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The significance of Rome lies primarily in the fact that it is the city of thepope. TheBishop of Rome, as the successor ofSt. Peter, is theVicar of Christ on earth and the visible head of theCatholicChurch. Rome is consequently the centre of unity inbelief, the source ofecclesiastical jurisdiction and the seat of the supreme authority which can bind by its enactments the faithful throughout the world. The Diocese of Rome is known as the "See of Peter", the"Apostolic See", the "HolyRoman Church" the"Holy See" — titles which indicate its unique position inChristendom and suggest the origin of its preeminence. Rome, more than any other city, bears witness both to the past splendour of thepagan world and to the triumph ofChristianity. It is here that thehistory of the Church can be traced from the earliest days, from thehumble beginnings in theCatacombs to the majestic ritual ofSt. Peter's. At every turn one comes upon places hallowed by the deaths of themartyrs, the lives of innumerablesaints, the memories of wise andholypontiffs. From Rome the bearers of the Gospel message went out to the peoples ofEurope and eventually to the uttermost ends of the earth. To Rome, again, in every age countlesspilgrims have thronged from all the nations, and especially from English-speaking countries. With religion the missionaries carried the best elements of ancient culture and civilization which Rome had preserved amid all the vicissitudes of barbaric invasion. To these treasures of antiquity have been added the productions of a nobler art inspired by higher ideals, that have filled Rome with masterpieces inarchitecture,painting, andsculpture. These appeal indeed to every mind endowed with artistic perception; but their full meaning only theCatholic believer can appreciate, because he alone, in his deepest thought and feeling, is at one with the spirit that pulsates here in the heart of theChristian world.
Many details concerning Rome have been set forth in other articles of THE CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. For the prerogatives of thepapacy the reader is referred toPOPE; for theecclesiastical government of the city and diocese, toCARDINAL VICAR; forliturgical matters, toROMAN RITE; foreducation, toROMAN COLLEGES; for literary development, toROMAN ACADEMIES; for history, to the biographical articles on the variouspopes, and the articlesCONSTANTINE THE GREAT,CHARLEMAGNE, etc. There is a special article on each of thereligious orders,saints, and artists mentioned in this article, while the details of thepapal administration, both spiritual and temporal, will be found treated underAPOSTOLIC CAMERA;PONTIFICAL AUDIENCES;APOSTOLIC EXAMINERS;HOLY SEE;PAPAL RESCRIPTS;ROMAN CONGREGATIONS;ROMAN CURIA;SACRA ROMANA ROTA;STATES OF THE CHURCH, etc. Of the greatChristian monuments of the Eternal City, special articles are devoted toBASILICA OF ST. PETER;TOMB OF ST. PETER;LATERAN BASILICA;VATICAN;CHAIR OF PETER.
The present article will be divided:
The City of Rome rises on the banks of the Tiber at a distance of from 16 to 19 miles from the mouth of that river, which makes a deep furrow in the plain which extends between the Alban hills, to the south; the hills ofPalestrina andTivoli, and the Sabine hills, to the east: and the Umbrian hills and Monte Tolfa, to the north. The city stands in latitude 41°54' N. and longitude 12°30' E. of Greenwich. It occupies, on the left bank, not only the plain, but also the adjacent heights, namely, portions of the Parioli hills, of the Pincian, the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Esquiline (which are only the extremities of a mountain-mass of tufa extending to the Alban hills), the Capitoline, the Cælian, the Palatine, and the Aventine — hills which are now isolated. On the right bank is the valley lying beneath Monte Mario the Vatican, and the Janiculan, the last-named of which has now become covered with houses and gardens. The Tiber, traversing the city, forms two sharp bends and an island (S. Bartolomeo), and within the city its banks are protected by the strong and lofty walls which were begun in 1875. The river is crossed by fourteen bridges, one of them being only provisional, while ten have been built since 1870. There is also a railroad drawbridge near St. Paul's. Navigation on the river is practicable only for vessels of light draught, which anchor at Ripa Grande, taking cargoes of oil and other commodities.
