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TheAndean civilizations were South Americancomplex societies of manyindigenous people.[1] They stretched down the spine of theAndes for 4,000 km (2,500 miles) from southernColombia, toEcuador andPeru, including the deserts of coastal Peru, to northChile and northwestArgentina. Archaeologists believe that Andeancivilizations first developed on the narrow coastal plain of thePacific Ocean. TheCaral or Norte Chico civilization of coastal Peru is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, dating back to 3500 BCE.[2] Andean civilizations are one of at least five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine." The concept of a"pristine" civilization refers to a civilization that has developed independently of external influences and is not a derivative of other civilizations.[3]
Despite the severe environmental challenges of high mountains and hyper-arid desert, the Andean civilizations domesticated a wide variety of crops, some of which, such aspotatoes,peppers,peanuts,manioc,chocolate, andcoca, became of worldwide importance. The Andean civilizations were noteworthy for monumental architecture, an extensiveroad system, textile weaving, and many unique characteristics of the societies they created.[4]
Less than a century prior to the arrival of theSpanish conquerors, theIncas, from their homeland centered on the city ofCusco, united most Andean cultures into one single empire that encompassed nearly all of what is usually called Andean civilization. TheTimoto Cuica of Venezuela remained outside the Inca orbit. The Inca Empire was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. Spanish rule ended or transformed many elements of the Andean civilizations, notably influencing religion and architecture.
After the first humans — who were then arranged intohunter-gatherer tribal groups — arrived in South America via theIsthmus of Panama, they spread out across the continent, with the earliest evidence for settlement in the Andean region dating to circa 15,000 BCE, in what archaeologists call the Lithic Period. In the ensuingAndean preceramic period, plants began to be widely cultivated, and first complex society,Caral-Supe civilization, emerged at 3500 BCE, and lasted until 1800 BCE. Also, distinct religious centres emerged, such as theKotosh Religious Tradition in the highlands.[5]
This was followed by the Ceramic Period. Various complex societies developed at this time, such asChavín culture, lasting from 900 BCE to 200 BCE,Paracas culture, lasting from 800 BCE to 200 BCE, its successorNazca culture, lasting from 200 BCE to 800 CE, theMoche civilisation, lasting from 100 to 700,Wari andTiwanaku Empires, with both lasting from 600 to 1000, andChimor, lasting from 900 to 1470.
In later periods, much of the Andean region was conquered by the indigenousIncas, who in 1438 founded the largest empire that the Americas had ever seen, namedTahuantinsuyu, but usually called the Inca Empire.[6] The Inca governed their empire from the capital city ofCuzco, administering it along traditional Andean lines. The Inca Empire rose fromKingdom of Cuzco, founded around 1230.
In the 16th century, Spanish colonisers from Europe arrived in the Andes, eventually subjugating the indigenous kingdoms and incorporating the Andean region into theSpanish Empire.
The civilization of the Andes wasone of six in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine", that is indigenous and not derived from other civilizations.[7] Due to its isolation from other civilizations, theindigenous people of the Andes had to come up with their own, often unique solutions to environmental and societal challenges.[8]
Andean civilization lacked several characteristics distinguishing it from the pristine civilizations in theOld World and from the Mesoamerican cultures. First, and perhaps most important, Andean civilizations did not have a written language. Instead, their societies used thequipu, a system of knotted and colored strings, to convey information. Few quipus survive and they have never been fully deciphered. Scholars differ on whether the knotted cords of the quipu were able only to record numerical data or could also be used for narrative communication, a true system of writing. If it is true writing, it is still unique because it is not a set of symbols, but rather knotted strings.[9] The use of the quipu dates back at least to theWari Empire (600–1000 CE) and possibly to the much earlier civilization ofCaral/Norte Chico of the third millennium BCE.[10]
Andean civilizations also lacked wheeled vehicles and draft animals. People on land traveled only by foot and the transport of goods was accomplished by humans orllama, pack animals which could carry loads of up to one-fourth of their weight, a maximum of 45 kilograms (99 lb).[11] Llamas were not big or strong enough to be used forplowing or asriding animals for adults.[8]
Moreover, Andean civilizations faced severe environmental challenges. The earliest civilizations were on the hyper-arid desert coast of Peru. Agriculture was possible only with irrigation in valleys crossed by rivers coming from the high Andes, plus in a few fog oases calledlomas. In the Andes, agriculture was limited by thin soils, cold climate, low or seasonal precipitation, and a scarcity of flat land. Freezing temperatures may occur in every month of the year at altitudes of more than 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the homeland of many of the highland Andean civilizations.[12]
