Abaqa Khan
| |
|---|---|
| Ilkhān al-Mu'aẓẓam[1] (Supreme Ilkhan) Sultān-i Īrān[2] (Sultan of Iran) | |
 Abaqa enthroned with his khatun (possibly Dorji Khatun) | |
| Ilkhan | |
| Reign | 8 February 1265 – 1282 |
| Predecessor | Hulagu Khan |
| Successor | Ahmed Tekuder |
| Born | (1234-02-27)27 February 1234 Mongolia |
| Died | 4 April 1282(1282-04-04) (aged 48) Hamadan,Ilkhanate |
| Consort | Buluqhan Khatun Padishah Khatun Maria Palaiologina |
| Issue | Arghun Gaykhatu Oljath El Qutlugh Khatun (daughter) |
| Dynasty | Borjigin |
| Father | Hulagu Khan |
| Mother | Yesuncin Khatun |
| Religion | Buddhism |
Abaqa Khan (27 February 1234 – 4 April 1282,Mongolian:Абаха/Абага хан(KhalkhaCyrillic),ᠠᠪᠠᠭᠠ
ᠬᠠᠨ(Traditional script), "paternal uncle", also transliteratedAbaġa), was the secondMongol ruler (Ilkhan) of theIlkhanate. The son ofHulagu Khan and Lady Yesünčin and the grandson ofTolui, he reigned from 1265 to 1282 and was succeeded by his brotherAhmed Tekuder.[3] Much of Abaqa's reign was consumed with civil wars in the Mongol Empire, such as those between the Ilkhanate and the northern khanate of theGolden Horde, and theChagatai Khanate inCentral Asia. Abaqa also engaged in unsuccessful attempts at invading Syria under theMamluk Sultanate, which included theSecond Battle of Homs.
Abaqa was born inMongolia[3] on 27 February 1234,[4] son of Ilkhanate founderHulagu Khan. Abaqa was aBuddhist. A favoured son of Hulagu, he was made governor ofTurkestan.[5]
Hulagu died from illness in 1265. Before his death, he had been negotiating with the Byzantine EmperorMichael VIII Palaiologos to add a daughter of the Byzantine imperial family to Hulagu's number of wives. Michael VIII had selected his illegitimate daughterMaria Palaiologina, who was dispatched in 1265, escorted by the abbot ofPantokrator monastery, Theodosius de Villehardouin.[6] HistorianSteven Runciman relates how she was accompanied by thePatriarch Euthymius of Antioch.[5] Since Hulagu died before she arrived, she was instead married to Hulagu's son, Abaqa. He received her hand in marriage when he was installed as Ilkhan. When Hulagu's wife Doquz Khatun also died in 1265, the role of spiritual leader transferred to Maria, who was called "Despina Khatun" by the Mongols.
It was Abaqa who decided that the permanent location for the Ilkhanate capital would beTabriz, which was in the northwestern grasslands that the Mongols preferred.[7]
Abaqa took power four months after the death of his father, and then spent the next several months redistributing fiefs and governorships.[5]
Some of the coins from Abaqa's era display the Christian cross, and bear in Arabic the Christian inscription "In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, only one God".[8]
Since Hulagu's reign, the Mongols of the Ilkhanate had been at war with the Mongols of theGolden Horde. This continued into Abaqa's reign, and the Golden Horde invaded the Ilkhanate in the spring after his accession. The invasion was partly due to an alliance between the Golden Horde and the Egyptian Mamluks. As part of this alliance, the Golden Horde attempted to distract Abaqa through attacks on his territories so as to keep him from invading Mamluk-held Syria.[5] The hostilities continued until the death of the Golden Horde's khan,Berke, in 1267. The Great Khan Kublai attempted to intervene to stop the civil war, and due to his influence, the Golden Horde's new khan,Möngke Temür did not launch a major invasion into Abaqa's territory.[9] However, Möngke Temür still commanded Commander Nogai to establish an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Baibars promising that he would attack Abaqa and share any conquered territories.[10] But, at the same time, Möngke Temür sent envoys to congratulate Abaqa when the Ilkhan defeatedGhiyas-ud-din Baraq.[11] In 1270, he allowedMengu-Timur to collect his revenues from workshops in Iran.[12]
Ögedei's grandsonKaidu,Batu's grandsonMengu-Timur andBaraq of theChagatai Khanate formed an alliance against Kublai Khan and Abaqa inTalas. They appointed Kaidu a ruler of Central Asia. The resultingKaidu–Kublai war which started in 1268 would carry on until the end of the century.
In 1270,Baraq Khan of theChagatai Khanate tried to annexIran, which resulted in an attack on Abaqa who was in the city ofHerat. However, Abaqa was able to launch a successful defence and also defeated Baraq's relativeTeguder in Georgia. In the following year, he retaliated by sending an army against the Chagatai Khanate. They plunderedBukhara and surrounding areas. There were small conflicts between Abaqa and theQara'unas who were under the control of Chagatai nobles until 1280.
Abaqa was one in a long line of Mongol rulers who attempted to secure Western co-operation against the MuslimMamluks. He corresponded withPope Clement IV during 1267–1268, and reportedly sent a Mongol ambassador to western Europe in 1268, trying to form aFranco-Mongol alliance between his forces, those of the West, and those of his father-in-law Michael VIII. He received responses from Rome and fromJames I of Aragon, though it is unclear if this was what led to James' unsuccessful expedition toAcre in 1269.[13] Abaqa is recorded as having written to the Aragonese king, saying that he was going to send his brother, Aghai, to join the Aragonese when they arrived inCilicia. Abaqa also sent embassies toEdward I of England, and in 1274 sent a Mongol delegation toPope Gregory X at theSecond Council of Lyons, where Abaqa's secretaryRychaldus read a report to the assembly, reminding them of Hulagu's friendliness towards Christians, and assuring them that Abaqa planned to drive the Muslims from Syria.[14] But neither this diplomatic mission, nor two further embassies to Europe in 1276 and 1277, brought any tangible results.
