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| Gabriel Bethlen | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | |||||
| King of Hungary | |||||
| Reign | 25 August 1620 – 31 December 1621 | ||||
| Predecessor | Matthias II | ||||
| Successor | Ferdinand II | ||||
| Prince of Transylvania | |||||
| Reign | October 1613 – 15 November 1629 | ||||
| Predecessor | Gabriel Báthory | ||||
| Successor | Catherine | ||||
| Duke of Opole | |||||
| Reign | 1622 – 1625 | ||||
| Predecessor | Sigismund Báthory | ||||
| Successor | Władysław Vasa | ||||
| Born | 1580 Marosillye,Principality of Transylvania | ||||
| Died | 15 November 1629 (aged 49) Gyulafehérvár, Principality of Transylvania | ||||
| Spouse | Catherine of Brandenburg | ||||
| |||||
| Family | Bethlen | ||||
| Religion | Calvinist | ||||
Gabriel Bethlen (Hungarian:Bethlen Gábor; 1580 – 15 November 1629) wasPrince of Transylvania from 1613 to 1629 andDuke of Opole from 1622 to 1625. He was alsoKing-elect of Hungary from 1620 to 1621, but he never took control of the whole kingdom. Bethlen, supported by the Ottomans, led his Calvinist principality against the Habsburgs and their Catholic allies.
Gabriel was the elder of the two sons of FarkasBethlen de Iktár and Druzsiána Lázár de Szárhegy.[1][2] Gabriel was born in his father's estate, Marosillye (nowIlia inRomania), in 1580.[1][2] Farkas Bethlen was aHungarian nobleman who lost his ancestral estate, Iktár (nowIctar-Budinț in Romania), due to theOttoman occupation of the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary.[3]Stephen Báthory,Prince of Transylvania, granted Marosillye to him and made him captain-general of the principality.[4] Druzsiána Lázár was descended from aSzékely noble family.[1][4] Both Farkas Bethlen and his wife died in 1591, leaving their two sons, Gabriel andStephen, orphaned.[4]
The brothers were put under the guardianship of their maternal uncle, András Lázár de Szárhegy.[1][4] They lived in theLázár Castle in Szárhegy inSzékely Land (nowLăzarea in Romania) for years.[4] Gabriel's court historian, Gáspár Bojti Veres, described Lázár as a "grumpy and fierce" soldier who did not care much about their formal education.[2]
According Gabriel's first extant letter (from 1593),Sigismund Báthory,Prince of Transylvania, seized the brothers' estates "at the word of many coaxing people" without paying a compensation to them in 1591 or 1592, but a "few primary kinsmen" convinced the prince to offer restitution or other landed property to them.[1][5] Gabriel also mentioned in the letter that he decided to visit the prince's court in Gyulafehérvár (nowAlba Iulia in Romania).[6]
Modern historians try to reconstruct the major events of Gabriel's youth based on sources (primarily memoirs and letters) completed decades later, because only two documents written between 1593 and 1602 mentioned him.[7] One of the later sources is Gabriel's own letter from 1628, in which he stated thatStephen Bocskai had raised him and "placed great credence" in him.[8] Gabriel also stated that Bocskai was his "kin".[8] Another important source was written by Gabriel's retainer, Pál Háportoni Forró, who stated that Gabriel had held "great and honorable offices" and performed "the greatly laborious duties of emissary" in his youth.[8] Based on these sources, modern historians assume that Bocskai boosted Gabriel's career in Sigismund Báthory's court,[9][2] but no contemporaneous document mentioned his presence in the prince's retinue.[6]
Sigismund Báthory joined the anti-OttomanHoly League of Pope Clement VIII and broke into Ottoman territory in the summer of 1595.[10] According to historian József Barcza, Gabriel gained his first direct experience of warfare fighting against the Ottomans in theBattle of Giurgiu inWallachia in 1595.[11] After a series of Ottoman victories, Báthory abdicated in return for theSilesian duchies ofOpole andRacibórz in 1597, enabling the commissioners of theHoly Roman Emperor,Rudolph (who was also king ofRoyal Hungary) to take possession of Transylvania.[12][13]
