| Australian magpie | |
|---|---|
 | |
| G. tibicen hypoleuca,Tasmania | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Artamidae |
| Subfamily: | Cracticinae |
| Genus: | Gymnorhina Gray, GR, 1840 |
| Species: | G. tibicen |
| Binomial name | |
| Gymnorhina tibicen (Latham, 1801) | |
| Subspecies | |
9, seetext | |
 | |
| Natural range | |
| Synonyms | |
Cracticus tibicen | |
_with_juvenile_Taveuni.jpg)
TheAustralian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) is a black and whitepasserine bird native toAustralia and southernNew Guinea, andintroduced to New Zealand, and theFijian island ofTaveuni.[2] Although once considered to be three separatespecies, it is now considered to be one, with nine recognisedsubspecies. A member of theArtamidae, the Australian magpie is placed in its owngenusGymnorhina and is most closely related to theblack butcherbird (Melloria quoyi). It is not closely related to theEurasian magpie, which is acorvid.
The adult Australian magpie is a fairly robust bird ranging from 37 to 43 cm (14.5 to 17 in) in length, with black and whiteplumage, gold brown eyes and a solid wedge-shaped bluish-white and black bill. The male and female are similar in appearance, but can be distinguished by differences in back markings. The male has pure white feathers on the back of the head where the female has white blending to grey feathers. With its long legs, the Australian magpie walks rather than waddles or hops and spends much time on the ground.
Described as one of Australia's most accomplishedsongbirds, the Australian magpie has an array of complex vocalisations. It isomnivorous, with the bulk of its varied diet made up ofinvertebrates. It is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range. Common and widespread, it has adapted well to human habitation and is a familiar bird of parks, gardens and farmland in Australia and New Guinea. This species is commonly fed by households around Australia, but in spring (and occasionally in autumn) a small minority of breeding magpies (almost always males) become aggressive, swooping and attacking those who approach their nests. Research has shown that magpies can recognise at least 100 different people, and may be less likely to swoop individuals they have befriended.[3]
Over 1,000 Australian magpieswere introduced into New Zealand from 1864 to 1874,[4] but were subsequently deemed to be displacing native birds and are now treated as a pest species.[5] Introductions also occurred in theSolomon Islands andFiji, where the birds are not considered aninvasive species. The Australian magpie is the mascot of several Australian and New Zealand sporting teams, including theCollingwood Magpies, theWestern Suburbs Magpies,Port Adelaide Magpies and, in New Zealand, theHawke's Bay Magpies.
The Australian magpie was first described in the scientific literature by English ornithologistJohn Latham in 1801 asCoracias tibicen, the type collected in thePort Jackson region.[6][a] Itsspecific epithet derived from theLatintibicen "flute-player" or "piper" in reference to the bird's melodious call.[8][9] An early recorded vernacular name ispiping poller, written on a painting byThomas Watling, one of a group known collectively as thePort Jackson Painter,[10] some time between 1788 and 1792.[11] Other names used includepiping crow-shrike,piping shrike,piper,maggie,flute-bird andorgan-bird.[9] The termbell-magpie was proposed to help distinguish it fromcorvidmagpies but failed to gain wide acceptance.[12]
Tarra-won-nang,[10] ordjarrawunang,wibung, andmarriyang were names used by the localEora andDarug inhabitants of theSydney Basin.[13]Booroogong andgaroogong wereWiradjuri words and Victorian terms includedcarrak (Jardwadjali),[14]kuruk (Western Victorian languages),kiri (Dhauwurd Wurrung language) andkurikari (Wuluwurrung).[15] Among theKamilaroi, it isburrugaabu,[16]galalu, orguluu.[17] InWestern Australia it is known aswarndurla among theYindjibarndi people of the central and westernPilbara,[18] andkoorlbardi amongst the south westNoongar peoples.[19] In South Australia, where it is the Stateemblem, it is thekurraka (Kaurna),murru (Narungga),urrakurli (Adnyamathanha),goora (Barngarla),konlarru (Ngarrindjeri) andtuwal (Bunganditj).[20]
