Outsourcing is a business practice in whichcompanies use external providers to carry outbusiness processes, that would otherwise be handled internally.[1][2][3] Outsourcing sometimes involves transferring employees and assets from one firm to another.
The termoutsourcing, which came from the phraseoutside resourcing, originated no later than 1981 at a time when industrial jobs in the United States were being moved overseas, contributing to the economic and cultural collapse of small, industrial towns.[4][5][6] In some contexts, the termsmartsourcing is also used.[7]
The concept, whichThe Economist says has "made its presence felt since the time of theSecond World War",[8] often involves the contracting out of abusiness process (e.g.,payroll processing, claims processing), operational, and/or non-core functions, such as manufacturing,facility management,call center/call center support.
The practice of handing over control of public services to private enterprises (privatization), even if conducted on a limited, short-term basis,[9] may also be described as outsourcing.[10]
Outsourcing includes both foreign and domestic contracting,[11] and therefore should not be confused withoffshoring which is relocating a business process to another country but does not imply or preclude another company.[12] In practice, the concepts can be intertwined, i.e.offshore outsourcing, and can be individually or jointly, partially or completely reversed,[13] as described by terms such asreshoring,inshoring, andinsourcing.
Global labor arbitrage can provide major financial savings from lower international labor rates, which could be a major motivation for offshoring. Cost savings fromeconomies of scale and specialization can also motivate outsourcing, even if not offshoring. Since about 2015 indirect revenue benefits have increasingly become additional motivators.[14][15]
Another motivation is speed to market. To make this work, a new process was developed: "outsource the outsourcing process".[16] Details of managingDuPont's chief information officerCinda Hallman's $4 billion 10-year outsourcing contract withComputer Sciences Corporation andAccenture were outsourced, thus avoiding "inventing a process if we'd done it in-house". A term subsequently developed to describe this ismidsourcing.[17][18][19]
Outsourcing can offer greater budget flexibility and control by allowing organizations to pay for the services and business functions they need, when they need them. It is often perceived to reduce hiring and training specialized staff, to make available specialized expertise, and to decrease capital, operating expenses,[20] and risk.
"Do what you do best and outsource the rest" has become an internationally recognized business tagline first "coined and developed"[21] in the 1990s by management consultantPeter Drucker. The slogan was primarily used to advocate outsourcing as a viable business strategy. Drucker began explaining the concept of "outsourcing" as early as 1989 in hisWall Street Journal article entitled "Sell the Mailroom".[22]
From Drucker's perspective, a company should only seek to subcontract in those areas in which it demonstrated no special ability.[23] The business strategy outlined by his slogan recommended that companies should take advantage of a specialist provider's knowledge and economies of scale to improve performance and achieve the service needed.[24]
In 2009, by way of recognition, Peter Drucker posthumously received a significant honor when he was inducted into the Outsourcing Hall of Fame for his outstanding work in the field.[23]
The biggest difference between outsourcing and in-house provision is with regards to the difference in ownership: outsourcing usually presupposes the integration of business processes under a different ownership, over which the client business has minimal or no control. This requires the use ofoutsourcing relationship management.[25]
Sometimes the effect of what looks like outsourcing from one side and insourcing from the other side can be unexpected;The New York Times reported in 2001 that "6.4 million Americans .. worked for foreign companies as of 2001, [but] more jobs are being outsourced than" [the reverse].[26]
While U.S. companies do not outsource to reduce high top level executive or managerial costs,[27] they primarily outsource to reduce peripheral and "non-core" business expenses.[28] Further reasons are higher taxes, high energy costs, and excessive government regulation or mandates.
