The related wordʾaʿrāb is used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast toʿArab which refers to Arabs in general.[98] Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-IslamicSabaean inscriptions. The termʿarab ('Arab') occurs also in the titles of theHimyarite kings from the time of'Abu Karab Asad until MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the termʾaʿrāb is derived from the termʿarab. The term is also mentioned inQuranic verses, referring to people who were living inMadina and it might be a south Arabianloanword into Quranic language.[99]
The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using theNabataean alphabet, which refers toImru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr as 'King of all the Arabs'.[100][101]Herodotus refers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and thefrankincense region (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians likeAgatharchides,Diodorus Siculus andStrabo mention Arabs living inMesopotamia (along theEuphrates), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (theNabataeans), theSyrian steppe and in eastern Arabia (the people ofGerrha). Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'.[102]
The most popular Arab account holds that the wordArab came from aneponymous father namedYa'rub, who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic.Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view; he states that Arabs were calledgharab ('westerners') byMesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted intoArab.
Yet another view is held byal-Masudi that the wordArab was initially applied to theIshmaelites of theArabah valley. In Biblical etymology,Arab (Hebrew:arvi) comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (arava means 'wilderness').
The rootʿ-r-b has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms weremetathetical fromʿ-B-R, 'moving around' (Arabic:ʿ-B-R, 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'.[103]
Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to theAfroasiatic language family. The majority of scholars accept the "Arabian Peninsula" has long been accepted as the originalUrheimat (linguistic homeland) of theSemitic languages.[104][105][106][107] with some scholars investigating if its origins are in theLevant.[108] Theancient Semitic-speaking peoples lived in theancient Near East, including the Levant,Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity.Proto-Semitic likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there,[109] whileOld Arabic began to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE.[110]Central Semitic is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic,Aramaic,Canaanite,Phoenician,Hebrew and others.[111][112] The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as theAkkadians who entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE.[109] The origins of Semitic peoples are thought to include various regions Mesopotamia, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, andNorth Africa. Some view that Semitic may have originated in the Levant around 3800 BCE and subsequently spread to the Horn of Africa around 800 BCE from Arabia, as well as to North Africa.[113][114]
According to Arab–Islamic–Jewish traditions,Ishmael, the son of Abraham andHagar was "father of the Arabs".[115][116][117][118][119] Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, the founder ofIslam. The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael."[120]Ibn Khaldun, an Arab scholar in the 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins.[121]
TheQuran mentions thatIbrahim (Abraham) and his wifeHajar (Hagar) bore aprophetic child named Ishmael, who was gifted byGod a favor above other nations.[122] Ibrahim and Ishmael built theKaaba in Mecca, which was originally constructed byAdam.[123] According to theSamaritan bookAsaṭīr:[124]: 262 "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children ofNebaot ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from theriver of Egypt to the riverEuphrates; and they builtMecca."[125] TheTargum Onkelos annotates (Genesis 25:16), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side ofMizraim (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur (Assyria) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East.[126][127]
Relief from Aššur-bāni-apli's palace depicting Assyrian soldiers pursuing camel-riding Qedarite Arab warriors.
The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of theFertile Crescent since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording theBattle of Qarqar in 853 BCE.[128][129] The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period covers various regions such asArabia, Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such asAssyrian andBabylonian Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE.[130][131][132][133] There are also records fromSargon's reign that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza inBabylon, causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of theIsraelites. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.[134]
Map of Midian
Magan,Midian, andʿĀd are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan (Arabic:مِجَانُ,Majan), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in theQur'an as a place whereMusa (Moses) traveled during his lifetime.[135][136] Midian (Arabic:مَدْيَن,Madyan), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian arementioned in the Qur'an as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience.[137][138]Moses also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd (Arabic:عَادَ,ʿĀd), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience toGod.[139] ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.[140][141]The historianHerodotus provided extensive information about Arabia, describing thespices,terrain,folklore,trade,clothing, andweapons of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just beforeCambyses' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia includeTheophrastus,Strabo,Diodorus Siculus, andPliny the Elder. The Jewish historianFlavius Josephus wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship withCleopatra, the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected byHerod, the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions.[142]Geshem the Arab was an Arab man who opposedNehemiah in the Hebrew Bible (Neh.2:19,6:1). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and theSamaritans made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of thewalls of Jerusalem.[143][144][145]
Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards. Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian PeninsulaAl-Khazneh inPetra, capital of theNabataean Kingdom, built as a mausoleum to Nabataean KingAretas IV in the first century AD
The term "Saracens" was a term used in the early centuries, both inGreek andLatin writings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by theRomans asArabia Petraea (Levant) andArabia Deserta (Arabia).[146][147] The Christians ofIberia used the termMoor to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds.Hagarenes is a term widely used by earlySyriac,Greek, andArmenian to describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs."[148] TheArab conquests in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment forIslam, which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.[149]
Receipt for garments sent by boat to Dilmun in the 1st year ofIbbi-Sin's rule, circa 2028 BCE.[150][151]
Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included,Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre[152] which at the height of its power controlled theArabian Gulf trading routes.[152] TheSumerians regarded Dilmun asholy land.[153] Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in theMiddle East.[154][155] which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE.Gerrha was an ancient city ofEastern Arabia, on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300.Thamud, which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE,Proto-Arabic, orAncient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants ofepigraphic south Arabianmusnad script, including the 8th century BCEHasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, theThamudic texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula andSinai.
