There are several theories for the origin of the pre-Ottoman version of the dish. In modern times, it is a common dessert among cuisines of countries inWest Asia,Southeast Europe,Central Asia, andNorth Africa. It is also enjoyed inPakistan andAfghanistan, where, although not a traditional sweet, it has carved out a niche in urban centers.
Etymology
The wordbaklava is first attested in English in 1650,[4] a borrowing fromOttoman Turkish:باقلاوه/bɑːklɑvɑː/.[5][6] The namebaklava is used in many languages with minor phonetic and spelling variations. The earliest known reference to baklava is in a poem by the 15th century mysticKaygusuz Abdal.[7]
The historian Paul D. Buell argues that the wordbaklava may come from theMongolian rootbaγla- 'to tie, wrap up, pile up' composed with theTurkic verbal ending-v;[8] baγla- itself in Mongolian is a Turkic loanword.[9] The lexicographerSevan Nişanyan considers its oldest known forms (pre-1500) to bebaklağı andbaklağu, and labels it as being of Proto-Turkic origin.[10] Another form of the word is also recorded in Persian,باقلبا (bāqlabā).[11] Though the suffix-vā might suggest a Persian origin,[12][13] thebaqla- part does not appear to bePersian and remains of unknown origin.[14] The linguist Tuncer Gülensoy states that the origin of baklava isbakl-ı (feed) in proto-Turkish and suffixes-la-ğı are added. The word changes asbakılağı >bakılavı >baklava.[15]
The Arabic nameبقلاوةbaqlāwa originates from Turkish.[16]
History
The three main proposals for the roots of baklava are the Greekplacenta cake,[17] the Medieval Persian (Iranian)lauzinaj,[18][dubious –discuss] and theCentral Asian Turkic tradition of layered breads.[19] There are also claims attributing baklava to theAssyrians, according to which baklava was prepared by them in the 8th century BC.[20] The inhabitants of the ancientAssyrian empire would prepare the sweet by layering flatbreads with chopped nuts in between, but the earliest record of modern Baklava was recorded during the Ottoman Empire.[21]
There are also some similarities between baklava and theAncient Greek dessertsgastris (γάστρις),[22]kopte sesamis (κοπτὴ σησαμίς), andkopton (κοπτόν) found in book XIV of theDeipnosophistae.[23][24] However, the recipe there is for a filling of nuts and honey, with a top and bottom layer of honey and groundsesame similar to modernpasteli orhalva, and no dough, certainly not a flaky dough.[25]
Another recipe for a similar dessert isgüllaç, a dessert found inTurkish cuisine and considered by some as the origin of baklava.[26] It consists of layers offilo dough that are put one by one in warmed up milk with sugar. It is served with walnut and fresh pomegranate and generally eaten duringRamadan. The first known documentation ofgüllaç is attested in a food and health manual, written in 1330 that documentsMongol foods called Yinshan Zhengyao (飮膳正要,Important Principles of Food and Drink), written byHu Sihui, an ethnic Mongol court dietitian of theYuan dynasty.[8]
Although the history of baklava is not well documented, its Turkish version was probably developed in the imperial kitchens of theTopkapı Palace inConstantinople (modernIstanbul).[19][27] The Sultan presented trays of baklava to theJanissaries every 15th of the month ofRamadan in a ceremonial procession called theBaklava Alayı.[18][28][21]
Placenta cake theory
Many claim that theplacenta cake, and therefore likely baklava, derived from a recipe fromAncient Greece.[29] Homer'sOdyssey, written around 800 BC, mentions thin breads sweetened with walnuts and honey.[29] In the fifth century BC,Philoxenos states in his poem "Dinner" that, in the final drinking course of a meal, hosts would prepare and serve cheesecake made with milk and honey that was baked into a pie.[30]
The word "placenta" originally comes from the Greek languageplakous (πλακοῦς), which means something "flat and broad".[31][32] An earlyGreek language mention ofplakous as a dessert (or second table delicacy) comes from the poems ofArchestratos. He describesplakous as served with nuts or dried fruits and commends the honey-drenched Athenian version ofplakous.[33]Antiphanes, a contemporary ofArchestratos, provided an ornate description ofplakous:[33][34]
The streams of the tawny bee, mixed with the curdled river of bleating she-goats, placed upon a flat receptacle of the virgin daughter of Demeter [honey, cheese, flour], delighting in ten thousand delicate toppings – or shall I simply say plakous?
