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Anaircraft catapult is a device used to helpfixed-wing aircraft gain enoughairspeed andlift fortakeoff from a limited distance, typically from thedeck of aship. They are usually used onaircraft carrierflight decks as a form ofassisted takeoff, but can also be installed on land-basedrunways, although this is rare.
The catapult used on aircraft carriers consists of a track or slot built into theflight deck, below which is a large piston orshuttle that is attached through the track to thenose gear of the aircraft, or in some cases awire rope, called acatapult bridle, is attached to the aircraft and the catapult shuttle. Other forms have been used historically, such as mounting a launching cart holding aseaplane on a long girder-built structure mounted on the deck of awarship ormerchant ship, but most catapults share a similar sliding track concept.
Different means have been used to propel the catapult, such asweight andderrick,gunpowder,flywheel,compressed air,hydraulic,steam power, andsolid fuel rocket boosters. TheUnited States Navy is developing the use of alinear motor-basedelectromagnetic catapult system called theElectromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) with the construction of theGerald R. Ford-class aircraft carriers, and a similar system has also been developed for the ChinesePeople's Liberation Army Navy'sType 003 aircraft carrier.
Historically it was most common forseaplanes to be catapulted, allowing them to land on the water near the vessel and be hoisted on board, although in theSecond World War (before the advent of theescort carrier) conventionalfighter aircraft (notably theHawker Hurricane) would sometimes be catapulted from "catapult-equipped merchant" (CAM) vessels to drive off enemy aircraft, forcing the pilot either to divert to a land-basedairstrip, or to jump out byparachute orditch in the water near theconvoy and wait for rescue.
Aviation pioneer andSmithsonian SecretarySamuel Langley used a spring-operated catapult to launch his successful flying models and his failedAerodrome of 1903.[1] Likewise theWright Brothers beginning in 1904 used a weight and derrick styled catapult to assist their early aircraft with a takeoff in a limited distance.[2]
On 31 July 1912,Theodore Gordon Ellyson became the first person to be launched from a U.S. Navy catapult system. The Navy had been perfecting a compressed-air catapult system and mounted it on the Santee Dock inAnnapolis, Maryland. The first attempt nearly killed Lieutenant Ellyson when the plane left the ramp with its nose pointing upward and it caught a crosswind, pushing the plane into the water. Ellyson was able to escape from the wreckage unhurt. On 12 November 1912, Lt. Ellyson made history as the Navy's first successful catapult launch, from a stationary coal barge. On 5 November 1915, Lieutenant CommanderHenry C. Mustin made the first catapult launch from a ship underway.[3]
| Feature | First seen | First demonstrated on | First commissioned carrier | Entry into service | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Naval catapult | 1915 | USS North Carolina | USSLangley – compressed air USS Lexington – fly wheel HMS Courageous – hydraulic | 1922 1927 1934 | Lt. Cmdr. Henry Mustin made the first successful launch on November 5, 1915, |
| Steam catapult | 1950 | HMS Perseus | USS Hancock | 1954 | added toHancock during her 1953SCB-27C refit. |
| Electromagnetic catapult | 2010 | Lakehurst Maxfield Field | USS Gerald R. Ford | 2017 | General AtomicsEMALS |
The US Navy experimented with other power sources and models, including catapults that utilized gunpowder and flywheel variations. On 14 December 1924, a Martin MO-1 observation plane flown by Lt. L. C. Hayden was launched fromUSS Langley using a catapult powered by gunpowder. Following this launch, this method was used aboard bothcruisers andbattleships.[4]
By 1929, the German ocean linersSS Bremen andEuropa had been fitted with compressed-air catapults designed by theHeinkel aviation firm of Rostock,[5] with further work with catapult air mailacross the South Atlantic Ocean, being undertaken during the first half of the 1930s, withDornierWal twin-engined flying boats.