Map of the Qedarite Kingdom in the 5th century B.C
TheQedarites were a largelynomadic ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in theWādī Sirḥān in theSyrian Desert. They were known for theirnomadic lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with theMediterranean world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and theSinai Peninsula. The Qedarites were influential in theancient Near East, and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.[156]
The Queen of Sheba
Sheba (Arabic:سَبَأٌSaba) is kingdom mentioned in theHebrew Bible (Old Testament) and theQuran, though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features inJewish,Muslim, andChristian traditions, whose lineage goes back toQahtanson ofHud, one of the ancestors of the Arabs,[157][158][159] Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings ofGreek andRoman writers.[160] One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them.[161]
A bronze statue of Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, aHimyarite king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in theSana'a National Museum.
Sabaeans are mentioned several times in theHebrew Bible. In theQuran,[162] they are described as eitherSabaʾ (سَبَأ, not to be confused withṢābiʾ,صَابِئ),[158][159] or asQawmTubbaʿ (Arabic:قَوْم تُبَّع,lit. 'People of Tubbaʿ').[163][164] They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, andRome, making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. TheMaʾrib Dam was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city ofMaʾrib and the surrounding agricultural lands.[165][166][160]
Lihyan also called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of theArabian Peninsula and usedDadanitic language.[167] The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-dayAl Ula), and it controlled a large territory that extended fromYathrib in the south to parts of the Levant in the north.[168][167] The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to beIshmaelites, and usedDadanitic language.[169]
TheKingdom of Ma'in was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus onagriculture andtrade.[170] Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted thePhoenician alphabet and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to theArab Sabaean people.[171][172]
Hellenistic-style Qatabānian sculpture depicting the Moon as a baby boy riding a lion representing the Sun.[173]
Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in theSouth Arabia, which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE.[174][174][175] It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles.[174][176] Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans.[175][173][177] It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE.[173][178] Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt andḤimyar in the 1st century CE.[179][175][173][174][180][173]
TheKingdom of Hadhramaut it was known for its richcultural heritage, as well as its strategic location along importanttrade routes that connected theMiddle East,South Asia, andEast Africa.[181] The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressivearchitecture, particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families.[182] The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia.[183] Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.[184]
The ancientKingdom of Awsān (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms ofSouth Arabia, and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.[185]
TheHimyarite Kingdom or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in thecity of Zafar, which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke aSouth Arabian language and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring,[186] they controlled thesouthern part of Arabia and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted toJudaism in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, includingChristianity and the local pagan religions.[186]
Nabataean Kingdom spanned from southern Jordan to Damascus, including the Tihamah coastal plain and Hejaz region. (above) and Palmyrene Empire extended from Ancyra, central Anatolia, to Upper Egypt. (below)
TheNabataeans were nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan.[187][188] Their early inscriptions were inAramaic, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. TheNabataean alphabet was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested bySafaitic inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names inNabataean inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions fromQaryat al-Faw reveal a dialect no longer consideredproto-Arabic, butpre-classical Arabic. FiveSyriac inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found atSumatar Harabesi, one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.[189][190]
Arabs are first recorded inPalmyra in the late first millennium BCE.[191] The soldiers of thesheikh Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.[192] After theBattle of Edessa in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian kingShapur I was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks.Zenobia was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, asAurelian was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East.
Most scholars identify theItureans as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea,[193][194][195][196] emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base aroundMount Lebanon and theBeqaa Valley, they came to dominate vast stretches ofSyrian territory,[197] and appear to have penetrated into northern parts ofPalestine as far as theGalilee.[83]Tanukhids were anArab tribal confederation that lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were a branch of theRabi'ah tribe, which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire.[198]
Map of the kingdoms of Osroene, Hatra, and Adiabene in Mesopotamia in 200 CE
TheOsroene Arabs, also known as theAbgarids,[199][200][201] were in possession of the city ofEdessa in theancient Near East for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of thedynasty wasAbgar V, who is said to have corresponded withJesus Christ and is believed to have converted toChristianity.[202] The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning andscholarship.[203] TheKingdom of Hatra was an ancient city located in the region ofMesopotamia, it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during theParthian Empire. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe ofBanu Tanukh seized control ofHatra and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."[204]
The Kingdom of Emesa
The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs ofAdiabene which was an ancientkingdom in northernMesopotamia, its chief city wasArbela (Arba-ilu), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela.[205][206] This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by theSasanians, who called the regionArbayistan, meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in theKa'ba-ye Zartosht inscription of the second SasanianKing of Kings,Shapur I (r. 240–270),[207] which was erected inc. 262.[208][86] TheEmesene were a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city ofEmesa (modern-dayHoms, Syria) in theRoman province of Syria from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing a number of high priests of the godEl-Gabal, who were also influential inRoman politics and culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty wasSampsiceramus I, who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son,Iamblichus, who was followed by his own son,Sampsiceramus II. Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of theRoman Empire, and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions.[209]
TheGhassanids,Lakhmids andKindites were the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-HellenizedSyria, the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in theHauran region and spread to modernLebanon,Palestine andJordan. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "Arabia Felix".[210] The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within theRoman EmpireArabia Petraea, after the city ofPetra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and eastArabia Magna.