In theByzantine Empire, the traditionalplacenta cake (known as "koptoplakous",κοπτοπλακοῦς), a dish similar to baklava, was consumed.[36][37][38] The earliest known detailed recipe for placenta, from the 2nd century BC, is a honey-covered baked layered-dough dessert whichfood historian Patrick Faas identifies as the origin of baklava.[17][39]
HistorianAndrew Dalby speculates as to why Cato's section on bread and cakes, which he describes as "recipes in a Greek tradition", are included inDe Agricultura: "Possibly Cato included them so that the owner and guests might be entertained when visiting the farm; possibly so that proper offerings might be made to the gods; more likely, I believe, so that profitable sales might be made at a neighbouring market."[40]
Cato's original recipe for placenta follows:
Shape the placenta as follows: place a single row oftracta along the whole length of the base dough. This is then covered with the mixture [cheese and honey] from the mortar. Place another row oftracta on top and go on doing so until all the cheese and honey have been used up. Finish with a layer oftracta. ... place the placenta in the oven and put a preheated lid on top of it ... When ready, honey is poured over the placenta.
According to a number of scholars,koptoplakous (κοπτοπλακοῦς) was a precursor to the modern baklava.[17][41][42] HistorianSperos Vryonis describeskoptoplakous as a "Byzantine favorite" and "the same as the Turkish baklava",[43] as do other writers.[31] The name (Greek:πλατσέντα) is used today on the island ofLesbos for thin layered pastry leaves with crushed nuts, baked, and covered in syrup.[44][45]
Baklava is a common dessert in modern Arab cuisines, but theArabic language cookbookKitab al-Tabikh, compiled byIbn Sayyar al-Warraq in the 10th-century, does not contain any recipe for baklava.[46] Its recipe forlauzinaj refers to small pieces ofalmond paste wrapped in very thin pastry ("as thin as grasshoppers' wings") and drenched in syrup.[47] Some writers say this is dessert that most closely resembles the modern baklava.[48]Charles Perry, however, has written that "it was not much like baklava".[49]
There are similar recipes forlauzinaj in the 13th-centuryKitab al-Tabikh byMuhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi. Written in 1226 in today'sIraq, the cookbook was based on an earlier collection of 9th centuryPersian-inspired recipes.[18] According toGil Marks, Middle Eastern pastry makers later developed the process of layering the ingredients.[18]
Preparation
Largebaking sheets are used for preparing baklava.Baklava cut in a lozenge shape
Baklava is normally prepared in large pans. Many layers offilo dough,[50] separated with melted butter and vegetable oil, are laid in the pan. A layer of chopped nuts—typicallywalnuts orpistachios, buthazelnuts andalmonds are also sometimes used—is placed on top, then more layers of filo. Most recipes have multiple layers of filo and nuts, though some have only top and bottom pastry.[citation needed]
Before baking, the dough is cut into regular pieces, often parallelograms (lozenge-shaped), triangles, diamonds or rectangles. After baking, asyrup, which may includehoney,rosewater, ororange flower water, is poured over the cooked baklava and allowed to soak.[citation needed]
Baklava is usually served at room temperature, and is often garnished with nuts that have been ground up.[citation needed]
Baklava in Algeria is calledBaklawa (Arabic: بقلاوة,Tifinagh: ⴱⴰⴽⵍⴰⴹⴰ). In most Algerian regions, Baklava is the centerpiece of any sweets table. This type of Baklava originates in the Algerian city ofConstantine. The Algerian Baklava is distinct in thatfilo dough is not used. Instead, they use another type of thin dough calledmalsouka or warqa and instead of walnuts or pistachios they usealmonds.[51][52][53][54]
Like other forms of baklava, the layered pastry is cut into diamond-shaped pieces and has one almond placed on top of each piece before being baked. It is then soaked in a syrup of honey, sugar, andlemon juice.[55][56][57]
Syria
Syrian baklawa
InSyrian cuisine, baklava (Arabic: البقلاوة,Syriac: ܒܩܠܘܐ) is a dessert mostly served on special occasions likeEid al-Fitr, orSyrian Christmas.[58] It is made of 24 layers of buttered phyllo dough, a filling of either chopped pistachios or chopped walnuts (walnuts are preferred) and a syrup consisting of sugar,orange blossom water, and lemon juice.[59] Syrian baklava comes in many shapes, but the diamond shape is the most common one.[60] A Syrian baklava recipe was introduced to the Turkish city ofGaziantep in 1871 by Çelebi Güllü, who had learned the recipe from a chef in the city ofDamascus which transformed into the Gaziantep baklava we know today.[61]
Armenia
Armenian pakhlava
Armenian baklava, known in Armenian aspakhlava (Armenian:Փախլավա) is made of layers ofphyllo dough, a filling of cinnamon-spiced chopped walnuts, and a syrup made fromcloves, cinnamon, lemon juice, sugar and water.[62][63] It is diamond-shaped and often has either onehazelnut, almond, or half a walnut placed on each piece.[64] It is often served at special occasions likeArmenian Christmas orArmenian Easter.[65][66]
Armenian baklava has some variations on how many phyllo layers are supposed to be used. One variation uses 40 sheets of dough to align with the 40 days of LentJesus spent in the desert where he fasted.[67][68][69] Another variation is similar to the Greek style of baklava, which is supposed to be made with 33 dough layers, referring to the years of Jesus's life.[70]