Finally, the Andean civilizations lacked money. Copperaxe-monies (also called "naipes")[13] andSpondylus shells[14] functioned as mediums of exchange in some areas, especially coastalEcuador, but most of the Andes area had economies organized on reciprocity and redistribution rather than money and markets. These characteristics were especially notable during the Inca Empire but originated in much earlier times.[15]
Agriculture in South America may have begun in coastal Ecuador with the domestication ofsquash about 8000 BCE by theLas Vegas culture.[16]
Some scholars believe that the earliest civilizations on the Peruvian coast initially relied more upon maritime resources than agriculture during the formative period of their societies.[17][18] However, as in all civilizations until the late 19th century, agriculture was the principal occupation of the great majority of the people. The greatest contribution of Andean civilization to the modern world has been the plants its people domesticated. Crops grown by the Andeans were often unique to the region.Maize, which found its way to the Andes fromMexico, was often the most important crop at lower and intermediate elevations. The Andeans cultivated an estimated 70 different plants, almost as many as were cultivated in all ofEurope andAsia.[19] Many of these plants are no longer cultivated, or are minor crops, but important plants which were domesticated in or near the Andes includepotatoes,quinoa,tomatoes,chile peppers,cotton,coca,tobacco,pineapples,peanuts, and several varieties ofbeans.[20] Animals domesticated in the Andes were llamas andguinea pigs.
The challenges of the environment required sophisticated agricultural technology.[21] Unlike theMiddle East, the Andes lacked easily domesticated and large-seeded plants such aswheat andbarley and large and easily domesticated animals such ashorses andcattle.[22] Agriculture on the desert coast required the development of irrigation. In the mountains, the elevation, cold climate and steep terrain required a range of technological solutions such as terraces (andén), exploitation of microclimates, andselective breeding. Due to the climatic uncertainties, farmers traditionally farmed several crops at several elevations and exposures. At a macro level, societies and states did the same with thevertical archipelago, establishing colonies at different elevations and locations to increase the possibilities of agricultural success.[23][24]
TheNorte Chico civilization, also called Caral,[25] was a complexpre-Columbian society that included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now theNorte Chico region of north-central coastalPeru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of theCradles of civilization where civilization separately originated in the ancient world. It flourished between the 30th century BCE and the 18th century BCE. The alternative name, Caral-Supe, is derived from theSacred City of Caral[26] in the Supe Valley, a large and well-studied Norte Chico site. Complex society in Norte Chico arose a millennium afterSumer inMesopotamia, was contemporaneous with theEgyptian pyramids, and predated theMesoamericanOlmec by nearly two millennia.
TheValdivia Culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlierLas Vegas culture and thrived on theSanta Elena peninsula near the modern-day town ofValdivia,Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1800 BCE.
TheChavín culture is thought to have been primarily a religious movement. The culture apparently began in the Peruvian highlands and then spread outward throughout the country. The Chavín culture has very distinctive art styles, particularly in effigy pots, a number of which were in feline shapes.Chavin de Huantar was an important ritual centre for Chavin Culture, dating to around 1,500 BCE.[27]
TheNazca culture (also Nasca) was thearchaeological culture that flourished from 100 to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of theRio Grande de Nazca drainage and theIca Valley (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Having been heavily influenced by the precedingParacas culture, which was known for extremely complex textiles, the Nazca produced an array of beautiful crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, andgeoglyphs (most commonly known as theNazca lines). They also built an impressive system of undergroundaqueducts, known aspuquios, that still function today. TheNazca Province in theIca Region was named for this people.
TheMoche civilization (alternately, the Mochica culture, EarlyChimu, Pre-Chimu, Proto-Chimu, etc.) flourished in northern Peru from about 100 CE to 800 CE, during theRegional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of some debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common elite culture, as seen in the richiconography andmonumental architecture that survive today. They are particularly noted for their elaborately paintedceramics,gold work, monumental constructions (huacas) andirrigation systems.[28] Moche history may be broadly divided into three periods – the emergence of the Moche culture in Early Moche (CE 100–300), its expansion and florescence during Middle Moche (CE 300–600), and the urban nucleation and subsequent collapse in Late Moche (CE 500–750).[29]
The Chachapoyas, or the 'Cloud People', were an Andean civilization living in cloud forests of the Amazonas region of present-day northern Peru. The Incas conquered the Chachapoyas shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in Peru. The first firm evidence of their existence dates back to around 700 CE, although it is possible that they built a settlement called Gran Pajáten where some ceramics have been dated to 200 BCE. The largest Chacapoyan site discovered so far isKuelap. A number of mummified burial sites have also been discovered.