Sigismund Báthory regretted his abdication and returned to Transylvania in August 1598.[14][12] He sent Bocskai to Prague to start negotiations with Rudolph in January 1599.[11] According to a scholarly theory, Gabriel Bethlen accompanied Bocskai to Prague.[11][15] Historian József Barcza also says, Gabriel must have realized around that time that theHabsburg monarchs were unable to defend Transylvania against the Ottomans.[11] Gabriel himself stated that he visited Prague in the retinue of Sigismund Báthory at an unspecified date.[15]
Gabriel supportedAndrew Báthory,[16] who mounted the throne with Polish assistance after Sigismund again abdicated in 1599.[13]Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, broke into Transylvania and defeated Andrew in theBattle of Sellenberk (at present-dayȘelimbăr in Romania) on 8 October 1599.[16] Gabriel received wounds in the battle and his wounds healed slowly.[16] Michael the Brave was expelled from Transylvania by Rudolph's commander,Giorgio Basta.[17] During the following years, Transylvania was regularly pillaged both by Basta's unpaid mercenaries, and by Ottoman andCrimean Tatar troops.[17][16] Gabriel and his brother, Stephen, divided their inherited estates, with Gabriel receiving Marosillye.[6] Their agreement also refers to the anarchic situation, mentioning the possibility that "either pagan or some godless prince or the governor" would seize Gabriel's property.[6]
Gabriel joined the Transylvanian noblemen who rose up against Basta.[16] Sigismund Báthory (who had again returned to Transylvania) granted Gabriel and his brother landed property inArad County in June 1602.[15] The army of the rebellious noblemen was annihilated near Tövis (nowTeiuș in Romania) on 2 July 1602.[16][15] After the battle, he swam over theMaros River and fled to Temesvár in the Ottoman Empire (nowTimișoara in Romania).[16][15] He forged letters which suggested that the leading Transylvanian noblemen supportedMoses Székely to persuade the Ottomans to support Székely, according to the contemporaneousAmbrus Somogyi.[18] When Székely broke into Transylvania in March 1603, Gabriel was the commander of his vanguard.[16] Székelys' troops conquered most fortresses along the Maros and laid siege to Gyulafehérvár. During the siege, the princely palace burned.[16][19] Székely was installed as prince in May, butRadu Șerban, Prince of Wallachia, annihilated his army near Barcarozsnyó (nowRâșnov in Romania) on 17 July.[16][20] Székely was killed in the battlefield, and his supporters (among them Gabriel) fled to the Ottoman Empire.[16]
The Transylvanian refugees started to regard Gabriel as their leader.[21] They sent a delegation toConstantinople in August, asking the permission of theOttoman grand vizier to elect Gabriel prince and seeking Ottoman assistance to their return to Transylvania.[21] The grand vizier granted the permission, but one of the refugees, Boldizsár Szilvási, prevented Gabriel's election, pointing out that a prince could not be elected by a group of refugees, but by the Diet of Transylvania.[21]
Gabriel decided to persuade the wealthy Stephen Bocskai to rise up against Rudolph's commissioners.[22] After royal troops attacked the refugees' camp near Temesvár on 13 September 1604, rumours about the capture of a secret correspondence between Bethlen and Bocskai began circulating.[18] Fearing reprisals, Bocskai withdrew to his fortress at Sólyomkő (now Şoimeni in Romania) and make preparations to resist.[18] He hired irregularHajdú troops and defeated a royal army on 15 October.[23][24]
Bocskai took possession of Kassa (nowKošice in Slovakia) on 11 November.[24] Soon after, Gabriel gave theahidnâme (or charter) in which theOttoman Sultan,Ahmed I, styled Bocskai as prince of Transylvania.[24] The delegates of the noblemen and theSzékelys elected Bocskai prince on 21 February 1605.[25] According to a letter of Bethlen, Bocskai ordered him to capture "certain castles", for which he had to postpone his marriage in May.[22]
Gabriel finally married his bride, ZsuzsannaKárolyi, in August 1605.[22] Bocskai granted the domain of Vajdahunyad (nowHunedoara in Romania) to him.[22] The prince also made him theperpetual ispán (or head) ofHunyad County.[22]
Bethlen was aCalvinist. He helpedGyörgy Káldy, aJesuit, translate and print theBible. He composed hymns and from 1625, employedJohannes Thesselius as kapellmeister.
In 1605, Bethlen supportedStephen Bocskay and his successorGabriel Báthory (1608–1613). Bethlen later fell out with Báthory and fled to theOttoman Empire.