The bird was named for its similarity in colouration to theEurasian magpie; it was a common practice for early settlers to name plants and animals after European counterparts.[11] However, the Eurasian magpie is a member of theCorvidae, while its Australian counterpart is placed in the familyArtamidae (although both are members of a broadcorvid lineage). The Australian magpie's affinities withbutcherbirds andcurrawongs were recognised early, and the three genera were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 byJohn Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature.[21] American ornithologistsCharles Sibley andJon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship betweenwoodswallows and the butcherbirds in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticiniclade,[22] in the Artamidae.[23] The Australian magpie is placed in its ownmonotypic genusGymnorhina, which was introduced by the English zoologistGeorge Robert Gray in 1840.[24][25] The name of the genus is from the Ancient Greekgumnos for "naked" or "bare" andrhis,rhinos "nostrils".[26] Some authorities such asGlen Storr in 1952 andLeslie Christidis and Walter Boles in their 2008 checklist, have placed the Australian magpie in the butcherbird genusCracticus, arguing that its adaptation to ground-living is not enough to consider it a separate genus.[23][27] A molecular genetic study published in a 2013 showed that the Australian magpie is asister taxon to theblack butcherbird (Melloria quoyi), and that the two species are in turn sister to a clade that includes the other butcherbirds in the genusCracticus. The ancestor to the two species is thought to have split from the other butcherbirds between 8.3 and 4.2 million years ago, during the late Miocene to early Pliocene, while the two species themselves diverged sometime during the Pliocene (5.8–3.0 million years ago).[28]
The Australian magpie was subdivided into three species in the literature for much of the twentieth century: the black-backed magpie (G. tibicen), the white-backed magpie (G. hypoleuca), and the western magpie (G. dorsalis).[29] They were later noted tohybridise readily where their territories crossed, with hybrid grey or striped-backed magpies being quite common. They were reclassified as one species byJulian Ford in 1969,[30] with most recent authors following suit.[23]
There are currently thought to be nine subspecies of the Australian magpie, although there are large zones of overlap with intermediate forms between the taxa. There is a tendency for birds to become larger with increasing latitude, the southern subspecies being larger than those further north, except the Tasmanian form which is small.[31] The original form, known as theblack-backed magpie and classified asGymnorhina tibicen, has been split into four black-backed races:
Thewhite-backed magpie, originally described asGymnorhina hypoleuca byJohn Gould in 1837, has also been split into races:
_male_Sydney.jpg)
_female_Adelaide.jpg)
The adult magpie ranges from 37 to 43 cm (14.5 to 17 in) in length with a 65–85 cm (25.5–33.5 in) wingspan, and weighing 220–350 g (7.8–12.3 oz).[34] Its robust wedge-shaped bill is bluish-white bordered with black, with a small hook at the tip. The black legs are long and strong.[41] The plumage is pure glossy black and white; both sexes of all subspecies have black heads, wings and underparts with white shoulders. The tail has a black terminal band. The nape is white in the male and light greyish-white in the female. Mature magpies have dull red eyes, in contrast to the yellow eyes of currawongs and white eyes of Australian ravens and crows.[42] The main difference between the subspecies lies in the "saddle" markings on the back below the nape. Black-backed subspecies have a black saddle and white nape.[34] White-backed subspecies have a wholly white nape and saddle. The male Western Australian subspeciesdorsalis is also white-backed, but the equivalent area in the female is scalloped black.[42]
Juveniles have lighter greys and browns amidst the starker blacks and whites of their plumage;[43] two- or three-year-old birds of both sexes closely resemble and are difficult to distinguish from adult females.[41] Immature birds have dark brownish eyes until around two years of age.[41] Australian magpies generally live to around 25 years of age,[44] though ages of up to 30 years have been recorded.[45] The reported age of first breeding has varied according to area, but the average is between three and five years.[46]
Well-known and easily recognisable, the Australian magpie is unlikely to be confused with any other species. Thepied butcherbird has a similar build and plumage, but has white underparts unlike the former species' black underparts. Themagpie-lark is a much smaller and more delicate bird with complex and very different banded black and white plumage. Currawong species have predominantly dark plumage and heavier bills.[42]