Up to and duringWorld War II, most catapults on aircraft carriers were hydraulic. United States Navy catapults on surface warships, however, were operated with explosive charges similar to those used for 130-millimeter (5-inch) guns. Some carriers were completed before and during World War II with catapults on the hangar deck that firedathwartships, but they were unpopular because of their short run, low clearance of the hangar decks, inability to add the ship's forward speed to the aircraft's airspeed for takeoff, and lower clearance from the water (conditions which affordedpilots far less margin for error in the first moments of flight). They were mostly used for experimental purposes, and their use was entirely discontinued during the latter half of the war.[4]
Many naval vessels apart from aircraft carriers carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and spotting. They were catapult-launched and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. Additionally, the concept ofsubmarine aircraft carriers was developed by multiple nations during the interwar period, and through until WW2 and beyond, wherein a submarine would launch a small number of floatplanes for offensive operations or artillery spotting, to be recovered by the submarine once the aircraft has landed. The first launch off aRoyal Navy battlecruiser was fromHMAS Australia on 8 March 1918. Subsequently, many Royal Navy ships carried a catapult and from one to four aircraft; battleships or battlecruisers likeHMS Prince of Wales carried four aircraft andHMS Rodney carried two, while smaller warships like the cruiserHMNZS Leander carried one. The aircraft carried were theFairey Seafox orSupermarine Walrus. Some likeHMS Nelson did not use a catapult, and the aircraft was lowered onto the sea for takeoff. Some had their aircraft and catapult removed during World War II e.g.HMS Duke of York, or before (HMS Ramillies).
During World War II a number of ships were fitted with rocket-driven catapults, first thefighter catapult ships of the Royal Navy, thenarmed merchantmen known asCAM ships from "catapult armed merchantmen". These were used for convoy escort duties to drive off enemy reconnaissance bombers. CAM ships carried aHawker Sea Hurricane 1A,[i] dubbed a "Hurricat" or "Catafighter", and the pilot bailed out unless he could fly to land.[6]
While imprisoned inColditz Castle during the war, British prisoners of war planned an escape attempt using a fallingbathtub full of heavy rocks and stones as the motive power for a catapult to be used for launching theColditz Cock glider from the roof of the castle.
Ground-launchedV-1s were typically propelled up an inclined launch ramp by an apparatus known as aDampferzeuger ("steam generator").[7][8]
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Following World War II, the Royal Navy was developing a new catapult system for their fleet of carriers. CommanderC. C. Mitchell,RNV, recommended a steam-based system using a slotted cylinder as an effective and efficient means to launch the next generation of naval aircraft. Trials onHMS Perseus, flown by pilots such asEric "Winkle" Brown, from 1950 showed its effectiveness. Navies introduced steam catapults, capable of launching the heavierjetfighters, in the mid-1950s.Powder-driven catapults were also contemplated, and would have been powerful enough, but would also have introduced far greater stresses on the airframes and might have been unsuitable for long use.[4]
At launch, a release bar holds the aircraft in place as steam pressure builds up, then breaks (or "releases"; older models used a pin that sheared), freeing the piston to pull the aircraft along the deck at high speed. Within about two to four seconds, aircraft velocity by the action of the catapult plus apparent wind speed (ship's speed plus or minus "natural" wind) is sufficient to allow an aircraft to fly away, even after losing one engine.[9]