For thecure of souls, the city is divided into 54parishes (including 7 in the suburbs), administered partly bysecular clergy, partly by regular. The boundaries of theparishes have been radically changed byPius X, to meet new needs arising out of topographical changes. Eachparish has, besides itsparishpriest, one or twoassistant priests, a chiefsacristan, and an indeterminate number ofchaplains. Theparishpriests every year elect a chamberlain of theclergy, whose position is purely honorary; every month they assemble for a conference to discuss cases inmoral theology and also the practical exigencies of the ministry. In eachparish there is aparochial committee forCatholic works; each has its various confraternities, many of which have their own church and oratory. In the vast extent of country outside of Rome, along the main highways, there arechapels for the accommodation of the few settled inhabitants, and the labourers and shepherds who from October to July are engaged in the work of the open country. In former times most of thesechapels hadpriests of their own, who also keptschools; nowadays, through the exertions of the Society for the Religious Aid of the Agro Romano (i.e. the country districts around Rome),priests are taken thither from Rome everySunday to sayMass, catechize, and preach on the Gospel. The houses of male religious number about 160; offemale religious, 205, for the most part devoted to teaching, ministering to the sick in public and privatehospitals, managing various houses of retreat etc. Besides the three patriarchal chapters (see below, under "Churches"), there are at Rome eleven collegiate chapters.
In the patriarchalbasilicas there are confessors for all the principal languages. Some nations have their national churches (Germans, Anima and Campo Santo; French, S. Luigi and S. Claudio; Croats, S. Girolamo dei Schiavoni;Belgians, S. Giuliano; Portuguese, S. Antonio;Spaniards, S. Maria in Monserrato; to all which may be added the churches of the Oriental rites). Moreover, in thechurches andchapels of manyreligious houses, particularly the generalates, as well as in the various national colleges, it is possible for foreigners to fulfil their religiousobligations. For English-speakingpersons theconvents of theIrishDominicans (S. Clemente) and of theIrishFranciscans (S. Isidoro), the English,Irish, and American Colleges, the new Church of S. Patrizio in the Via Ludovisi, that of S. Giorgio of the English Sisters in the Via S. Sebastianello, and particularly S. Silvestro in Capite (Pallottini) should be mentioned. In these churches, too, there are, regularly, sermons in English onfeast-day afternoons, duringLent andAdvent, and on other occasions. Sometimes there are sermons in English in other churches also, notice being given beforehand by bills posted outside the churches and by advertisements in the papers. First Communions are mostly made in theparish churches; manyparents place their daughters in seclusion during the period of immediate preparation, in someeducational institution. There are also two institutions for the preparation of boys for their First Communion, one of them without charge (Ponte Rotto).Christian doctrine is taught both in the day and nightschools which are dependent either on theHoly See, or on religious congregations orCatholic associations. For those who attend the public elementaryschools,parochialcatechism is provided on Sunday andfeast-day afternoons. For intermediate anduniversity students suitableschools of religious instruction have been formed, connected with the languageschools and the scholasticripetizioni, so as to attract the young men. The confraternities, altogether 92 in number, are either professional (for members of certain professions or trades), or national, or for some charitable object (e.g., for charity toprisoners; S. Lucia del Gonfalone and others like it, for giving dowries to poor youngwomen of good character; the Confraternità della Morte, for burying those who die in the country districts, and various confraternities for escorting funerals, of which the principal one is that of the Sacconi; that of S. Giovanni Decollato, to assistpersons condemned todeath), or again they have some purely devotional aim, like the Confraternities of theBlessed Sacrament, of theChristian Doctrine, of the various mysteries of religion, and of certainsaints.