Lakhmid kingdom
TheLakhmids as a dynasty inherited their power from theTanukhids, the mid Tigris region around their capitalAl-Hira. They ended up allying with theSassanids against the Ghassanids and theByzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying theKingdom of Kinda in 540 after the fall of their main allyHimyar. ThePersian Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.[211] The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul QaisRabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid kingAl-Mundhir, and his son'Amr.
TheGhassanids were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of theAzd tribe. They fought alongside theByzantines against theSasanians and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting toChristianity in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon.[212] TheSalihids were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work ofHisham ibn al-Kalbi, with theTarikh of Ya'qubi considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines.[213]
During theMiddle Ages, Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields ofscience,mathematics,medicine,philosophy, andliterature, with the rise of great cities likeBaghdad,Cairo, andCordoba, they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.[214][215] Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended fromSpain to India.[214] The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.[215]
Therise of Islam began whenMuhammad and his followers migrated fromMecca toMedina in an event known as theHijra. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.[216] During this period, the Arabs conquered the region ofBasra, and under the leadership ofUmar, they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest wasMidian, but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved toKufa. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership ofUthman, the Arab empire expanded through theconquest of Persia, with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts ofKhorasan in 651.[217] Theconquest of Armenia also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entireSassanid Empire and more than two-thirds of theEastern Roman Empire. However, the reign ofAli ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph, was marred by theFirst Fitna, or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty withHassan ibn Ali and the suppression of earlyKharijite disturbances,Muawiyah I became the Caliph.[218] This marked a significant transition in leadership.[217][219]
During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.[220] These caliphs areAbu Bakr,Umar,Uthman andAli, who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and thespread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.[220][221]
Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled arebellion by some tribes who refused to payZakat, or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt,Syria, andIraq. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law ofMuhammad, succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.[220] Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasizedjustice and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.[222]
In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of theUmayyad dynasty andDamascus was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns atRamla,Raqqa,Basra,Kufa,Mosul andSamarra, all of which developed into major cities.[223]CaliphAbd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.[224] CaliphUmar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which theAbbasids came to power and moved the capital toBaghdad.
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people includingPunics, Vandals and Romans. After theAbbasid Revolution, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.
Their last holding became known as theEmirate of Córdoba. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as theCaliphate of Córdoba. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces ofal-Andalus architecture and the library ofAl-Ḥakam II which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE,Al-Andalus was divided intosmall kingdoms.[225]
The Abbasids were the descendants ofAbbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the sameBanu Hashim clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in theBattle of the Zab effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliphal-Mansur founded the city ofBaghdad and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.[223] TheIslamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital fromDamascus to the newly founded city ofBaghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by theQuranic injunctions andhadith such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.
During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as theFatimids ofEgypt and theUmayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such asCairo andCórdoba rivalingBaghdad.[226] The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control whenWilayas began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by theMongols, whoconquered Baghdad in 1258 and killed the CaliphAl-Musta'sim. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; theMamluk generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.
Bulgarian emperorSimeon (left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from theMadrid Skylitzes
The Fatimid caliphate was founded byal-Mahdi Billah, a descendant ofFatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was aShia that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital inCairo, and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-dayEgypt,Libya,Tunisia,Algeria,Morocco,Syria, andPalestine. The Fatimid state took shape among theKutama, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conqueringRaqqada, theAghlabid capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city ofMahdia as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital toAl-Mansuriya, nearKairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in theIslamic world. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of theAl-Azhar Mosque andAl-Azhar University in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development ofIslamic theology andjurisprudence. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of theIsmaili branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and theByzantine Empire. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by theAyyubid dynasty, led bySaladin. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.[227]
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated theMamluk Sultanate in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles ofMarj Dabiq andRidaniya. They entered theLevant and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("theYoung Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of theArab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted theArab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.[228] However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.[229]
The region covered by the modus vivendi, as agreed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement
TheArab Revolt was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led bySherif Hussein bin Ali, the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventualdefeat of the Ottoman Empire. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.[230][231] The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by theAllied Powers in theaftermath of World War I, theSykes–Picot Agreement had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.[232]
The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.[233][234][235] The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due toSiege of Baghdad in 1258.[236] During this time,Arab scholars made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during theRenaissance.[237]
From the medieval scholars of theRenaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studyingGreek andArabic works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notablyAverroes, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conqueredEgypt and theLevant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West intoIberia andSicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works fromClassical Arabic toMedieval Latin were established in Iberia, most notably theToledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.[243]
During theTimurid Renaissance spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.[244] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, theArab Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.[245][246][247]
A map of the Arab world, formally theArab homeland; also known as theArab nation.