TheWari (Spanish:Huari) were aMiddle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-centralAndes and coastal area of Peru, from about CE 500 to 1000. (The Wari culture is not to be confused with the modernethnic group and language known asWari', with which it has no known link.)Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located 11 km (6.8 mi) north-east of the city ofAyacucho. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of Peru. The best-preserved remnants, beside theWari Ruins, are the recently discoveredNorthern Wari ruins near the city ofChiclayo, and Cerro Baul inMoquegua. Also well-known are the Wari ruins ofPikillaqta ("Flea Town"), a short distance south-east ofCuzcoen route toLake Titicaca.
Tiwanaku (Spanish: Tiahuanaco and Tiahuanacu) is an importantPre-Columbian archaeological site in westernBolivia, South America. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to theInca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south-eastern shore ofLake Titicaca in theLa Paz Department,Ingavi Province,Tiwanaku Municipality, about 72 km (45 mi) west ofLa Paz. The site was first recorded in written history by Spanish conquistador and self-acclaimed "first chronicler of the Indies"Pedro Cieza de León. Leon stumbled upon the remains of Tiwanaku in 1549 while searching for the Inca capitalQullasuyu.[30] Some have hypothesized that Tiwanaku's modern name is related to theAymara termtaypiqala, meaning "stone in the center", alluding to the belief that it lay at the center of the world.[31] However, the name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost, as the people of Tiwanaku had no written language.[32][33]
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TheChimú were the residents ofChimor, with its capital at the city ofChan Chan, a large adobe city in theMoche Valley of present-dayTrujillo, Peru. The culture arose about 900 CE. The Inca rulerTopa Inca Yupanqui led a campaign which conquered the Chimú around 1470 CE.[34]
This was just fifty years before the arrival of the Spanish in the region. Consequently, Spanish chroniclers were able to record accounts of Chimú culture from individuals who had lived before the Inca conquest. Similarly,archaeological evidence suggest Chimor grew out of the remnants ofMoche culture; early Chimú pottery had some resemblance to that of the Moche. Their ceramics are all black, and their work in precious metals is very detailed and intricate.
The Aymara kingdoms were a group of lordships located in theAltiplano. The kingdoms were established around 1151 after the collapse of theTiwanaku Empire until they were absorbed into theInca Empire in 1477.
TheInca Empire, or Incan Empire[35] (Quechua:Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire inpre-Columbian America.[36] The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located inCusco. TheInca civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century, and thelast Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. From 1438 to 1533 CE, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on theAndean mountain ranges, including Peru, southwestEcuador, western and south centralBolivia, northwestArgentina, northernChile, and a small part of southwestColombia into a state comparable to the historicalempires of theOld World.
TheDiaguita culture formed in 1000 CE after emerging from theLas Ánimas culture. TheCalchaquí tribe fought against expansion by both theInca Empire and theSpanish Empire until they surrendered to Spanish rule after their defeat in theCalchaquí Wars in 1665.
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TheMuisca was theChibcha-speaking people that formed theMuisca Confederation in the central highlands of present-dayColombia. They were encountered by the troops ofGonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, in name of theSpanish Empire at the time of theconquest in the spring of 1537. The Muisca comprised two confederations:Hunza (present-day Tunja) was located in the northern area, whose sovereign was thezaque; andBacatá the southern area, whose sovereign was thezipa. Both confederations were located in the highlands of modern-dayCundinamarca andBoyacá (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) in the central area ofColombia'sEastern Ranges.
Timoto–Cuica people was composed primarily of two tribes, theTimotes and theCuicas, that inhabited in theAndean region of westernVenezuela. They were closely related to theMuisca people of theAndes, who spoke aChibcha language. The Timoto-Cuicas were not only composed of the Timoto and the Cuica tribes, but also the Mucuchíes, the Migures, the Tabares, and the Mucuñuques. Timoto-Cuica society was complex with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks.Their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs.[37]
They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops. Regional crops included potatoes andullucos.[38] They left behind works of art, particularly anthropomorphic ceramics, but no major monuments. They spun vegetable fibers to weave into textiles and mats for housing. They are credited with having invented thearepa, a staple inVenezuelan andColombian cuisine.
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