Mandated benefits likesocial security,Medicare, and safety protection (e.g.Occupational Safety and Health Administration regulations) are also motivators.[29] By contrast,executive pay in the U.S. in 2007, which could exceed 400 times more than average workers—a gap 20 times bigger than it was in 1965,[27] is not a factor.[30]
Other reasons include reducing and controlling operating costs,[31] improving company focus, gaining access to world-class capabilities, tax credits,[32] freeing internal resources for other purposes, streamlining or increasing efficiency for time-consuming functions, and maximizing use of external resources. For small businesses, contracting/subcontracting/"outsourcing" might be done to improvework-life balance.[33]
Following the adding of management layers in the 1950s and 1960s to support expansion for the sake of economy of scale, corporations found that agility and added profits could be obtained by focusing on core strengths; the 1970s and 1980s were the beginnings of what later was named outsourcing.[34]Kodak's 1989 "outsourcing most of its information technology systems"[35] was followed by others during the 1990s.[35]
In 2013, the International Association of Outsourcing Professionals gave recognition toElectronic Data Systems Corporation'sMorton H. Meyerson[36] who, in 1967, proposed the business model that eventually became known as outsourcing.[37]
The growth of offshoring of IT-enabled services, although not universally accepted,[38][39] both to subsidiaries and to outside companies (offshore outsourcing) is linked to the availability of large amounts of reliable and affordable communication infrastructure following the telecommunication and Internet expansion of the late 1990s.[40] Services making use of low-cost countries included:
In the early 21st century, businesses increasingly outsourced to suppliers outside their own country, sometimes referred to as offshoring oroffshore outsourcing. Other options subsequently emerged including: nearshoring,crowdsourcing,multisourcing,[42][43]strategic alliances/strategic partnerships, strategic outsourcing.[44]
Forbes considered the2016 U.S. presidential election "the most disruptive changeagent for the outsourcing industry",[45] especially the renewed "invest in America" goal highlighted in campaigning, but the magazine tepidly reversed direction in 2019 as to the outcome for employment.[46] In the case of armament acquisition, section 323 of theNational Defense Authorization Act for 2014 requires military personnel "to solicit information from all U.S.-ownedarsenals regarding the capability of that arsenal to fulfill the manufacturing requirement" when undertaking a make-or-buy analysis.[47]
Furthermore, there are growing legal requirements fordata protection, where obligations and implementation details must be understood by both sides.[48][49] This includes dealing with customer rights.[50]
UK government policy notes that certain services must remain in-house, citing the development ofpolicy, stewardship of tax spend and retention of certain critical knowledge as examples. Guidance states that specific criteria must govern the identification of such services, and that "everything else" could potentially be outsourced.[51]
Inflation, high domestic interest rates, and economic growth pushed India's IT salaries 10–15%, making some jobs relatively "too" expensive, compared to other offshoring destinations. Areas for advancing within the value chain included research and development, equity analysis, tax-return processing, radiological analysis, andmedical transcription.
Although offshoring initially focused on manufacturing,white-collar offshoring/outsourcing has grown rapidly since the early 21st century. Thedigital workforce of countries likeIndia andChina are only paid a fraction of what would beminimum wage in the United States. On average,software engineers are getting paid between 250,000 and 1,500,000 rupees (US$4,000 to US$23,000) in India as opposed to $40,000–$100,000 in countries such as the U.S. andCanada.[52] Closer to the U.S.,Costa Rica has become a major source for the advantages of a highly educated labor force, a large bilingual population, stable democratic government, and similar time zones as the U.S. It takes only a few hours to travel between Costa Rica and U.S. Companies such asIntel,Procter & Gamble, HP,Gensler,Amazon andBank of America have big operations in Costa Rica.[53]
Unlike outsourced manufacturing, outsourced white collar workers haveflextime and can choose their working hours, and for which companies to work. Clients benefit fromremote work, reduced office space, management salary, and employee benefits as these individuals areindependent contractors.[54]
Ending a government outsourcing arrangement poses difficulties.[55]
There are many outsourcing models, with variations[56] by country,[57] year[58][59] and industry.[60] Japanese companies often outsource to China, particularly to formerly Japanese-occupied cities.[61] German companies have outsourced toEastern European countries with German-language affiliation, such asPoland andRomania.[62] French companies outsource to North Africa for similar reasons. For Australian IT companies,Indonesia is one of the major choice of offshoring destination. Near-shore location, common time zone and adequate IT work force are the reasons for offshoring IT services to Indonesia.[citation needed]
Another approach is to differentiate between tactical and strategic outsourcing models. Tactical models include:
Strategic consultancy includes forbusiness process improvement.[63]
When offshore outsourcing knowledge work, firms heavily rely on the availability of technical personnel at offshore locations. One of the challenges in offshoring engineering innovation is a reduction in quality.[64]
Co-sourcing is a hybrid of internal staff supplemented by an external service provider.[65][66] Co-sourcing can minimize sourcing risks, increase transparency, clarity and lend toward better control than fully outsourced.[67]
Co-sourcing services can supplement internal audit staff with specialized skills such as informationrisk management or integrity services, or help during peak periods, or similarly for other areas such as software development or human resources.
Identity management co-sourcing is when on-site hardware[68][69] interacts with outside identity services.
This contrasts with an "all in-the-cloud" service scenario, where the identity service is built, hosted and operated by the service provider in an externally hosted,cloud computing infrastructure.