The modern period inArab history refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, theArab world experienced significantpolitical,economic, and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of newnation-states in the Arab world.[248][249]
Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of theAllies in World War I, to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including theindependence of the Hejaz and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.[250]
Arab nationalism emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world.[252] This movement gained momentum afterWorld War II, leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states.Pan-Arabism that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a singlenation or state. It emphasized on a sharedancestry, culture, history, language and identity and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.[253][254]
The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to theArab Renaissance or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual,Gamal Abdel Nasser, who led the1952 revolution in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea ofArab socialism, which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by otherArab leaders, such asHafez al-Assad,Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr,Faisal I of Iraq,Muammar Gaddafi,Saddam Hussein,Gaafar Nimeiry andAnwar Sadat.[255]
Many proposed unions aimed to create aunified Arab entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.[256] TheUnited Arab Republic (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became theArab Republic of Egypt. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, theArab Federation, was established betweenJordan andIraq, but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the14 July Revolution. A confederation called theUnited Arab States, which included the UAR and theMutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961.[257] Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included theFederation of Arab Republics, which was formed by Egypt,Libya, and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed theArab Islamic Republic with Tunisia, aiming to includeAlgeria andMorocco,[258] instead theArab Maghreb Union was formed in 1989.[259]
During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. TheArab-Israeli conflict remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact ofglobalization.[260] TheArab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.[261]
Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, and traditions.[265] Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall ofempires,colonization, and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity.[266] Today, Arab identity continues to evolve as Arab communities navigate complex political, social, and economic landscapes. Despite this, the Arab identity remains an important aspect of the cultural and historical fabric of the Arab world, and continues to be celebrated and preserved bycommunities around the world.[267]
According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.[273][274][275][276][277]
Countries with significant Arab population and descendants.
Arab world
+ 5,000,000
+ 1,000,000
+ 100,000
The total number of Arabs living in theArab nations is estimated at 366 million by theCIA Factbook (as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi), from theAtlantic Ocean in the west to theArabian Sea in the east and from theMediterranean Sea in the north to theHorn of Africa and theIndian Ocean in the southeast.
Gigi Hadid is a model and television personality,Steve Jobs was the co-founder, chairman, and CEO of Apple,Shakira is a singer and songwriter andSalma Hayek is an actress and film producer.
Arab immigration to the United States began in significant numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 2 million Americans trace their roots to an Arab background according the Census Bureau.[20][311]Arab Americans are found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live inLos Angeles,Detroit, andNew York City specifically.[312][313] Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.[314][315][316][317]
Arab immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Theirimmigration was relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter.[318] According to the website "Who areArab Canadians",Montreal, the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.[319]
Georgia and the Caucasus in 1060, during the final decline of the emirate
In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated theCaspian shores ofMughan (in present-dayAzerbaijan).[343] It is believed that these groups migrated to theSouth Caucasus in the 16th century.[344] The 1888 edition ofEncyclopædia Britannica also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating theBaku Governorate of theRussian Empire.[345] They retained anArabic dialect at least into the mid-19th century,[346] there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the nameArab (for example,Arabgadim,Arabojaghy,Arab-Yengija, etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of theSouth Caucasus, continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred inDagestan. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west ofDerbent. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s.[344] Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguisticTurkicisation, thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-Azeri village.[347][348]
According to theHistory of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once inCentral Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region.[349] However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. MostArabs of Central Asia are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example,Tajiks,Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such asSayyid,Khoja orSiddiqui.[350]
The mosque is built at the spot where the first Arab traders landed and subsequently settled in the area.[351]
There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, theChaush of theDeccan region and theChavuse ofGujarat.[352][353] These groups are largely descended fromHadhrami migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration toEastern Arabia and thus a re-adoption of Arabic.[354] InSouth Asia, where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following theShafi'i madhab (in contrast to otherSouth Asian Muslims who follow theHanafi madhab) claim descent from Arab traders like theKonkani Muslims of theKonkan region, theMappilla ofKerala, and theLabbai andMarakkar ofTamil Nadu and a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state ofKerala.[355] South AsianIraqi biradri may have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. TheSri Lankan Moors are the third largest ethnic group inSri Lanka, constituting 9.2% of the country's total population.[356] Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri LankanMoors to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries.[357][358][359] There are about 118,866Arab-Indonesians[360] ofHadrami descent in the 2010 Indonesian census.[361]
Afro-Arabs are individuals and groups fromAfrica who are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit theSwahili Coast in theAfrican Great Lakes region, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world.[362][363] Large numbers of Arabs migrated toWest Africa, particularlyCôte d'Ivoire (home to over 100,000 Lebanese),[364]Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese),[365]Sierra Leone (roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak ofcivil war in 1991),Liberia, andNigeria.[366] Since the end of the civil war in 2002,Lebanese traders have become re-established in Sierra Leone.[367][368][369] The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called theBaggara grouping ofArab ethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa'sSahel. There are 171,000 inCameroon, 150,000 inNiger[370]), and 107,000 in theCentral African Republic.[371]
Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, includingHubal,[376]Wadd,Allāt,[377]Manat, andUzza. A few individuals, thehanifs, had apparently rejectedpolytheism in favor ofmonotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were theGhassanid andLakhmid kingdoms.[378] When theHimyarite king converted toJudaism in the late 4th century,[379] the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, theKindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidlyIslamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.[380][381]
Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant inBahrain and southernIraq while northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist inLebanon,Yemen,Kuwait,Saudi Arabia,[382] northernSyria and Al-Batinah Region inOman. There are small numbers ofIbadi andnon-denominational Muslims too.[372] TheDruze community is concentrated in Levant.[383]
Christianity had a prominent presence Inpre-Islamic Arabia among several Arab communities, including theBahrani people ofEastern Arabia, theChristian community of Najran, in parts ofYemen, and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as theGhassanids,Lakhmids,Taghlib,Banu Amela,Banu Judham,Tanukhids andTayy. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known asArabia heretica, due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."[384]Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa.[385] In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population.[386] In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population.[387]Christians in Palestine make up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively.[388][389] In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.[390]
In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population).[391] Arab Christians make up 8% of the population ofJordan.[392] MostNorth andSouth American Arabs are Christian,[393] so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community isSaint Abo, martyr and the patron saint ofTbilisi,Georgia.[394] Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such asNazareth,Bethlehem and theChristian Quarter of theOld City of Jerusalem and many other villages with holy Christian sites.
Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from theAtlantic Ocean in the west to theArabian Sea in the east, and from theMediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughouttheir history and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to theethnogenesis and formation of modern Arab culture.Language,literature,gastronomy,art,architecture,music,spirituality,philosophy andmysticism are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.[395]
Arabic has two main registers.Classical Arabic is the form of theArabic language used in literary texts fromUmayyad and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects ofArab tribes.Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content,[401] while thelexis andstylistics ofModern Standard Arabic are different fromClassical Arabic. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic.[402]
Arabic mythology comprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.[403][404]
The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is theJinn or genie.[406] Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil.[407][408] They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. Thejinn, humans, andangels make up the knownsapient creations ofGod.[409]
Ghouls also feature in the mythology as amonster orevil spirit associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh.[410][411] In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retaineddonkey's hooves.[412]
TheQuran, the mainholy book ofIslam, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of theQuraysh, the tribe ofMuhammad.[413][414] As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.[413]
Not only is the Quran the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114suwar (chapters) which contain 6,236ayat (verses). It containsinjunctions,narratives,homilies,parables, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Quran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned inAn-Nahl, the 16th surah.
Al-Jahiz (born 776, inBasra – December 868/January 869) was an Arab prose writer and author of works of literature,Mu'tazili theology, and politico-religious polemics. A leading scholar in the Abbasid Caliphate, his canon includes two hundred books on various subjects, includingArabic grammar,zoology, poetry, lexicography, andrhetoric. Of his writings, only thirty books survive. Al-Jāḥiẓ was also one of the first Arabian writers to suggest a complete overhaul of the language's grammatical system, though this would not be undertaken until his fellow linguistIbn Maḍāʾ took up the matter two hundred years later.[415]
A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form ofpoetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form ofsaj or rhymed prose.[420] Theghazal or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit.[421] In theSufi tradition the love poem would take on a wider,mystical andreligious importance.
Arabic epic literature was much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so.Maqama orrhymed prose is intermediate between poetry andprose, and also between fiction and non-fiction.[422]Maqama was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.[423]
Arabic literature andculture declined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit ofTurkish andPersian. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongsideresistance against Ottoman rule. The literary revival is known asal-Nahda in Arabic, and was centered inEgypt andLebanon. Two distinct trends can be found in thenahda period of revival.[424]
(1st row) Various examples of early Umayyad paintings in Qusayr 'Amra. (2nd row) Examples of Abbasid Figural paintings from Samarra.(3rd row) Examples of Fatimid art.
Arabic art has taken various forms, including, among other things,jewelry,textiles andarchitecture.[432][433] Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorfulArabic calligraphy, with one notable and widely used example beingKufic script.[434] Arabic miniatures (Arabic: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة,Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah) are smallpaintings onpaper, usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of severalArab caliphates.
Arabic miniature
Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to theOttoman occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures (Persian miniatures,Ottoman miniatures andMughal miniatures) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.[435][436][437][438][439]
Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the earlyUmayyad Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists includeIsmail al-Jazari, who illustrated his ownBook of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.[440]
The Abbasid artist,Yahya Al-Wasiti, who probably lived inBaghdad in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the bookMaqamat (also known as theAssemblies or theSessions), a series of anecdotes of social satire written byAl-Hariri of Basra.[441] The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.[442]
Arabesque pattern behind hunters onivory plaque, 11th–12th century, Egypt
With most surviving Arabicmanuscripts in western museums,[443] Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.[444]Arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines,[445] often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylisedhalf-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems".[446] It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.[447][448]
The Arab world is home to around 8%[449] ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites (List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab states). The oldest examples of architecture include those ofpre-Islamic Arabia,[450] as well asNabataean architecture that developed in the ancientkingdom of the Nabataeans, a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of theMiddle East from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[451][452] The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city ofPetra, which is located in modern-dayJordan, was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.[453]
Prior to the start of theArab conquests, Arab tribal client states, theLakhmids andGhassanids, were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both.[454][455] They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.[456][457]
The Dome of the Rock located in Jerusalem, Alhambra is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain.
The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is theGreat Mosque of Damascus in Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is theAl-Aqsa Mosque inJerusalem, which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls.[458][459]
Umm Kulthum was an Arab singer,songwriter, and film actress (1920s–1970s). She has been named among the "200 Greatest Singers of All Time".[460]
Arabic music, while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.[461] Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in theArabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE.Arab poets of that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.[462] It was believed thatJinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.[462] By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughoutFrance, influencing Frenchtroubadours, and eventually reaching the rest ofEurope. The English wordslute,rebec, andnaker are derived from Arabicoud,rabab, andnaqareh.[463][464]
During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artistsUmm Kulthum,Abdel Halim Hafez, andShadia along with composersMohamed Abd al-Wahab andBaligh Hamdi pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand ofArabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s,Lydia Canaan, musicalpioneer widely regarded as the first rock star of theMiddle East[472][473]
Arab polytheism was the dominant religion inpre-Islamic Arabia.Gods andgoddesses, includingHubal and the goddessesal-Lāt,Al-'Uzzá andManāt, were worshipped at local shrines, such as theKaaba inMecca, whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theorieshave been proposed regarding the role ofAllah in Meccan religion.[474][475][476] Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced toidols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them.[477] Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions.[478] Although significantJewish and Christian minorities developed,polytheism remained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.[479]
The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadicbedouin were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such asMecca.[480] Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have includedfetishism,totemism andveneration of the dead but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider largerphilosophical questions such as the afterlife.[480] Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complexpantheon of deities.[480] While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of theHejaz worshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.[481]
Ibn Rushd (left), known in the west asAverroes, was a philosopher that influenced the rise of secular thought in Western Europe, whileIbn Khaldun (right) was a sociologist, philosopher, and historian widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages.