One of Australia's most highly regarded songbirds, the Australian magpie has a wide variety of calls, many of which are complex. Pitch may vary as much as four octaves,[47] and the bird can mimic over 35 species of native and introduced bird species, as well as dogs and horses.[48] Magpies have even been noted to mimic human speech when living in close proximity to humans.[49] Its complex, musical, warbling call is one of the most familiar Australian bird sounds. InDenis Glover's poem "The Magpies", the mature magpie's call is described asquardle oodle ardle wardle doodle,[50] one of the most famous lines in New Zealand poetry, and aswaddle giggle gargle paddle poodle, in the children's bookWaddle Giggle Gargle byPamela Allen.[51] The bird has been known to mimic environmental sounds as well, including the noises made by emergency vehicles during the2019-20 "Black Summer" bushfire season.[52]
When alone, a magpie may make a quiet musical warbling; these complex melodious warbles or subsongs are pitched at 2–4 KHz and do not carry for long distances. These songs have been recorded as being up to 70 minutes long, and are more frequent after the end of the breeding season.[53] Pairs of magpies often take up a loud musical calling known ascarolling to advertise or defend their territory; one bird initiates the call with the second (and sometimes more) joining in.[54] Often preceded by warbling,[48] carolling is pitched between 6 and 8 kHz and has 4–5 elements with slurring indistinct noise in between.[55] Birds adopt a specific posture by tilting their heads back, expanding their chests, and moving their wings backwards.[56] A group of magpies sing a short repetitive version of carolling just before dawn (dawn song), and at twilight after sundown (dusk song), in winter and spring.[48]
Fledgling and juvenile magpies emit a repeated short and loud (80dB), high-pitched (8 kHz)begging call.[57] Magpies may indulge in beak-clapping to warn other species of birds.[58] They employ several high pitched (8–10 kHz) alarm or rallying calls when intruders or threats are spotted. Distinct calls have been recorded for the approach of eagles and monitor lizards.[59]
The Australian magpie is found in theTrans-Fly region of southern New Guinea, between theOriomo River andMuli Strait, and across most of Australia, bar the tip ofCape York,[60] theGibson andGreat Sandy Deserts, and the southwest of Tasmania.[61]
The Australian magpie prefers open areas such as grassland, fields and residential areas such as parks, gardens, golf courses, and streets, with scattered trees or forest nearby. Birds nest and shelter in trees but forage mainly on the ground in these open areas.[62] It has also been recorded in maturepine plantations; birds only occupy rainforest and wetsclerophyll forest in the vicinity of cleared areas.[60] In general, evidence suggests the range and population of the Australian magpie has increased with land-clearing, although local declines in Queensland due to a 1902 drought, and in Tasmania in the 1930s have been noted; the cause for the latter is unclear but rabbit baiting, pine tree removal, and spread of themasked lapwing (Vanellus miles) have been implicated.[63]
Birds taken mainly from Tasmania and Victoria were introduced into New Zealand by localAcclimatisation Societies of Otago and Canterbury in the 1860s, with the Wellington Acclimatisation Society releasing 260 birds in 1874. White-backed forms are spread on both the North and eastern South Island, while black-backed forms are found in theHawke's Bay region.[64] Magpies were introduced into New Zealand to control agricultural pests, and were therefore a protected species until 1951.[65] They are thought to affect native New Zealand bird populations such as thetūī andkererū, sometimes raiding nests for eggs and nestlings,[65] although studies byWaikato University have cast doubt on this,[66] and much blame on the magpie as a predator in the past has been anecdotal only.[67] Introductions also occurred in theSolomon Islands andSri Lanka, although the species has failed to become established. It has become established in westernTaveuni inFiji, however.[64]
The Australian magpie is almost exclusivelydiurnal, although it may call into the night, like some other members of the Artamidae.[68] Natural predators of magpies include various species ofmonitor lizard and thebarking owl.[69] Birds are often killed on roads or electrocuted by powerlines, or poisoned after killing and eatinghouse sparrows, mice, rats or rabbits that have eaten poison bait.[70] TheAustralian raven may take nestlings left unattended.[71]
On the ground, the Australian magpie moves around by walking, and is the only member of the Artamidae to do so; woodswallows, butcherbirds and currawongs all tend to hop with legs parallel. The magpie has a shortfemur (thigh bone), and long lower leg below the knee, suited to walking rather than running, although birds can run in short bursts when hunting prey.[72]