Offshore software R&D is the provision ofsoftware development services by a supplier (whether external or internal) located in a different country from the one where the software will be used. The global software R&D services market, as contrasted to information technology outsourcing (ITO) andbusiness process outsourcing (BPO), is rather young and currently is at a relatively early stage of development.[70]
Canada, India,Ireland, andIsrael were the four leading countries as of 2003.[70] Although many countries have participated in the offshore outsourcing of software development, their involvement in co-sourced and outsourced Research & Development (R&D) was somewhat limited. Canada, the second largest by 2009, had 21%.[71]
As of 2018, the top three were deemed by one "research-based policy analysis and commentary from leading economists" as China, India and Israel."[72]
Gartner Group adds inRussia, but does not make clear whether this is pure R&D or run-of-the-mill IT outsourcing.[73]
Focusing onsoftware quality metrics is a good way to maintain track of how well a project is performing.[74][better source needed]
Globalization and complexsupply chains, along with greater physical distance between higher management and the production-floor employees often requires a change in management methodologies, as inspection and feedback may not be as direct and frequent as in internal processes. This often requires the assimilation of new communication methods such asvoice over IP,instant messaging, andissue tracking systems, newtime management methods such astime tracking software, and new cost- and schedule-assessment tools such ascost estimation software.[75][76][77]
The term "transition methodology"[78] describes the process of migrating knowledge, systems, and operating capabilities between the two sides.[79]
In the area of call-center outsourcing, especially when combined with offshoring,[80] agents may speak with differentlinguistic features such asaccents, word use and phraseology, which may impede comprehension.[81][82][83][84]
In 1979, Nobel laureateOliver E. Williamson wrote that thegovernance structure is the "framework within which the integrity of a transaction is decided", and that "because contracts are varied and complex, governance structures vary with the nature of the transaction".[85]University of Tennessee researchers have been studying complex outsourcing relationships since 2003. Emerging thinking regarding strategic outsourcing is focusing on creating a contract structure in which the parties have a vested interest in managing what are often highly complex business arrangements in a more collaborative, aligned, flexible, and credible way.[86][87]
Reduced security, sometimes related to lower loyalty[88] may occur, even when 'outsourced' staff change their legal status but not their desk. While security and compliance issues are supposed to be addressed through the contract between the client and the suppliers, fraud cases have been reported.
In April 2005, a high-profile case involved the theft of $350,000 from fourCitibank customers when call-center workers acquired the passwords to customer accounts and transferred the money to their own accounts opened under fictitious names. Citibank did not find out about the problem until the American customers noticed discrepancies with their accounts and notified the bank.[89]
Richard Baldwin's 2006The Great Unbundling work was followed in 2012 byGlobalization's Second Acceleration (the Second Unbundling) and in 2016 byThe Great Convergence: Information Technology and the New Globalization.[90] It is here, rather than in manufacturing, that the bits economy can advance in ways that the economy of atoms and things cannot: an early 1990sNewsweek ran a half page cartoon showing someone who had just ordered a pizza online, and was seeking help to download it.[citation needed]
Step-in rights allow the client or a nominated third party the right to step-in and intervene, in particular to directly operate the outsourced services or to appoint a new operator. Circumstances where step-in rights may be contractually invoked may include supplierinsolvency, aforce majeure event which prevents or impedes the outsourced service provision, where the client believes that there is a substantial risk to the provision of the services, or where performance fails to meet a defined critical level of service.[91] Suitable clauses in a contract may provide for the outsourced service provider to pay any additional costs which are faced by the client and specify that the provider's obligation to provide the services is annulled or suspended.[92]
If a contract has a clause granting step-in rights,[93] then there is a right, though not an obligation,[94] to take over a task that is not going well, or even the entire project.When andHow are important: "What is the process for stepping-in" must be clearly defined in thecollateral warranty.[95]
An example of when there is sometimes hesitancy about exercising this right was reported by the BBC in 2018, whenWealden District Council inEast Sussex was "considering exercising 'step in rights' on its waste collection contract withKier" due to issues of poor service.[96] After some discussion in this case, a "recovery plan" was agreed with the contractor so that the step in rights were not actually exercised.[97]
Stabler notes that in the event that step-in rights are taken up, it is important to establish which elements of a process are business-critical and ensure these are made top priority when implementing the step-in.[91]
.jpg)
A number of outsourcings and offshorings that were deemed failures[98][99][64] led to reversals[100][101] signaled by use of terms such asinsourcing andreshoring.The New York Times reported in 2017 that IBM "plans to hire 25,000 more workers in the United States over the next four years," overlapping India-basedInfosys's "10,000 workers in the United States over the next two years."[101] A clue to a tipping point having been reached was a short essay titled "Maybe You Shouldn't Outsource Everything After All"[102] and the longer "That Job Sent to India May Now Go to Indiana."