Forecclesiastical instruction there are in the city, besides the various Italian and foreign colleges, three greatecclesiasticaluniversities: the Gregorian, under theJesuits; the Schools of the Roman Seminary, at S. Apollinare; the Collegio Angelico of theDominicans, formerly known as the Minerva. Severalreligious orders also haveschools of their own — theBenedictines at S. Anselmo, theFranciscans at S. Antonio, theRedemptorists at S. Alfonso, the CalcedCarmelites at the College of S. Alberto, the. Capuchina the MinorConventuals, the Augustinians, and others. (SeeROMAN COLLEGES.) For classical studies there are, besides theschools of S. Apollinare, the Collegio Massimo, under theJesuits, comprising also elementary and technicalschools; the Collegio Nazareno (Piarists), the gymnasium and intermediateschool of which take rank with those of the Government; the Instituto Angelo Mai (Barnabite). TheBrothers of the Christian Schools have a flourishing technical institute (de Merode) with a boarding-house (convitto). There are eight colleges for youths under the direction ofecclesiastics or religious. TheHoly See and the Society for the Protection ofCatholic Interests also maintain forty-six elementaryschools for the people mostly under the care of religious congregations. For theeducation of girls there are twenty-six institutions directed by Sisters, some of which also receive day-pupils. Theorphanages are nine in number, and some of them are connected with technical and industrialschools. TheSalesians, too, have a similar institution, and there are two agricultural institutions. Hospices are provided for converts from theChristiansects and for Hebrewneophytes. Thirty other houses of refuge, for infants,orphans, old people, etc., are directed by religious men orwomen.
As the capital ofItaly, Rome is the residence of the reigning house, theministers, the tribunals, and the other civil and military officials of both the national Government and the provincial. For public instruction there are theuniversity, two technical institutes, a commercial high school, five gymnasium-lyceums, eight technicalschools, afemale institute for the preparation of secondary teachers, a national boardingschool, and other lay institutions, besides a military college. There are also several privateschools for languages etc. — the Vaticana, the Nazionale (formed out of thelibraries of the Roman College, of the Aracœli Convent and other monasticlibraries partially ruined), the Corsiniana (now the School of the Accademia dei Lincei), the Casanatense, the Angelica (formerly belonging to the Augustinians), the Vallicellana (Oratorians, founded by CardinalBaronius), the Militare Centrale, the Chigiana, and others. (For the academies seeROMAN ACADEMIES.) Foreign nations maintain institutions for artistic, historical, or archæological study (America,Great Britain,Austria-Hungary,Prussia,Holland,Belgium,France). There are threeastronomical and meteorological observatories: the Vatican, the Capitol (Campidoglio), and the Roman College (Jesuit), the last-named, situated on the Janiculan, has been suppressed. The museums and galleries worthy of mention are the Vatican (seeVATICAN), those ofChristian and of profane antiquities at the Lateran (famous for the "Dancing Satyr"; the "Sophocles", one of the finest of portraitstatues in existence found atTerracina; the "Neptune", thepagan andChristian sarcophagi with decorations in relief, and thestatue ofHippolytus). In the gallery at the Lateran there arepaintings byCrivelli,Gozzoli,Lippi, Spagna, Francia, Palmezzano,Sassoferrato, andSeitz. The Capitoline Museum contains Roman prehistorictombs and household furniture, reliefs from the Arch ofMarcus Aurelius, a head of Amalasunta, a half-length figure of theEmperor Commodus, the epitaph of the infant prodigy Quintus Sulpicius Maximus, the Esquiline and the Capitoline Venuses, "Diana of the Ephesians", the Capitoline Wolf (Etruscan work of the fifth century ), Marforius, the Dying Gladiator, busts of the emperors and other famous men of antiquity, andVespasian's "Lex regia"; the Gallery contains works by Spagna, Tintoretto,Caracci,Caravaggio, Guercino (St. Petronilla, the original of themosaic in St. Peter's),Guido Reni,Titian, Van Dyke,Domenichino,Paolo Veronese, and other masters. There are importantnumismatic collections and collections of gold jewelry. The Villa Giulia has a collection of Etruscan terracotta; the Museo Romano, objects recently excavated; the Museo Kircheriano has been enlarged into an ethnographical museum. The Borghese Gallery is in the villa of the same name. The National Gallery, in the Exposition Building (Palazzo dell' Esposizione), is formed out of the Corsini, Sciarra, and Torlonia collections, together with modern acquisitions. There are also various private collections in different parts of the city.