The magpie is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range, living in groups occupying a territory, or in flocks or fringe groups. A group may occupy and defend the same territory for many years.[70] Much energy is spent defending a territory from intruders, particularly other magpies, and different behaviours are seen with different opponents. The sight of araptor results in a rallying call by sentinel birds and subsequent coordinated mobbing of the intruder. Magpies place themselves either side of the bird of prey so that it will be attacked from behind should it strike a defender, and harass and drive the raptor to some distance beyond the territory.[73] A group will use carolling as a signal to advertise ownership and warn off other magpies. In thenegotiating display, the one or two dominant magpies parade along the border of the defended territory while the rest of the group stand back a little and look on. The leaders may fluff their feathers or caroll repeatedly. In agroup strength display, employed if both the opposing and defending groups are of roughly equal numbers, all magpies will fly and form a row at the border of the territory.[74] The defending group may also resort to an aerial display where the dominant magpies, or sometimes the whole group, swoop and dive while calling to warn an intruding magpie's group.[75]
A wide variety of displays are seen, with aggressive behaviours outnumbering pro-social ones.[76] Crouching low and uttering quiet begging calls are common signs of submission.[77] Themanus flutter is a submissive display where a magpie will flutter theprimary feathers in its wings.[78] A magpie, particularly a juvenile, may also fall, roll over on its back and expose its underparts.[78] Birds may fluff up their flank feathers as an aggressive display or preceding an attack.[79] Young birds display various forms of play behaviour, either by themselves or in groups, with older birds often initiating the proceedings with juveniles. These may involve picking up, manipulating or tugging at various objects such as sticks, rocks or bits of wire, and handing them to other birds. A bird may pick up a feather or leaf and fly off with it, with other birds pursuing and attempting to bring down the leader by latching onto its tail feathers. Birds may jump on each other and even engage in mock fighting. Play may even take place with other species such asblue-faced honeyeaters andAustralasian pipits.[80]
A 2022 study showed cooperative behaviour, along with a moderate level of problem-solving, when magpies (G. tibicen) assisted one another to removetracking devices placed on their bodies in a specially-designed harness by researchers for conservation purposes. This was the first recorded example of birds acting in this way to remove tracking devices, a form ofrescue behaviour.[81][82]
Magpies have a long breeding season which varies in different parts of the country; in northern parts of Australia they will breed between June and September, but not commence until August or September in cooler regions, and may continue until January in some alpine areas.[83] The nest is a bowl-shaped structure made of sticks and lined with softer material such as grass and bark. Near human habitation, synthetic material may be incorporated.[84] Nests are built exclusively by females and generally placed high up in a tree fork, often in an exposed position.[85] The trees used are most commonlyeucalypts, although a variety of other native trees as well as introducedpine,Crataegus, andelm have been recorded.[86] Other bird species, such as theyellow-rumped thornbill (Acanthiza chrysorrhoa),willie wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys),southern whiteface (Aphelocephala leucopsis), and (less commonly)noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala), often nest in the same tree as the magpie. The first two species may even locate their nest directly beneath a magpie nest, while the diminutivestriated pardalote (Pardalotus striatus) has been known to make a burrow for breeding into the base of the magpie nest itself. These incursions are all tolerated by the magpies.[87] Thechannel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) is a notable brood parasite in eastern Australia; magpies will raise cuckoo young, which eventually outcompete the magpie nestlings.[88]