Among problems encountered were supply-and-demand induced raises in salaries and lost benefits of similar-time-zone. Other issues were differences in language and culture.[101][82] Another reason for a decrease in outsourcing is that many jobs that were subcontracted abroad have been replaced by technological advances.[103]
According to a 2005Deloitte Consulting survey, a quarter of the companies which had outsourced tasks reversed their strategy.[103]
These reversals, however, did not undo the damage. New factories often:
Public opinion in the U.S. and other Western powers opposing outsourcing was particularly strengthened by the drastic increase in unemployment as a result of the 2007–2008 financial crisis. From 2000 to 2010, the U.S. experienced a net loss of 687,000 jobs due to outsourcing, primarily in the computers and electronics sector. Public disenchantment with outsourcing has not only stirred political responses, as seen in the2012 U.S. presidential campaigns, but it has also made companies more reluctant to outsource or offshore jobs.[103]
A counterswing depicted by a 2016 Deloitte survey suggested that companies are no longer reluctant to outsource.[105] Deloitte's survey identified three trends:
Insourcing is the process of reversing an outsourcing, possibly using help from those not currently part of the in-house staff.[106][107][108] Some authors call this backsourcing,[109] reserving the terminsourcing to refer simply to conducting certain activities in-house.
Outsourcing has gone through many iterations and reinventions, and some outsourcing contracts have been partially or fully reversed. Often the reason is to maintain control of critical production or competencies, and insourcing is used to reduce costs of taxes, labor and transportation.[110] Sometimes there are problems with the outsourcing agreements, because of the pressure to bring jobs back to their home country, or simply because it has stopped being efficient to outsource particular tasks.[111]
Studies conducted at companies confirm the positive impact of using insourcing on financial performance.[112]
Regional insourcing, a related term, is when a company assigns work to a subsidiary that is within the same country. This differs fromonshoring andreshoring, which may be either inside or outside the company.
Regional insourcing is a process in which a company establishes satellite locations for specific entities of their business, making use of advantages one state may have over another[113][114] This concept focuses on the delegating or reassigning of procedures, functions, or jobs from production within a business in one location to another internal entity that specializes in that operation. This allows companies to streamline production, boost competency, and increase their bottom line.
This competitive strategy applies the classical argument ofAdam Smith, which posits that two nations would benefit more from one another by trading the goods that they are more proficient at manufacturing.[115][116]
To those who are concerned that nations may be losing a net number of jobs due to outsourcing, some[117] point out that insourcing also occurs. A 2004 study[118] in the U.S., the UK, and many other industrialized countries more jobs are insourced than outsourced.The New York Times disagreed, and wrote that free trade with low-wage countries is win-lose for many employees who find their jobs offshored or with stagnating wages.[119]
The impact of offshore outsourcing, according to two estimates published byThe Economist, showed unequal effect during the period studied 2004 to 2015, ranging from 150,000 to as high as 300,000 jobs lost per year.[120]
In 2010, a group of manufacturers started the Reshoring Initiative, focusing on bringing manufacturing jobs for American companies back to the country. Their data indicated that140,000 American jobs were lost in 2003 due to offshoring. Eleven years later in 2014, the U.S. recovered 10,000 of those offshored positions; this marked the highest net gain in 20 years.[121] More than 90% of the jobs that American companies "offshored" and outsourced manufacturing to low cost countries such as China,Malaysia andVietnam did not return.[121]
The fluctuation of prefixes and names give rise to many more "cross-breeds" of insourcing. For example, "offshore insourcing" is "when companies set up their own "captive" process centers overseas, sometimes called aCaptive Service,[122] taking advantage of their cheaper surroundings while maintaining control of their back-office work and business processes."[123] "Remote insourcing" refers to hiring developers to work in-house from virtual (remote) facilities.[124]
A 2012 series of articles inThe Atlantic[125][126][127][128] highlighted a turning of the tide for parts of the U.S.'s manufacturing industry. Specific causes identified include rising third-world wages, recognition of hidden off-shoring costs, innovations in design/manufacture/assembly/time-to-market, increasing fuel and transportation costs, falling energy costs in the U.S., increasing U.S. labor productivity, and union flexibility. Hiring at GE's giantAppliance Park inLouisville, Kentucky, increased 90% during 2012.