The institutions of public charity are all consolidated in the Congregazione di Carità, under the Communal Administration. There are twenty-seven publichospitals, the most important of which are: the Polyclinic, which is destined to absorb all the others; S. Spirito, to which is annexed thelunatic asylum and thefoundling hospital; S. Salvatore, ahospital forwomen, in the Lateran; S. Giacomo; S. Antonio; the Consolazione; two militaryhospitals. There are also an institute for the blind, two clinics for diseases of the eye, twenty-five asylums for abandoned children, three lying-inhospitals, and numerous private clinics for paying patients. The great public promenades are the Pincian, adjoining the Villa Borghese and now known as the Umberto Primo, where a zoological garden has recently been installed, and the Janiculum. Several private parks or gardens, as the Villa Pamphili, are also accessible to the public every day.
The population of Rome in 1901 was 462,783. Of these 5000 wereProtestants, 7000Jews, 8200 of otherreligions and no religion. In the census now (1910) being made an increase of more than 100,000 is expected. Rome is now the most salubrious of all the large cities ofItaly, its mortality for 1907 being 18.8 per thousand, against 19.9 atMilan and 19.6 atTurin. The Press is represented by five agencies: there are 17 daily papers, two of themCatholic ("Osservatore Romano" and "Corriere d'Italia"); 8 periodicals are issued once or oftener in the week (5 catholic, 4 in English — "Rome", "Roman Herald", "Roman Messenger", "Roman World"); 88 are issued more than once a month (7Catholic); there are 101 monthlies (19Catholic); 55 periodicals appear less frequently than once a month.
Arms and implements of the Palæolithic Age, found in the near vicinity of Rome, testify to the presence of man here in those remote times. The most recent excavations have established that as early as the eighth century or, according to some, several centuries earlier, there was a group of human habitations on the Palatine Hill, a tufaceous ledge rising in the midst of marshy ground near the Tiber. (That river, it may be observed here, was known to the primitive peoples by the name ofRumo, "the River".) Thus is the traditional account of the origin of Rome substantially verified. At the same time, or very little later, a colony of Sabines was formed on the Quirinal, and on the Esquiline an Etruscan colony. Between the Palatine and the Quirinal rose the Capitoline, once covered by two sacred groves, afterwards occupied by the temple of Jupiter and the Rock. Within a small space, therefore, were established the advance guards of three distinct peoples of different characters; the Latins, shepherds; the Sabines, tillers of the soil; the Etruscans, already far advanced in civilization, and therefore in commerce and the industries. How these three villages became a city, with, first, the Latin influence preponderating, then the Sabine, then the Etruscan (the two Tarquins), is all enveloped in the obscurity of the history of the seven kings (753-509 ). The same uncertainty prevails as to the conquests made at the expense of the surrounding peoples. It is unquestionable that all those conquests had to be made afresh after the expulsion of the kings.
But the social organization of the new city during this period stands out clearly: There were three original tribes: the Ramnians (Latins), the Titians (Sabines), and the Luceres (Etruscans). Each tribe was divided into tencuriœ, eachcuria into tengentes; eachgens into ten (or thirty)families. Those who belonged to these, the most ancient, tribes were Patricians, and the chiefs of the three hundredgentes formed the Senate. In the course oftime and thewars with surrounding peoples, new inhabitants occupied the remaining hills; thus, under Tullus Hostilius, the Cælian was assigned to the population of the razed Alba Longa (Albano); the Sabines, conquered by Ancus Martius, had the Aventine. Later on, the Viminal was occupied. The new inhabitants formed the Plebeians (Plebs), and their civilrights were less than those of the older citizens. The internal history of Rome down to the Imperial Period is nothing but a struggle of plebeians against patricians for the acquisition of greater civilrights, and these struggles resulted in the civil, political, and juridical organization of Rome. The king was high-priest, judge, leader inwar and head of the Government; the Senate and the Comitia of the People were convoked by him at his pleasure, and debated the measures proposed by him. Moreover, the kingly dignity was hereditary. Among the important public works in this earliest period were the drains, or sewers (cloacœ), for draining the marshes around the Palatine, the work of the Etruscan Tarquinius Priscus; the city wall was built by Servius Tullius, who also organized the Plebeians, dividing them into thirty tribes; the Sublician Bridge was constructed to unite the Rome of that time with the Janiculan.