The Australian magpie produces a clutch of two to five light blue or greenish eggs, which are oval in shape and about 30 by 40 mm (1.2 by 1.6 in).[89] The chicks hatch synchronously around 20 days afterincubation begins; like allpasserines, the chicks arealtricial—they are born pink, naked, and blind with large feet, a short broad beak and a bright red throat. Their eyes are fully open at around 10 days. Chicks develop fine downy feathers on their head, back and wings in the first week, and pinfeathers in the second week. The black and white colouration is noticeable from an early stage.[90] Nestlings are usually fed exclusively by the female, though the male magpie will feed his partner.[91] Individual males do feed nestlings and fledglings, to varying degrees, from sporadic to equal frequency to the female. The Australian magpie is known to engage incooperative breeding, and helper birds will assist in feeding and raising young.[46] This does vary from region to region, and with the size of the group—the behaviour is rare or non-existent in pairs or small groups.[46]
Juvenile magpies begin foraging on their own three weeks after leaving the nest, and mostly feeding themselves by six months old. Some birds continue begging for food until eight or nine months of age, but are usually ignored. Birds reach adult size by their first year.[92] The age at which young birds disperse varies across the country, and depends on the aggressiveness of the dominant adult of the corresponding sex; males are usually evicted at a younger age. Many leave at around a year old, but the age of departure may range from eight months to four years.[93]
The Australian magpie is omnivorous, eating various items located at or near ground level including invertebrates such asearthworms,millipedes,snails,spiders andscorpions as well as a wide variety ofinsects—cockroaches, ants, earwigs, beetles,cicadas, moths and caterpillars and other larvae. Insects, including large adultgrasshoppers, may be seized mid-flight.Skinks, frogs, mice and other small animals as well as grain, tubers, figs and walnuts have also been noted as components of their diet.[94]
It has even learnt to safely eat the poisonouscane toad by flipping it over and consuming the underparts.[95] Predominantly a ground feeder, the Australian magpie paces open areas methodically searching for insects and their larvae.[96] One study showed birds were able to findscarab beetle larvae by sound or vibration.[97] Birds use their bills to probe into the earth or otherwise overturn debris in search of food.[98] Smaller prey are swallowed whole, although magpies rub off the stingers of bees, stinging ants and wasps and irritating hairs of caterpillars before swallowing.[99]
_with_Cicada_(Church_Point%2c_NSW%2c_2017-12-27).png)
Magpies are ubiquitous in urban areas all over Australia, and have become accustomed to people. A small percentage of birds become highly aggressive during breeding season from late August to late November – early December or occasionally late February to late April – early May, and will swoop and sometimes attack passersby. Attacks begin as the eggs hatch, increase in frequency and severity as the chicks grow, and tail off as the chicks leave the nest.[100][101]
Magpie attacks occur in most parts of Australia, though Tasmanian magpies are much less aggressive than their mainland counterparts.[102] Magpie attacks can cause injuries, typically wounds to the head.[103] Being unexpectedly swooped while cycling can result in loss of control of the bicycle, which may cause injury or even fatal accidents.[104][105][106][107]
Magpies may engage in an escalating series of behaviours to drive off intruders. Least threatening are alarm calls and distant swoops, where birds fly within several metres from behind and perch nearby. Next in intensity are close swoops, where a magpie will swoop in from behind or the side and audibly "snap" their beaks or even peck or bite at the face, neck, ears or eyes. More rarely, a bird may dive-bomb and strike the intruder's (usually a cyclist's) head with its chest. A magpie may rarely attack by landing on the ground in front of a person and lurching up and landing on the victim's chest and pecking at the face and eyes.[108][109]
The percentage of magpies that swoop has been difficult to estimate but is less than 9%.[110] Almost all attacking birds (around 99%) are male,[111][101] and they are generally known to attack pedestrians at around 50 m (160 ft) from their nest, and cyclists at around 100 m (330 ft).[112] There appears to be some specificity in choice of attack targets, with the majority of individuals specializing on either pedestrians or cyclists.[113]
Younger people, lone people, and people travelling quickly (i.e., runners and cyclists) appear to be targeted most often by swooping magpies. Anecdotal evidence suggests that if a magpie sees a human trying to rescue a chick that has fallen from its nest, the bird will view this help as predation, and will become more aggressive to humans from then on.[101] Some attacks have indirectly been fatal. For example, in 2021, a Brisbane woman tripped and fell onto her infant while attempting to avoid a swooping, and the infant died.[114]