Nations that have retained large aircraft carriers, i.e., the United States Navy and theFrench Navy, are still using aCATOBAR (Catapult Assisted Take Off But Arrested Recovery) configuration. U.S. Navy tactical aircraft use catapults to launch with a heavier warload than would otherwise be possible. Larger planes, such as theE-2 Hawkeye andS-3 Viking, require a catapult shot, since their thrust-to-weight ratio is too low for a conventional rolling takeoff on a carrier deck.[4]
Types previously or still operated by the British, U.S. and French navies include:[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]
| Type | Overall length | Stroke | Capacity | Carriers |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BS 4 | 151 ft (46 m)[17] | HMSArk Royal (2 catapults) | ||
| C-11 and C-11-1 | 225 feet (69 m) | 211 feet (64 m) | 39,000 pounds (18 t) at 136 knots; 70,000 pounds (32 t) at 108 knots | SCB-27CEssex-class conversions,USS Coral Sea, bow installations onUSS Midway andUSS Franklin D. Roosevelt, waist installations onUSS Forrestal andUSS Saratoga |
| C-11-2 | 162 feet (49 m) | 150 feet (46 m) | Waist catapults on USSMidway and USSFranklin D. Roosevelt | |
| C-7 | 276 feet (84 m) | 253 feet (77 m) | 40,000 pounds (18 t) at 148.5 knots; 70,000 pounds (32 t) at 116 knots | USS Ranger,USS Independence, bow installations on USSForrestal and USSSaratoga |
| C-13 | 265 feet (81 m) | 250 feet (76 m) | 78,000 pounds (35 t) at 139 knots | Kitty Hawk class, USSMidway after SCB-101.66 modernization,USS Enterprise |
| C-13-1 | 325 feet (99 m) | 310 feet (94 m) | 80,000 pounds (36 t) at 140 knots | One installation onUSS America andUSS John F. Kennedy, all onUSS Nimitz,USS Dwight D. Eisenhower,USS Carl Vinson, andUSS Theodore Roosevelt |
| C-13-2 | 325 feet (99 m) | 306 feet (93 m) | USS Abraham Lincoln,USS George Washington,USS John C. Stennis,USS Harry S. Truman | |
| C-13-3 | 261 feet (80 m) | 246 feet (75 m) | 60,000 pounds (27 t) at 140 knots | French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle |
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The protruding angled ramps (Van Velm Bridle Arresters or horns) at the catapult ends on some aircraft carriers were used to catch the bridles (connectors between the catapult shuttle and aircraft fuselage) for reuse. There were small ropes that would attach the bridle to the shuttle, which continued down the angled horn to pull the bridle down and away from the aircraft to keep it from damaging the underbelly. The bridle would then be caught by nets aside the horn. Bridles have not been used on U.S. aircraft since the end of theCold War, and all U.S. Navy carriers commissioned since then have not had the ramps. The last U.S. carrier commissioned with a bridle catcher was USSCarl Vinson; starting with USSTheodore Roosevelt the ramps were omitted. DuringRefueling and Complex Overhaul refits in the late 1990s–early 2000s, the bridle catchers were removed from the first threeNimitz-class aircraft carriers. USSEnterprise was the last U.S. Navy operational carrier with the ramps still attached before her inactivation in 2012.[citation needed]
Like her American counterparts, the French aircraft carrierCharles De Gaulle is not equipped with bridle catchers because the modern aircraft operated on board use the same launch systems as in US Navy.[18] Because of this mutual interoperability, American aircraft are also capable of being catapulted from and landing onCharles De Gaulle, and conversely, French naval aircraft can use the US Navy carriers' catapults. At the time when theSuper Étendard was operated on board of theCharles de Gaulle, its bridles were used only once, as they were never recovered by bridle catchers.