More than one company uses a "100% U. Based" phrase, whether within or outside their envelopes. "100% US-based customer service available 24/7" is how, in 2024,Business Insider described the expectations of some customers.[129]
From the standpoint of labor, outsourcing may represent a new threat, contributing to worker insecurity, and is reflective of the general process ofglobalization andeconomic polarization.[130]
Western governments may attempt to compensate workers affected by outsourcing through various forms of legislation. In Europe, theAcquired Rights Directive attempts to address the issue. The directive is implemented differently in different nations. In the U.S., theTrade Adjustment Assistance Act is meant to provide compensation for workers directly affected by international trade agreements. Whether or not these policies provide the security and fair compensation they promise is debatable.
In response to the recession, U.S. presidentBarack Obama launched theSelectUSA program in 2011. In January 2012, Obama issued a Call to Action to Invest in America at the White House "Insourcing American Jobs" Forum.[135] Obama met with representatives ofOtis Elevator,Apple, DuPont,Master Lock, and others which had recently brought jobs back or made significant investments in the U.S.
Governments may legislate to authorise the outsourcing of specific functions or the work of specific government agencies, for example in the United Kingdom, theSocial Security Administration Act 1992 (as amended) authorises the contracting-out of work-focussed interviews and documentary work,[136] and the Contracting Out of Functions (Tribunal Staff) Order 2009 authorises the contracting-out oftribunals' administrative work.[137]
A main feature of outsourcing influencing policy-making is the unpredictability it generates, including its defense/military ramifications,[138] regarding the future of any particular sector or skill-group. The uncertainty of future conditions influences governance approaches to different aspects of long-term policies.
In particular, distinction is needed between
A governance that attempts adapting to the changing environment will facilitate growth and a stable transition to new economic structures[139] until the economic structures become detrimental to the social, political and cultural structures.
Automation increases output and allows for reduced cost per item. When these changes are not well synchronized, unemployment or underemployment is a likely result. When transportation costs remain unchanged, the negative effect may be permanent;[104] jobs in protected sectors may no longer exist.[140]
Studies suggest that the effect of U.S. outsourcing on Mexico is that for every 10% increase in U.S. wages, north Mexico cities along theborder experienced wage rises of 2.5%, about 0.69% higher than in inner cities.[141]
By contrast, higher rates of saving and investment in Asian countries, along with rising levels of education, studies suggest, fueled the 'Asian miracle' rather than improvements in productivity and industrial efficiency. There was also an increase in patenting and research and development expenditures.[142]
Outsourcing results from an internationalization of labor markets as more tasks become tradable. According to leading economistGreg Mankiw, the labour market functions under the same forces as the market of goods, with the underlying implication that the greater the number of tasks available to being moved, the better for efficiency under the gains from trade. With technological progress, more tasks can be offshored at different stages of the overall corporate process.[143]
The tradeoffs are not always balanced, and a 2004 viewer of the situation said "the total number of jobs realized in the United States from insourcing is far less than those lost through outsourcing."[144]
Import competition has caused ade facto 'race-to-the-bottom' where countries lower environmental regulations to secure a competitive edge for their industries relative to other countries.
As Mexico competes with China over Canadian and American markets, its nationalCommission for Environmental Cooperation has not been active in enacting or enforcing regulations to prevent environmental damage from increasingly industrialized Export Processing Zones. Similarly, since the signing of theNorth American Free Trade Agreement, heavy industries have increasingly moved to the U.S., which has a comparative advantage due to its abundant presence of capital and well-developed technology. A further example of environmental de-regulation with the objective of protecting trade incentives have been the numerous exemptions to carbon taxes in European countries during the 1990s.
Although outsourcing can influence environmental de-regulatory trends, the added cost of preventing pollution does not majorly determine trade flows or industrialization.[145]
Companies such as ET Water Systems (now aJain Irrigation Systems company),[146]GE Appliances andCaterpillar found that with the increase of labor costs in Japan and China, the cost of shipping and custom fees, it cost only about 10% more to manufacture in America.[103] Advances in technology and automation such as3D printing technologies[147] have made bringing manufacturing back to the U.S., both cost effective and possible.Adidas, for example, plans to produce highly customized shoes with 3D printers in the U.S.[148]
Outsourcing has contributed to further levelling of global inequalities as it has led to general trends of industrialization in the Global South and deindustrialization in the Global North.[149]
Not all manufacturing should return to the U.S.[150] The rise of the middle class in China, India and other countries has created markets for the products made in those countries. Just as the U.S. has aMade in USA program, other countries support products being made domestically. Localization, the process of manufacturing products for the local market, is an approach to keeping some manufacturing offshore and bringing some of it back. Besides the cost savings of manufacturing closer to the market, the lead time for adapting to changes in the market is faster.