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Magpies are a protected native species in Australia, so it is illegal to kill or harm them. However, some states provide exceptions for a magpie that attacks a human, allowing a particularly aggressive bird to be killed. Such a provision is made, for example, in section 54 of the South AustralianNational Parks and Wildlife Act.[115] More commonly, an aggressive bird will be caught and relocated to an unpopulated area.[116] Magpies have to be moved a considerable distance, as almost all are able to find their way home from distances of less than 25 km (16 mi).[117] Removing the nest is of no use, as birds will breed again and possibly be more aggressive the second time around.[118]
If it is necessary to walk near the nest, wearing a broad-brimmed or legionnaire's hat or using an umbrella will deter attacking birds, but beanies and bicycle helmets are of little value, as birds attack the sides of the head and neck.[119] Magpies prefer to swoop at the back of the head; therefore, keeping the magpie in sight at all times can discourage the bird. A basic disguise such as sunglasses worn on the back of the head may fool the magpie as to where a person is looking. Eyes painted on hats or helmets will deter attacks on pedestrians but not cyclists.[120] Cyclists can deter attack by attaching a long pole with a flag to a bike,[121] and the use ofcable ties on helmets has become common and appears to be effective.[122]
Some claim that hand-feeding magpies can reduce the risk of swooping. Magpies will become accustomed to being fed by humans, and although they are wild, will return to the same place looking for handouts. The idea is that humans thereby appear less of a threat to the nesting birds. Although this has not been studied systematically, there are reports of its success.[123]
The Australian magpie featured in aboriginal folklore around Australia. TheYindjibarndi people of thePilbara in the northwest of the country used the bird as a signal for sunrise, awakening them with its call. They were also familiar with its highly territorial nature, and it features in a song in theirBurndud, or songs of customs.[18] It was a totem bird of the people of the Illawarra region south of Sydney.[125]
Under the namepiping shrike, the white-backed magpie was declared the official emblem of theGovernment of South Australia in 1901 by GovernorTennyson,[126] and has featured on the South Australian flag since 1904.[127] The magpie is a commonly used emblem of sporting teams in Australia, and its brash, cocky attitude has been likened to the Australian psyche.[128] Such teams tend to wear uniforms with black and white stripes. TheCollingwood Football Club adopted the magpie from a visiting South Australian representative team in 1892.[129] ThePort Adelaide Magpies would likewise adopt the black and white colours and Magpie name in 1902.[130] Other examples include Brisbane'sSouths Logan Magpies[128] and Sydney'sWestern Suburbs Magpies. Disputes over who has been the first club to adopt the magpie emblem have been heated at times.[131] Another club,Glenorchy Football Club of Tasmania, was forced to change uniform design when placed in the same league as another club (Claremont Magpies) with the same emblem.[132]
In New Zealand, theHawke's Bay Rugby Union team, fromNapier, New Zealand, is also known as the magpies.[133] One of the best-known New Zealand poems is "The Magpies" byDenis Glover, with its refrain "Quardle oodle ardle wardle doodle", imitating the sound of the bird – and the popular New Zealand comicFootrot Flats features a magpie character by the name of Pew.[134] Other magpies depicted in fiction include: Magpie inColin Thiele's 1974 children's bookMagpie Island,[135] Miss Magpie inThe Adventures of Blinky Bill,[136] and Penguin the magpie inPenguin Bloom.[137] The sculptureBig Swoop in central Canberra was installed in Garema Place on 16 March 2022.[138] The Australian Magpie won the inauguralAustralian Bird of the Year poll conducted byGuardian Australia andBirdLife Australia in late 2017. The Australian magpie won the 2017 contest with 19,926 votes (13.3%), narrowly ahead of theAustralian white ibis.[139] The magpie slumped to the #4 place in the 2019 poll,[140] and to the #9 place in the 2021 poll.[141] The voting rules changed in all three years of the Bird of the Year poll, which may have affected the results.[142] The magpie also won a 2023ABC Science poll for Australia's favourite animal sound.[143]
