-28-8.
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