The rise in industrial efficiency which characterized development in developed countries has occurred as a result of labor-saving technological improvements. Although these improvements do not directly reduce employment levels but rather increase output per unit of work, they can indirectly diminish the amount of labor required for fixed levels of output.[151]
It has been suggested that "workers require more education and different skills, working with software rather than drill presses" rather than rely on limited growth labor requirements for non-tradable services.[104]
The main driver for offshoring development work has been the greater availability of developers at a lower cost than in the home country. However, the rise in offshore development has taken place in parallel with an increased awareness of the importance of usability, and the user experience, in software. Outsourced development poses special problems for development, i.e. the more formal, contractual relationship between the supplier and client, and geographical separation place greater distance between the developers and users, which makes it harder to reflect the users' needs in the final product. This problem is exacerbated if the development is offshore. Further complications arise from cultural differences, which apply even if the development is carried out by an in-house offshore team.[152]
Historically offshore development concentrated on back office functions but, as offshoring has grown, a wider range of applications have been developed. Offshore suppliers have had to respond to the commercial pressures arising from usability issues by building up their usability expertise. Indeed, this problem has presented an attractive opportunity to some suppliers to move up market and offer higher value services.[153][154][155]
Offshore Software R&D means that company A turns over responsibility, in whole or in part, of an in-house software development to company B whose location is outside of company A's national jurisdiction. Maximizing the economic value of an offshore software development asset critically depends on understanding how best to use the available forms of legal regulations to protect intellectual rights. If the vendor cannot be trusted to protect trade secrets, then the risks of an offshoring software development may outweigh its potential benefits. Hence, it is critical to review the intellectual property policy of the potential offshoring supplier. The intellectual property protection policy of an offshore software development company must be reflected in these crucial documents: General Agreement, Non-Disclosure Agreement, and Employee Confidentiality Contract.[156]
As forecast in 2003,[157] R&D is outsourced. Ownership ofintellectual property by the outsourcing company, despite outside development, was the goal. To defend against tax-motivated cost-shifting, the U.S. government passed regulations in 2006 to make outsourcing research harder.[158] Despite many R&D contracts given to Indian universities and labs, only some research solutions were patented.[159]
WhilePfizer moved some of its R&D from the UK to India,[160] aForbes article suggested that it is increasingly more dangerous to offshore IP-sensitive projects to India, because of India's continued ignorance of patent regulations.[161] In turn, companies such asPfizer and Novartis, have lost rights to sell many of their cancer medications in India because of lack ofIP protection.
A 2018University of Chicago Law School article titled "The Future of Outsourcing" begins with "The future of outsourcing is digital."[48] According to other sources, the "Do what you do best and outsource the rest"[21] approach means that "integration with retained systems"[48] is the new transition challenge; people training still exists, but is merely an "also."
There is more complexity than before, especially when the outside company may be an integrator.[48]
While the number of technically skilled labor grows in India, Indian offshore companies are increasingly tapping into the skilled labor already available in Eastern Europe to better address the needs of the Western European R&D market.[162][citation needed]
Two organizations may enter into a contractual agreement involving anexchange ofservices, expertise, andpayments. Outsourcing is said to help firms to perform well in their core competencies, fuelinnovation, and mitigate a shortage of skill or expertise in the areas where they want to outsource.[163] Established good practices include covering exit arrangements within an outsourcing agreement, with an exit period and a mutual commitment to maintaining continuity until the exit phase is completed.[164]
Protection of some data involved in outsourcing, such as about patients (HIPAA) is one of the few federal protections.
"Outsourcing" is a continuing political issue in the U.S., having been conflated with offshoring during the2004 U.S. presidential election. The political debate centered on outsourcing's consequences for the domestic U.S. workforce.Democratic U.S. presidential candidateJohn Kerry called U.S. firms that outsource jobs abroad or that incorporate overseas intax havens to avoid paying their "fair share" ofU.S. taxes "Benedict Arnold corporations".