In 1260Bohemond VI of Antioch was persuaded by his father-in-law,Hetoum I of Armenia, to voluntarily submit to Mongol authority[15] while Abaqa's father Hulagu was in power, makingAntioch andTripoli vassal states of the Ilkhanate. In 1268, the Mamluk leader Baibars captured Antioch,[16] and Bohemond obtained a truce with Baibars in order to avoid losing Tripoli.[17][18]
In response to the fall of Antioch,Edward I of England arrived in Acre in 1271, trying to lead a new Crusade. It was ultimately considered a military failure, but Edward was able to eventually secure a truce with the Mamluks before he had to return to England.
When Edward arrived in Acre, he had sent an embassy to Abaqa, led by Reginald Rossel, Godefroi of Waus and John of Parker, requesting military assistance from the Mongols.[19] Abaqa was occupied with other conflicts inTurkestan but responded positively to Edward's request, sending 10,000 Mongol horsemen under generalSamagar from the occupation army inSeljukAnatolia to Syria:
"After talking over the matter, we have on our account resolved to send to your aid Cemakar (Samagar) at the head of a mighty force; thus, when you discuss among yourselves the other plans involving the aforementioned Cemakar be sure to make explicit arrangements as to the exact month and day on which you will engage the enemy."
— Letter from Abaqa to Edward I, 4 September 1271.[20]
The Mongols, including some auxiliary Seljuk troops, ravaged the land fromAleppo southward. Though the force was relatively small, they triggered an exodus of the Muslim population (who remembered the previous campaigns of the Mongol generalKitbuqa) as far south asCairo.[21] Edward, for his part, was never able to muster his own forces to coordinate actions with the Mongols or even achieve any military victories, so Abaqa's forces eventually withdrew. When Baibars mounted a counter-offensive from Egypt on 12 November 1271, the Mongols had already retreated beyond theEuphrates.
The Mamluk leaderBaibars died in 1277. During 1280 and 1281, Abaqa promoted new attacks againstSyria. In September 1280, the Mongols occupiedBaghras andDarbsak, and tookAleppo on October 20. TheMongols sent envoys to Acre to request military support for their campaign, but theCrusaders were still in a 10-year truce with theMamluks. The Vicar of the Patriarch declined Abaqa's request, saying that the city was suffering from hunger, and that the king of Jerusalem was embroiled in another war. The King of CyprusHugh III and Bohemond VII mobilised their armies, but could not intervene because the Mamluks had already positioned themselves between them and the Mongols.[22]
Abaqa andLeo III urged the Franks to start a new Crusade, but only the Hospitallers and Edward I (who could not come for lack of funds) responded favourably.[23] The Hospitallers of Marqab made combined raids into theBuqaia, and won several engagements against the SultanQalawun,[24] raiding as far as theKrak des Chevaliers in October 1280, and defeating the Mamluk army of the Krak in February 1281.[22]
The Mongols finally retreated, pledging to come back for the winter of 1281. They informed the Franks that they would bring 50,000 Mongol horsemen and 50,000 Mongol infantry, but apparently this pledge did not receive a response.[24]
TheEgyptian Muslims had respected a 10-year truce with theCrusaders which began in 1271. On 3 May 1281, the new Muslim sultanQalawun signed a new 10-year truce with the barons of Acre and a second 10-year truce withBohemond VII of Tripoli, on 16 July 1281.[25]
The announced Mongol invasion started in September 1281. They were joined by theArmenians underLeo III, and by about 200Hospitalier knights from the fortress ofMarqab[26][27] who considered they were not bound by the truce with the Mamluks.[28]
On 30 October 1281, 50,000Mongol troops, together with 30,000Armenians,Georgians, Greeks and theFrankishHospitalier Knights of Marqab, fought against the Muslim leader Qalawun at theSecond Battle of Homs, but were beaten back.[28]
Abaqa died atHamadan on 4 April 1282, probably in a state ofdelirium tremens. This illness was probably caused by too much consumption of alcohol, a habit common to many Mongol leaders. However, in 1285, his minister of financeShams ad-Din Juvayni was accused of having had him poisoned.[29]
After Abaqa's death, his widow Maria fled back to Constantinople where her father, apparently wishing to spare his capital the fate that befell Baghdad, tried to marry her off again to another Mongol khan. Maria would not accept the offer, became anun, and in about 1285 founded the church ofPanagia Mouchliotissa.
Abaqa was succeeded by his brotherTekuder, who despite his earlier conflicts with the Egyptian Mamluks, had converted to Islam. Tekuder reversed Abaqa's pro-Christian policies and proposed an alliance with the Mamluk SultanQalawun, who resumed attacks on Frankish territory, capturing the northern fortress ofMargat in 1285,Lattakia in 1287, andTripoli in 1289.[30] In 1284, Abaqa's sonArghun led a successful revolt, backed byKublai. Arghun had his uncle Tekuder executed and took power himself, returning to the pro-Christian policies of Abaqa.
A younger son,Gaykhatu, assumed the throne in 1291.[31][32][33]
Abaqa had sixteen consorts and children with several of them:
Inherited fromHulagu:
Principal wives:
Concubines:
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| Preceded by | Ilkhan 8 February 1265–1282 | Succeeded by |