The city ofGavar makes Its own version of baklava. It is made with 25 dough layers, has a filling of cleaned and dried chopped walnuts, sugar and a syrup that is poured over the finished baklava consisting ofhoney andflowers.[71][72] This type of baklava used to be prepared in the then-Armenian city ofBayazet, but the people living there immigrated to Gavar and surrounding regions in 1830.[73]
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani paxlava
Azerbaijani baklava (Azerbaijani:Azərbaycan paxlavası) is made mostly for special occasions (likeNowruz).[74][75][76] Pastry,cardamom, andsaffron are used for the preparation. Nuts (mostlyhazelnuts, almonds or walnuts) and sugar are used as the filling, and syrup is used as a sweetener.[77] Ethnic groups native to different regions (likeLezgins andTat people) have contributed to some regional variations.[78][79][80]
Tenbel pakhlava is filled with almonds or walnuts and consists of 8-10 layers. Its top layer is coated withyolk.[81][82] Half awalnut is placed on each diamond-shaped piece.[83]
Ganja pakhlava has a filling of almond, sugar and cardamom. 18 layers of dough are used.[83]Rose petals are added to the dough.[84][85]
Guba pakhlava has a top layer that is coated withsaffron. It uses 50 rishta layers.[86][87]
Albanians usually prepare thebakllava for certain religious holidays of Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox, and they popularly prepare it for the winter holiday season and theNew Year.[citation needed]
InBosnian cuisine,Ružice is the name of the regional variant of baklava.[88]
Baklava also exists inRomanian cuisine, being known asbaclava in Romanian. It is one of the most preferred desserts among Romanians together with theKanafeh (cataif) and thesarailia. InRomania, someTurkish pastry shops that sell baklava have notable popularity. They are common in the south and southeast of the country, but some also exist in its east.[89] In Bulgaria, baklava is very popular during the winter holiday season, when people have it for dessert after dinner.[citation needed]
Greece
Greek baklava with walnuts
InGreek cuisine,walnuts are more common than pistachios, and the dessert is flavored withcinnamon. Greek baklava (Greek:Μπακλαβάς) comes in many regional guises, with different names such as samousades, zournadakia, and masourakia. Generally speaking, insouthern Greece baklava is mostly made with chopped almonds and in thenorth with walnuts. Some recipes use hazelnuts, sesame or raisins.[90] The syrup is made of sugar, honey, water, cinnamon and orange or lemonzest.[91][92] Greek baklava is supposed to be made with 33filo dough layers, referring to the years ofJesus's life.[70]
On the island ofLesbos in Greece a type of baklava is still known asplacenta (Greek:πλατσέντα), which is the name of an Ancient Greek pastry that is often seen as the predecessor of baklava. The latter is a baked dessert with very thinly made pastry layers and chopped nuts. The base for this modernplacenta is made with leaves offilo dough, and nuts stacked upon each other. After baking, it is soaked in a simple syrup and sprinkled with cinnamon.[93][94][95]
Iranian baklava (Persian:باقلوا) is less crisp and uses less syrup than other baklava variations.[96] The cities ofYazd,Tabriz,Qazvin,Kashan and theGilan province are famous for their baklava variations, which are widely distributed inIran.[97][98][99][100] Iranian baklava uses a combination of chopped almonds, hazelnuts or walnuts and pistachios spiced withsaffron,cardamom orjasmine. For the syrup,rose water, lemon juice, sugar, honey, and water are used.[101][102] Iranian baklava may be cut into diamonds or squares.[103] When it is finished it is often garnished with chopped pistachios,rose petals, jasmine orcoconut powder depending on the region.[104]
Şöbiyet is a variation that includeskaymak[107] as the filling, in addition to the traditional nuts.[108] The city ofGaziantep in south-central Turkey is famous for its baklava made from locally grown pistachios,[109] often served withkaymak cream. The dessert was introduced to Gaziantep in 1871 by Çelebi Güllü, who had learned the recipe from a chef inDamascus.[110] In 2008, the Turkish patent office registered ageographical indication for Antep Baklava,[111] and in 2013,Antep Baklavası orGaziantep Baklavası was registered as aProtected Geographical Indication by theEuropean Commission.[112] Gaziantep baklava is the first Turkish product to receive a protected designation from the European Commission.[113]
There are many variants of Baklava inMaghrebi cuisine that are eaten to this day.[115] Owing to its ancient origins,Assyrian people today continue to enjoy baklava and eat it as part of their larger cuisine.[116]
^Nişanyan, Sevan (2009) (in Turkish). Sözlerin Soyağacı - Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimolojik Sözlüğü [Words' Family Tree - An Etymological Dictionary of Contemporary Turkish]. İstanbul.http://nisanyansozluk.com/?k=baklavaArchived 2011-07-14 at theWayback Machine
^"a derivation frombalg, a common dialect form ofbarg "leaf", or from Ar.baql "herb" is unlikely", W. Eilers,Encyclopædia Iranica,s.v.'bāqlavā'Archived 2011-12-28 at theWayback Machine
^Gülensoy, Tuncer (2007).Türkiye Türkcesindeki Türkçe Sözcüklerin Köken Bilgisi Sözlüğü - I. Turkey: Türk Dil Kurumu. p. 106.ISBN978-9751619709.