Much of hisphilosophical output focuses ontheological subjects such as the nature ofGod, thesoul andprophetic knowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medievalScholasticism in Europe. The Arabic tradition combinesAristotelianism andNeoplatonism with other ideas introduced throughIslam. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabsal-Farabi andAvicenna. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated intoHebrew andLatin, this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed byMoses Maimonides andIbn Khaldun.[483][484]
Arabic science underwent considerable development during theMiddle Ages (8th to 13th centuries CE), asource of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science wasArabic. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across theMuslim world. These accomplishments occurred afterMuhammad united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.[485]
Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe toNorth Africa toCentral Asia and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain;al-Andalus was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged inBaghdad from the Abbasids, who ruled part of theIslamic world during a historic period later characterized as the "Golden Age" (~750 to 1258 CE).[486]
This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,[487] and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad – its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until thesacking of Baghdad by theMongols in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.[488] The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as theulama, were the most influential element of society in the fields ofSharia law, speculative thought and theology.[489] Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.[490] These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especiallymathematics,astronomy, andmedicine.[490] Other subjects of scientific inquiry includedphysics,alchemy and chemistry,cosmology,ophthalmology,geography and cartography,sociology, andpsychology.[491]
Al-Battani was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of theIslamic Golden Age. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.[492] Inmathematics, al-Battānī produced a number oftrigonometrical relationships.[492]Al-Zahrawi, regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of theMiddle Ages.[493] His surgical treatise "De chirurgia" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.[494] The book helped lay the foundation to establishsurgery as a scientific discipline independent frommedicine, earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.[495]
Diagram of a hydro-powered perpetual flute from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices byIsmail al-Jazari, 1206. (left) The eye according toHunayn ibn Ishaq, c.1200 (right)
Youssef Wahbi, (1898–1982) was a prominent Arab playwright, actor, and director who played a major role in shaping modern Arab theatre.
Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancientArabic poetry and storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In theearly Arabic period, storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.[525][526]
During theIslamic Golden Age in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city ofBaghdad emerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.[527]
Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role ofwomen in Arab society, and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture.[528]
Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxuriousfabrics and intricateembroidery. Traditional garments, such as theAbaya andThobe, are often made from high-quality fabrics likesilk,satin,brocade, and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading.[529] In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers likeElie Saab,Zuhair Murad, andReem Acra showcasing their designs on international runways.[530]
These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometricpatterns,calligraphy, and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries.[531] Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and thearabesque, into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.[532]
Arabic weddings have changed greatly in the past 100 years. Original traditional Arabic weddings are supposed to be very similar to modern-dayBedouin weddings and rural weddings, and they are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice ofmarrying of relatives is a common feature ofArab culture.[533]
In the Arab world today between 40% and 50% of all marriages areconsanguineous or between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations.[534][535] InEgypt, around 40% of the populationmarry a cousin. A 1992 survey inJordan found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.[536] 67% of marriages inSaudi Arabia are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages inKuwait, whereas 18% of allLebanese were betweenblood relatives.[537] Due to the actions ofMuhammad and theRightly Guided Caliphs, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed inIslam and theQuran itself does not discourage or forbid the practice.[538] Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether thephenomenon should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences betweenChristian Arabs orMuslim Arabs when comparing the occurrence ofconsanguinity.[537]
Arabs are genetically diverse, arising from admixture with indigenous peoples of pre-Islamic Middle East and North Africa, following the Islamic expansion.[539][540] Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist acrossnortheastern Africa with decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along theNile river valley acrossSudan andSouth Sudan the more they go south.[541] Thisgenetic cline of admixture is dated to the time ofArab expansion and immigration to the Maghreb and northeast Africa.[541] Genetic research has indicated that Palestinian Arabs andJews share common genetic ancestry and are closely related.[542][543][544][545][546][547][548][549] According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established byOut of Africa migrations. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.[550]
Arabs share a strong bond through their ethnic, linguistic, and cultural heritage. This connection encompasses their history, nationalism, and geographic ties. Religion also influences it, contributing to its distinct customs, arts, cuisine, and societal identity.[72][73]
Arab identity concentrating on ethnic identity is another way of defining Arab identity, which can be subdivided into linguistic, cultural, social, historical, political, national, or genealogical terms.
^Silvia Ferabolli (2014).Arab Regionalism: A Post-Structural Perspective. Routledge. p. 151.ISBN978-1317658030.According to estimates by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), countersigned by the League of Arab States, Brazil has the largest Arab colony outside their countries of origin. There are estimated 15 million Arabs living in Brazil today, with some researchers suggesting numbers around 20 million.