During the splendid reign of Tarquinius Superbus, Rome was the mistress of Latium as far as Circeii and Signia. But, returning victorious from Ardea, the king found the gates of the city closed against him. Rome took to itself a republican form of government, with two consuls, who held office for only one year; only in times of difficulty was a dictator elected, to wield unlimited power. In the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus some historians have seen a revolt of the Latin element against Etruscan domination. Besideswars and treaties with the Latins and other peoples, the principal events, down to the burning of Rome by the Gauls, were the institution of the tribunes of the people (tribuni plebis), the establishment of thelaws of the Twelve Tables, and the destruction of Veii. In 390 the Romans were defeated by the Gauls near the River Allia; a few days later the city was taken and set on fire, and after the Gauls had departed it was rebuilt without plan or rule. Cumillus, the dictator, reorganized the army and, after long resistance to the change, at last consented that one of the consuls should be a plebeian. Southern Etruria became subject to Rome, with the capture ofNepi and Sutri in 386. The Appian Way and Aqueduct were constructed at this period. Very soon it was possible to think of conquering the whole peninsula. The principal stages of this conquest are formed by the threewars against the Samnites (victory of Suesaula 343); the victory of Bovianum, 304; those over the Etruscans and Umbrians, in 310 and 308; lastly the victory of Sentinum, in 295, over the combined Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls. The Tarentine (282-272) and the First and Second Punic Wars (264-201) determined the conquest of the rest ofItaly, with the adjacent islands, as well as the first invasion ofSpain.
Soon after this, the Kingdom ofMacedonia (Cynoscephalæ, 197; Pydna, 168) and Greece (capture ofCorinth, 146) were subdued, while thewar against Antiochus ofSyria (192-89) and against the Galatians (189) brought Roman supremacy intoAsia, In 146 Carthage was destroyed, and Africa reduced to subjection; between 149 and 133 the conquest ofSpain was completed. Everywhere Roman colonies sprang up. With conquest, the luxurious vices of the conquered peoples also came to Rome, and thus the contrast between patricians and plebeians was accentuated. To champion the cause of the plebeians there arose the brothers Tiberius and Calus Gracchus. The Servile Wars (132-171) and the Jugurthine War (111-105) revealed the utter corruption of Romansociety. Marius and Sulla, both of whom had won glory in foreignwars, rallied to them the two opposing parties, Democratic and Aristocratic, respectively. Sulla firmly established his dictatorship with the victory of the Colline Gate (83), reorganized the administration, and enacted some goodlaws to arrest the moral decay of the city. But the times were ripe for the oligarchy, which was to lead in the natural course of events to the monarchy. In the year 60, Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first Triumvirate. While Cæsar conquered Gaul (58-50), and Crassus waged an unsuccessfulwar against the Parthians (54-53), Pompey succeeded in gaining supreme control of the capital. Thewar between Pompey to whom the nobles adhered, and Cæsar, who had the democracy with him, was inevitable. The battle of Pharsalia (48) decided the issue; in 45 Cæsar was already thinking of establishing monarchical government; his assassination (44) could do no more than delay the movement towards monarchy. Another triumvirate was soon formed by Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian; Antony and Octavian disagreed, and at Actium (32) the issue was decided inOctavian's favour. Roman power had meanwhile been consolidated and extended inSpain, inGaul, and even as far as Pannonia, inPontus, in Palestine, and inEgypt. Henceforward Roman history is no longer the history of the City of Rome, although it was only underCaracalla ( 211) that Roman citizenship was accorded to all free subjects of the empire.