^abAkın and Lambraki,Turkish and Greek Cuisine /Türk ve Yunan Mutfağı p. 248-249,ISBN975-458-484-2
^abPerry, Charles. "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", inA Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed.Sami Zubaida,Richard Tapper), 1994.ISBN1-86064-603-4, page 87
^Akkaya, Ayşenur; Koc, Banu (2017)."Past, present and tomorrow of baklava".International Rural Tourism and Development Journal.1 (1):47–50.Archived from the original on 2022-04-30. Retrieved2021-05-01.
^κοπτόςArchived 2021-02-24 at theWayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
^Deipnosophists14:647, discussed by Charles Perry, "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", inA Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed.Sami Zubaida,Richard Tapper), 1994.ISBN1-86064-603-4. p. 88.
^Charles Perry, "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", inA Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed.Sami Zubaida,Richard Tapper), 1994.ISBN1-86064-603-4.
^Husihui; Paul D. Buell; Eugene N. Anderson; Charles Perry (2010).A soup for the Qan: Chinese dietary medicine of the Mongol era as seen in Hu Szu-Hui's Yin-shan cheng-yao (2nd rev. and expanded ed.). Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-18020-8.
^abGoldstein 2015, "ancient world": "The next cake of note, first mentioned about 350 B.C.E. by two Greek poets, isplakous. [...] At last, we have recipes and a context to go with the name.Plakous is listed as a delicacy for second tables, alongside dried fruits and nuts, by the gastronomic poet Archestratos. He praises theplakous made in Athens because it was soaked in Attic honey from the thyme-covered slopes of Mount Hymettos. His contemporary, the comic poet Antiphanes, tells us the other main ingredients, goat’s cheese and wheat flour. Two centuries later, in Italy, Cato gives an elaborate recipe for placenta (the same name transcribed into Latin), redolent of honey and cheese. The modern Romanianplăcintă and the ViennesePalatschinke, though now quite different from their ancient Greek and Roman ancestor, still bear the same name."
^Dalby 1998, p. 155: "Placenta is a Greek word (plakounta, accusative form of plakous 'cake').
^Dalby, Andrew (1998).Cato on farming-De Agricultura-A modern translation with commentary. p. 155.
^Perry, Charles. "What to Order in Ninth Century Baghdad," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Arthur John Arberry. "Medieval Arab Cookery." (2001). p. 223
^Salloum, Habeeb; Salloum, Muna; Elias, Leila Salloum (2013).Sweet Delights from A Thousand and One Nights: the Story of Tradition Arab Sweets. Bloomsbury. pp. 45–48.
^Perry, Charles. "What to Order in Ninth Century Baghdad," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Arthur John Arberry. "Medieval Arab Cookery." (2001). p. 222 "As for lauzinaj, it was not much like baklava."
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^Bodic, Slavka (11 September 2020).The Ultimate Syrian Cookbook: A Journey Through Syrian Cuisine With 111 Traditional Recipes. Independently Published.ISBN9798685380357.
^Λούβαρη-Γιαννέτσου, Βασιλεία (2014)."Πλατσέντα ή γλυκόπιτα".Τα Σαρακοστιανά 50 συνταγές για τη Σαρακοστή και τις γιορτές [Lent foods: 50 recipes for Lent and the holidays].
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