AZogby International August 2004 poll found that 71% of American voters believed "outsourcing jobs overseas" hurt the economy while another 62% believed that the U.S. government should impose some legislative action against these companies, possibly in the form of increased taxes.[165][166] President Obama promoted theBring Jobs Home Act to help reshore jobs by using tax cuts and credits for moving operations back to the U.S.[167][168] The same bill was reintroduced in the113th U.S. Congress.[169][170]
While labor advocates claimunion busting as one possible cause of outsourcing,[171] another claim is high corporate income tax rate in the U.S. relative to other OECD nations,[172][173][needs update] and the practice of taxing revenues earned outside of U.S. jurisdiction, a very uncommon practice. Some counterclaim that the actual taxes paid by U.S. corporations may be considerably lower than "official" rates due to the use of tax loopholes, tax havens, and "gaming the system".[174][175]
Sarbanes-Oxley has also been cited as a factor.[citation needed]
Council Directive 77/187 of 14 February 1977 protects employees' rights in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of businesses (as amended 29 June 1998, Directive 98/50/EC and 12 March 2001's Directive 2001/23). Rights acquired by employees with the former employer are to be safeguarded when they, together with the undertaking in which they are employed, are transferred to another employer, i.e., the contractor.
Case subsequent to the European Court of Justice'sChristel Schmidt v. Spar- und Leihkasse der früheren Ämter Bordesholm, Kiel und Cronshagen, Case C-392/92 [1994] have disputed whether a particular contracting-out exercise constituted a transfer of an undertaking (see, for example,Ayse Süzen v. Zehnacker Gebäudereinigung GmbH Krankenhausservice, Case C-13/95 [1997]). In principle, employees may benefit from the protection offered by the directive.
Countries that have been the focus of outsourcing include India and the Philippines for American and European companies, and China and Vietnam for Japanese companies.
The Asian IT service market is still in its infancy, but in 2008 industry think tank Nasscom-McKinsey predicted a $17 billion IT service industry in India alone.[176]
A China-based company,Lenovo, outsourced/reshored manufacturing of some time-critical customizedPCs to the U.S. since "If it made them in China they would spend six weeks on a ship."[103]
Article 44 of Japan's Employment Security Act implicitly bans the domestic/foreign workers supplied by unauthorized companies regardless of their operating locations. The law will apply if at least one party of suppliers, clients, labors reside in Japan, and if the labors are the integral part of the chain of command by the client company, or the supplier.
Victims can lodge a criminal complaint against the CEO of the suppliers and clients. The CEO risks arrest, and the Japanese company may face a private settlement with financial package in the range between 20 and 100 million JPY ($200,000 – US$1 million).
The U.S. has a specialvisa, the H-1B, which enables American companies to temporarily (up to three years, or by extension, six) hireforeign workers to supplement their employees or replace those holding existing positions. In hearings on this matter, a U.S. senator called these "their outsourcing visa".[178]
Print and mail outsourcing is the outsourcing of document printing and distribution.
ThePrint Services & Distribution Association was formed in 1946, and its members provide services that today might involve the word outsource. Similarly, members of theDirect Mail Marketing Association (established 1917) were the "outsourcers" for advertising agencies and others doing mailings.
The term "outsourcing" became very common in the print and mail business during the 1990s, and later expanded to be very broad and inclusive of most any process by 2000. Today, there are web based print to mail solutions for small to mid-size companies which allow the user to send one to thousands of documents into the mail stream, directly from a desktop or web interface.[180]
The termoutsource marketing has been used in Britain to mean the outsourcing of the marketing function.[181] The motivation for this has been:
While much of this work is the "bread and butter" of specialized departments within advertising agencies, sometimes specialist are used, such as whenThe Guardian outsourced most of its marketing design in May 2010.[186]
Business process outsourcing (BPO) is a subset of outsourcing that involves thecontracting of the operations and responsibilities of a specificbusiness process to a third-partyservice provider. Originally, this was associated withmanufacturing firms, such asCoca-Cola that outsourced large segments of itssupply chain.[187]
BPO is typically categorized intoback office andfront office outsourcing.[188] BPO can help your business remain competitive and efficient by leveraging the expertise of other companies that are more specialized in certain functions.[189]
BPO can be offshore outsourcing, near-shore outsourcing to a nearby country, or onshore outsourcing to the same country.Information technology-enabled service (ITES-BPO),[190]knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) andlegal process outsourcing (LPO), a.k.a. legal outsourcing, are some of the sub-segments of BPO.