^Paul Amar (2014).The Middle East and Brazil: Perspectives on the New Global South. Indiana University Press. p. 40.ISBN978-0253014962.there are, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, more than sixteen million Arabs and descendants of Arabs in Brazil, constituting the largest community of Arabs descent outside the Middle East.
^Sierra, Mauricio (16 June 2021)."Arab Ancestry in Latin America".Berkeley High Jacket. Archived fromthe original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved15 February 2022.Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent, primarily of Lebanese, Syrian, Iraqi and Palestinian heritage.
^Bureš, Jaroslav (2008).Main characteristic and development trends of migration in the Arab world. Prague: Institute of International Relations.ISBN978-8086506715.
Eph'al, Israel (1982).The Ancient Arabs: nomads of the fertile crescent. Jerusalem; Leiden: Magnes Press Hebrew University E.J. Brill.ISBN978-9652234001.
Hoyland, Robert G. (2001).Arabia and the Arabs. Routledge. p. 11 Methodology (modern Saudi Arabia minus the east coast, the Sinai and Negev deserts, and parts of modern Jordan, Syria, and Iraq).ISBN0203763920.
^Werner Daum (1987).Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilization in Arabia Felix. Pinguin-Verlag. p. 73.ISBN3701622922.
^Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip (2015).Arabs and Empires before Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 368.ISBN978-0191799730. Retrieved3 August 2023.Origen, in the third century, was the first Christian to identify the Ishmaelites with the Arabs, but he only does so in a cursory fashion
Rogan, Eugene L. (2004).Frontiers of the state in the late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521892230.OCLC826413749.
^*"Arab Civilization".Alhewar.org. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved1 November 2017.
Holt, P. M. 2013.Studies in the History of the Near East. p. 28. 113627331X: "He held the post until his death in 1624 and was succeeded by his former pupil, James Golius (1596–1667). Erpenius and Golius made outstanding contributions to the development of Arabic studies by their teaching, their preparation of texts,..."
^Noble, John Travis. 2013. "Let Ishmael Live Before You!" Finding a Place for Hagar's Son in the Priestly Tradition. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.
^abJesper Eidema, Flemming Højlundb (1993). "Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC".World Archaeology.24 (3):441–448.doi:10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218.
^Kenneth A. KitchenThe World of "Ancient Arabia" Series. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110
^abPlayfair, Col (1867). "On the Himyaritic Inscriptions Lately brought to England from Southern Arabia".Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London.5:174–177.doi:10.2307/3014224.JSTOR3014224.
^*Herod atEncyclopædia Britannica: "Herod was born in southern Palestine. His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (a Semitic people, identified by some scholars as Arab, who converted to Judaism in the 2nd century BCE). Antipater was a man of great influence and wealth who increased both by marrying the daughter of a noble from Petra (in southwestern Jordan), at that time the capital of the rising Arab Nabataean kingdom. Thus, Herod was of Arab origin, although he was a practicing Jew."
Perowne, Stewart Henry (25 June 2015)."Herod – king of Judaea".Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved22 November 2020.
The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.
^abcC. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006).Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps (illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37.ISBN978-0334040323.
^Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011).Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 799–802.ISBN978-1598843361.
^Hassan, Ahmad Y (1996)."Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century". In Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas (ed.).Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, 1–5 August 1994. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC). pp. 351–99. Archived fromthe original on 2 April 2015.
^Dionisius A. Agius; Richard Hitchcock, eds. (1996).The Arab influence in medieval Europe (1st pbk ed.). Reading, UK: Ithaca Press.ISBN086372213X.OCLC38255663.
^*Hourani, Albert (2010).A history of the Arab peoples (1st Harvard Press paperback ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0674058194.
^Fück, J. W. (24 April 2012),"G̲h̲aṭafān",Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Brill,archived from the original on 14 March 2022, retrieved21 August 2022
^de la Cruz, G. Patricia; Angela Brittingham (December 2003)."The Arab Population: 2000"(PDF).U.S. Census Bureau.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved17 October 2016.
^Sierra, Mauricio (16 June 2021)."Arab Ancestry in Latin America".Berkeley High Jacket. Archived fromthe original on 5 August 2021. Retrieved15 February 2022.Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent
^People of India: Vol. XIII: Andhra Pradesh (3 Parts-Set)Edited by D.L. Prasada Rao, N.V.K. Rao and S. Yaseen Saheb, Affiliated East-West Press
^People of India: Volume XXII: Gujarat (3 Parts-Set): Edited by R.B. Lal, P.B.S.V. Padmanabham, Gopal Krishan and Md. Azeez Mohidden, Popular Prakashan for ASI, 2003.
^Muslim society in transition Javed, Arifa KulsoomISBN8171690963
^Frontiers of embedded Muslim communities in India / editor, Vinod K. JairathISBN978-0415668880
^Mahroof, M.M.M. (1995). "Spoken Tamil Dialects of the Muslims of Sri Lanka: Language As Identity-Classifier".Islamic Studies.34 (4): 407–426 [408].JSTOR20836916.
^C. Held, Colbert (2008).Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics. Routledge. p. 109.ISBN978-0429962004.Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.
^Kamal S. Salibi (2003).A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (ill., reprint, rev. ed.). I.B. Tauris. p. 88.ISBN978-1860649127.