In 1613, after Báthory was murdered, the Ottomans installed Bethlen asPrince of Transylvania and this was endorsed on 13 October 1613 by theTransylvanian Diet at Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca). In 1615, after thePeace of Tyrnau, Bethlen was recognised byMatthias, Holy Roman Emperor.[26]
Bethlen's rule was one ofenlightened absolutism. He developed mines and industry and nationalised many branches of Transylvania's foreign trade. His agents bought goods at fixed prices and sold them abroad at profit. In his capital, in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia), Bethlen built a grand new palace. Bethlen was a patron of the arts and theCalvinist church, giving hereditary nobility to Protestant priests. Bethlen also encouraged learning by founding theBethlen Gabor College, encouraging the enrollment of Hungarian academics and teachers and sending Transylvanian students to the Protestant universities ofEngland, theDutch Republic, and the Protestant principalities ofGermany. He also ensured the right of serfs' children to be educated.
Bethlen maintained an efficient standing army of mercenaries. While keeping relations with theSublime Porte (the Ottoman Empire), he sought to gain lands to the north and west. During theThirty Years' War, he attacked the Habsburgs of Royal Hungary (1619–1626). Bethlen opposed theautocracy of the Habsburgs; persecution of Protestants in Royal Hungary; the violation of thePeace of Vienna of 1606; and Habsburg alliances with the Ottomans and GeorgeDrugeth (1633-1661), the captain ofUpper Hungary.
In August 1619, Bethlen invaded Royal Hungary. In September, he took Kassa (Košice) where Protestant supporters declared him the leader of Hungary and protector of Protestants. He gained control of Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia). In September 1619, after refusing to convert to Calvinism, the JesuitsMarko Križevcanin,Stephen Pongracz andMelchior Grodeczki were martyred under Bethlen's authority."[27] The three were later canonized by the Catholic Church.
In October 1619, Bethlen took Pressburg (Pozsony, today'sBratislava), where thePalatine of Hungary ceded theHoly Crown of Hungary. However, Bethlen, together withJindřich Matyáš of Thurn-Valsassina, count of the Moravian and Czech estates, did not take Vienna and, in November, the forces of George Drugeth and Polish mercenaries (lisowczycy) won theBattle of Humenné and forced Bethlen to leave Austria and Upper Hungary.
Bethlen negotiated for peace at Pressburg, Kassa (nowKošice) and Besztercebánya (nowBanská Bystrica). In January 1620, without the Czechs, Bethlen received 13 counties in the east of Royal Hungary. On 20 August 1620, he was electedKing of Hungary at the Diet of Besztercebánya and in September 1620, war with the Habsburgs resumed.
After defeating the Czechs on 8 November 1620 at theBattle of White Mountain, Ferdinand II persecuted the Protestant nobility of Bohemia. Between May and June 1621, he regained Pressburg and the central mining towns. Bethlen again sued for peace and on 31 December 1621, thePeace of Nikolsburg was made. Bethlen renounced his royal title on the condition that Hungarian Protestants were given religious freedoms and were included in a general diet within six months. Bethlen was given the title ofImperial Prince (of Hungarian Transylvania), seven counties around the UpperTisza River and the fortresses ofTokaj,Munkács (nowMukacheve), and Ecsed (Nagyecsed), and a duchy inSilesia.
In 1623 - 1624 and 1626, Bethlen, allied with the anti-Habsburg Protestants, made campaigns against Ferdinand in Upper Hungary. The first campaign ended with thePeace of Vienna (1624), the second by thePeace of Pressburg (1626). After the second campaign, Bethlen offered as rapprochement to the court of Vienna an alliance against the Ottomans and his marriage to an archduchess of Austria, but Ferdinand rejected his overtures. On his return from Vienna, Bethlen wedCatherine of Brandenburg, the daughter ofJohn Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. His brother-in-law wasGustavus Adolphus of Sweden.
Bethlen died on 15 November 1629. His second wife, Catherine of Brandenburg, became Princess Regnant of Transylvania.
His first wife,Zsuzsanna Károlyi [hu], had died in 1622.
Bethlen's state correspondence survives as a historical document.
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Media related toGábor Bethlen at Wikimedia CommonsGabriel Bethlen | ||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Prince of Transylvania 1613–1629 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | King of Hungary contested byFerdinand II 1620–1621 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Duke of Opole 1622–1625 | Succeeded by |