Although BPO began as a cost-reducer, changes (specifically the move to more service-based rather than product-based contracts), companies now choose to outsource their back-office increasingly for time flexibility and direct quality control.[191] Business process outsourcing enhances the flexibility of an organization in different ways:
BPO vendor charges are project-based or fee-for-service, using business models such as remote in-sourcing or similar software development and outsourcing models.[192][193] This can help a company to become more flexible by transforming fixed intovariable costs.[194] A variable cost structure helps a company responding to changes in required capacity and does not require a company to invest in assets, thereby making the company more flexible.[195]
BPO also permits focusing on a company'score competencies.[196]
Supply chain management with effective use of supply chain partners and business process outsourcing can increase the speed of several business processes.[187]
Even various contractual compensation strategies may leave the company as having a new "single point of failure" (where even an after the fact payment is not enough to offset "complete failure of the customer's business").[197] Unclear contractual issues are not the only risks; there's also changing requirements and unforeseen charges, failure to meet service levels, and a dependence on the BPO which reduces flexibility. The latter is calledlock-in; flexibility may be lost due to penalty clauses and other contract terms.[198] Also, the selection criteria may seem vague and undifferentiated.[199]
Security risks can arise regarding both from physical communication and from a privacy perspective. Employee attitude may change, and the company risks losing independence.[200][201]
Risks and threats of outsourcing must therefore be managed, to achieve any benefits. In order to manage outsourcing in a structured way, maximizing positive outcome, minimizing risks and avoiding any threats, abusiness continuity management (BCM) model is set up. BCM consists of a set of steps, to successfully identify, manage and control the business processes that are, or can be outsourced.[202]
Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is a framework of BPO focused on identifying potential outsourceable information systems.[203] L. Willcocks, M. Lacity and G. Fitzgerald identify several contracting problems companies face, ranging from unclear contract formatting, to a lack of understanding of technical IT processes.[204]
Industry analysts have identifiedrobotic process automation (RPA) software and in particular the enhanced self-guided RPAAI based onartificial intelligence as a potential threat to the industry[205][206] and speculate as to the likely long-term impact.[207] In the short term, however, there is likely to be little impact as existing contracts run their course: it is only reasonable to expect demand for cost efficiency and innovation to result in transformative changes at the point of contract renewals. With the average length of a BPO contract being 5 years or more[208] – and many contracts being longer – this hypothesis will take some time to play out.
On the other hand, an academic study by theLondon School of Economics was at pains to counter the so-called 'myth' that RPA will bring back many jobs from offshore.[209] One possible argument behind such an assertion is that new technology provides new opportunities for increased quality, reliability, scalability and cost control, thus enabling BPO providers to increasingly compete on an outcomes-based model rather than competing on cost alone. With the core offering potentially changing from a "lift and shift" approach based on fixed costs to a more qualitative, service based and outcomes-based model, there is perhaps a new opportunity to grow the BPO industry with a new offering.
One estimate of the worldwide BPO market from the BPO Services Global Industry Almanac 2017, puts the size of the industry in 2016 at about US$140 billion.[210]
India, China and the Philippines are major powerhouses in the industry. In 2017, in India, the BPO industry generated US$30 billion in revenue according to the national industry association.[211] The BPO industry is a small segment of the total outsourcing industry in India. The BPO industry workforce in India is expected to shrink by 14% in 2021.[212]
The BPO industry and IT services industry in combination are worth a total of US$154 billion in revenue in 2017.[213] The BPO industry in the Philippines generated $26.7 billion in revenues in 2020,[214] while around 700 thousand medium and high skill jobs would be created by 2022.[215]
In 2015, official statistics put the size of the total outsourcing industry in China, including not only the BPO industry but also IT outsourcing services, at $130.9 billion.[216]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)customers were not happy with ...
cost-cutting is no longer the top goal of outsourcing
... will offer .. through .. "midsourcing" model
The term midsourcing refers to ...
the third U.S. software manufacturer to select Puerto Rico as a production site for the booming U.S. software market.
(chapter) COMMUNICATION AND OUTSOURCING ... Roche, 1998
Overall employment in the sector grew by almost half a million jobs since Trump took office, after falling by almost 200,000 in the Obama years.
oversight of the BBC, including step-in rights
ineffectual leadership, process failures, talent issues
In the .. $4 billion deal between the U.S. Navy and .. EDS, .. in 2003, ... reasons behind the failure are complex, but ..
GM is not the only company to pull back at least a portion of its previously outsourced offshore IT operations.
{{cite news}}:|author2= has generic name (help){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)economic incentive programs that in total have awarded $11 billion
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)a.k.a. internal shared-services centers in low-cost locations
Quotations related toOutsourcing at Wikiquote| Terminology | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organizations and policies | |||||||||||
| Political economy | |||||||||||
| Regional organizations |
| ||||||||||
| Exports by product |
| ||||||||||