^Andrea Pacini, ed. (1998).Christian Communities in the Middle East. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0198293880.
^ab"Executive Summary".Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Retrieved22 December 2011.
^"Table: Muslim Population by Country".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Features.pewforum.org. 27 January 2011. Retrieved18 May 2014.
^Sawa, George Dimitri (2016).Erotica, Love and Humor in Arabia : Spicy Stories from The Book of Songs by al-Isfahani.McFarland & Company. p. 2.ISBN978-1476663654.
^Richards, D.S. (2006). Allen, Roger (ed.).Arabic literature in the post-classical period (1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1139053990.
^Irwin, Robert, ed. (2002).Night and horses and the desert : an anthology of classical Arabic literature (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor Books.ISBN978-0385721554.
^Flandrin, Jean-Louis; Montanari, Massimo; Sonnenfeld, Albert, eds. (1999).Food : a culinary history from Antiquity to the present. Translated by Clarissa Botsford. New York: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0231111546.
^Finster, Barbara (2009). "Arabian Peninsula, art and architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill.ISBN978-9004161658.
^Touma, Habib Hassan (1972). "[Review ofDas arabische Tonsystem im Mittelalter by Liberty Manik]". Book Reviews.Ethnomusicology.16 (1):140–144.doi:10.2307/850449.JSTOR850449.
^Borda, Monica (2011).Fundamentals in Information Theory and Coding. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 122.ISBN978-3642203473.Al Kindi, an Arab scientist from 9th century is considered the father of cryptology, his book on this subject being, at this moment, the oldest available.
^Rashed, Roshdi (1994).The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra. Vol. 156. Dordrecht, Boston & London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 278, 279.ISBN978-0792325659.
^"Medina of Fez". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved7 April 2016.
^Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.):A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003,ISBN978-0521541138, pp. 35–76 (35)
^Pedro Machado; Sarah Fee; Gwyn Campbell, eds. (2018).Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean : an Ocean of Cloth. Cham.ISBN978-3319582658.OCLC1029071537.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Jehad, Al-Omari (2008).Understanding the Arab culture : a practical cross-cultural guide to working in the Arab world. How To Books.ISBN978-1848036468.OCLC408662262.
^Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (December 2000)."High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews"(PDF).Human Genetics.107 (6):630–641.doi:10.1007/s004390000426.PMID11153918.S2CID8136092.According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Muslim Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992)... Thus, our findings are in good agreement with the historical record...
^Doron M. Behar; Bayazit Yunusbayev; Mait Metspalu; Ene Metspalu; Saharon Rosset; Jüri Parik; Siiri Rootsi; Gyaneshwer Chaubey; Ildus Kutuev; Guennady Yudkovsky; Elza K. Khusnutdinova; Oleg Balanovsky; Olga Balaganskaya; Ornella Semino; Luisa Pereira; David Comas; David Gurwitz; Batsheva Bonne-Tamir; Tudor Parfitt; Michael F. Hammer; Karl Skorecki; Richard Villems (July 2010)."The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people".Nature.466 (7303):238–242.Bibcode:2010Natur.466..238B.doi:10.1038/nature09103.PMID20531471.S2CID4307824.
^Nebel (2000), quote: By the fifth century CE, the majority of non-Jews and Jews had become Christians by conversion (Bachi 1974). The first millennium CE was marked by the immigration of Arab tribes, reaching its climax with the Moslem conquest from the Arabian Peninsula (633–640 CE). This was followed by a slow process of Islamization of the local population, both of Christians and Jews (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). Additional minor demographic changes might have been caused by subsequent invasions of the Seljuks, Crusaders, Mongols, Mamelukes and Ottoman Turks. Recent gene-flow from various geographic origins is reflected, for example, in the heterogeneous spectrum of globin mutations among Israeli Arabs (Filon et al. 1994). Israeli and Palestinian Arabs share a similar linguistic and geographic background with Jews. (p. 631) According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Moslem Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992). On the other hand, the ancestors of the great majority of present-day Jews lived outside this region for almost two millennia. Thus, our findings are in good agreement with historical evidence and suggest genetic continuity in both populations despite their long separation and the wide geographic dispersal of Jews.(p.637)
^Kalmar, Ivan (21 March 2016), "4. Jews, Cousins of Arabs: Orientalism, Race, Nation, And Pan-Nation in the Long Nineteenth Century",Is there a Judeo-Christian Tradition?, De Gruyter, pp. 53–74,doi:10.1515/9783110416596-005,ISBN978-3110416596
Ankerl, Guy (2000).Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU PRESS.ISBN978-2881550041.
Bacharach, Jere L. (1996). "Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage". In Necipoğlu, Gülru (ed.).Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World. Vol. 13. Brill.ISBN978-9004259331.ISSN0732-2992.
Bryce, Trevor (2014).Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0191002922.
Bryce, Trevor (2009).The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0415394857.
Burns, Ross (2007) [2005].Damascus: A History. Routledge.ISBN978-1134488490.
Cobb, Paul M. (2001).White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0791448809.
Grabar, Oleg; Holod, Reneta; Knustad, James; Trousdale, William (1978).City in the Desert. Qasr al-Hayr East. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs. Vol. 23–24. Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0674131958.
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Further reading
Price-Jones, David.The Closed Circle: an Interpretation of the Arabs. Pbk. ed., with a new preface by the author. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 2002. xiv, 464 p.ISBN1566634407
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