The carriersClemenceau andFoch were also equipped with bridle catchers, not for the Super Étendards but only to catch and recover theVought F-8 Crusader's bridles.[clarification needed]
The size and manpower requirements of steam catapults place limits on their capabilities. A newer approach is the electromagnetic catapult, such asElectromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) developed by General Atomics. Electromagnetic catapults place less stress on the aircraft and offer more control during the launch by allowing gradual and continual acceleration. Electromagnetic catapults are also expected to require significantly less maintenance through the use of solid state components.[19]
Linear induction motors have been experimented with before, such as Westinghouse's Electropult system in 1945.[20] However, at the beginning of the 21st century, navies again started experimenting with catapults powered by linear induction motors andelectromagnets. Electromagnetic catapult would be more energy efficient onnuclear-powered aircraft carriers and would alleviate some of the dangers posed by using pressurized steam. Ongas-turbine powered ships, an electromagnetic catapult would eliminate the need for a separate steam boiler for generating catapult steam. The U.S. Navy'sGerald R. Ford-class aircraft carriers and PLA Navy'sType 003 aircraft carrier included electromagnetic catapults in their design.[21][22]
From 1929, the GermanNorddeutscher Lloyd-linersSS Bremen andEuropa were fitted with compressed air-driven catapults designed by theHeinkel Flugzeugwerke to launch mail-planes.[23] These ships served the route between Germany and the United States. The aircraft, carrying mail–bags, would be launched as amail tender while the ship was still many hundreds of miles from its destination, thus speeding mail delivery by about a day. Initially,Heinkel He 12 aircraft were used before they were replaced byJunkers Ju 46, which were in turn replaced by theVought V-85G.[24]
German airlineLufthansa subsequently used dedicated catapult shipsSS Westfalen,MS Schwabenland,Ostmark andFriesenland to launch largerDornier Do JWal (whale),Dornier Do 18 andDornier Do 26flying boats on the South Atlantic airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany to Natal, Brazil.[25] On route proving flights in 1933, and a scheduled service beginning in February 1934,Wals flew the trans-ocean stage of the route, betweenBathurst,the Gambia in West Africa andFernando de Noronha, an island group off South America. At first, there was a refueling stop in mid-ocean. The flying boat would land on the open sea, be winched aboard by a crane, refueled, and then launched by catapult back into the air. However, landing on the big ocean swells tended to damage the hull of the flying boats. From September 1934,Lufthansa had a support ship at each end of the trans-ocean stage, providing radio navigation signals and catapult launchings after carrying aircraft out to sea overnight. From April 1935 theWals were launched directly offshore, and flew the entire distance across the ocean. This was possible as the flying boats could carry more fuel when they did not have to take off from the water under their own power, and cut the time it took for mail to get from Germany to Brazil from four days down to three.
From 1936 to 1938, tests including theBlohm & Voss Ha 139 flying boat were conducted on the North Atlantic route to New York.Schwabenland was also used in anAntarctic expedition in 1938/39 with the main purpose of finding an area for a German whaling station, in which catapult-launchedWals surveyed a territory subsequently claimed by Germany asNew Swabia. All ofLufthansa's catapult ships were taken over by theLuftwaffe in 1939 and used asseaplane tenders in World War II along with three catapult ships built for the military.
After World War II,Supermarine Walrus amphibian aircraft were also briefly operated by a Britishwhaling company, United Whalers. Operating in the Antarctic, they were launched from thefactory ship FFBalaena, which had been equipped with an ex-navy aircraft catapult.[26]
The Chinese, Indian, and Russian navies operate conventional aircraft from "short take-off but arrested landing" (STOBAR) aircraft carriers. Instead of a catapult, they usea ski jump to assist aircraft in taking off with a positive rate of climb. Carrier aircraft such as theJ-15,Mig-29K, andSu-33 rely on their own engines to accelerate to flight speed. As a result, they must take off with a reduced load of fuel and armaments.
All other navies with aircraft carriers operateshort take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft, such as the B variant of theLockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, theBAE Sea Harrier, and theAV-8B Harrier II. These aircraft can take off vertically with a light load, or use a ski jump to assist a rolling takeoff with a heavy load. STOVL carriers are less expensive and generally smaller in size compared to CATOBAR carriers.[27] The BritishQueen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers were built to use STOVL aircraft due to the expected cost of an electromagnetic catapult; they do not have the means to generate steam for a conventional catapult.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.THE HEINKEL K2 catapult installed upon the North German Lloyd liner "Bremen," which figured prominently in the establishment of the recent trans-Atlantic mail record, is the result of two years of experimentation and development by Dr. Ernst Heinkel, its designer.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)THE HEINKEL K2 catapult installed upon the North German Lloyd liner "Bremen," which figured prominently in the establishment of the recent trans-Atlantic mail record, is the result of two years of experimentation and development by Dr. Ernst Heinkel, its designer.