In the midst of these political vicissitudes the city was growing and being beautified withtemples and other buildings, public and private. On the Campus Martius and beyond the Tiber, at the foot of the Janiculan, new and populous quarters sprang up with theatres (those of Pompey and of Marcellus) and circuses (the Maximus and the Flaminius, 221 ). The centre of political life was the Forum, which had been the market before the centre of buying and selling was transferred, in 388, to the Campus Martius (Forum Holitorium), leaving the oldForum Romanum to the business of the State. Here were thetemples of Concord (366), Saturn (497), the Dî Consentes, Castor and Pollux (484), the Basilica Æmilia (179), the Basilica Julia (45), theCuria Hostilia (S. Adriano), the Rostra, etc. Scarcely had the empire been consolidated whenAugustus turned his attention to the embellishment of Rome, and succeeding emperors followed his example: brick-built Rome became marble Rome. After the sixth decade many Hebrews had settled at Rome, in the Trastevere quarter and that of the Porta Capena, and soon they became a financial power. They were incessantly makingproselytes, especially among thewomen of the upper classes. The names of thirteensynagogues are known as existing (though not all at the same time) at Rome during the Imperial Period. Thus was the way prepared for the Gospel, whereby Rome, already mistress of the world, was to be given a new sublimer and more lasting, title to that dominion — the dominion over thesouls of allmankind.
Even on theDay of Pentecost, "Roman strangers" (advenœ Romani,Acts 2:10) were present atJerusalem, and they surely must have carried the good news to their fellow-citizens at Rome. Ancient tradition assigns to the year 42 the first coming of St. Peter to Rome, though, according to the pseudo-Clementine Epistles, St. Barnabas was the first to preach the Gospel in the Eternal City. Under Claudius (c. 50), the name of Christ had become such an occasion of discord among the Hebrews of Rome that the emperor drove them all out of the city, though they were not long in returning. About ten years later Paul also arrived, aprisoner, and exercised a vigorous apostolate during his sojourn. TheChristians were numerous at that time, even at the imperial Court. The burning of the city — by order ofNero, who wished to effect a thorough renovation — was the pretext for the first officialpersecution of theChristian name. Moreover, it was very natural thatpersecution, which had been occasional, should in course oftime have become general and systematic; hence it is unnecessary to transfer thedate of the Apostles'martyrdom from the year 67, assigned by tradition, to the year 64 (seeSAINT PETER;SAINT PAUL).Domitian's reign took its victims both from among the opponents of absolutism and from theChristians; among them some who were of very exalted rank — Titus Flavius Clemens,Acilius Glabrio (Cemetery of Priscilla), andFlavia Domitilla, a relative of the emperor. It must have been then, too, that St. John, according to a very ancient legend (Tertullian), was brought to Rome.
The reign ofTrajan andAdrian was the culminating point of the arts at Rome. The Romanmartyrdoms attributed to this period are, with the exception of St. Ignatius's, somewhatdoubtful. At the same time the heads of variousGnosticsects settled at Rome, notably Valentinus, Cerdon, andMarcion; but it does not appear that they had any great following. UnderAntoninus,Marcus Aurelius, andCommodus, several Romanmartyrs are known —Pope St. Telesphorus, Sts. Lucius, Ptolemæus,Justin and companions, and the Senator Apollonius. UnderCommodus, thanks to Martia, his morganatic wife, the condition of theChristians improved. At the same time theschools of Rhodon,St. Justin, and others flourished. But three newheresies from the East brought serious trouble to the internal peace of theChurch: that of Theodotus, the shoemaker of Byzantium; that of Noetus brought in by one Epigonus; andMontanism. In the struggle against theseheresies, particularly the last-named, thepriestHippolytus, a disciple ofSt. Irenæus, bore a distinguished part but he, in his turn, incurred the censures of PopesZephyrinus and Callistus and became the leader of aschismatical party. But the controversies betweenHippolytus and Callistus were not confined totheological questions, but also bore upon discipline, thepope thinking proper to introduce certain restrictions. Anothersect transplanted to Rome at this period was that of theElcesaites.
Thepersecution ofSeptimius Severus does not appear to have been very acute at Rome, where, before this time, manypersons of rank — even of the imperial household — had beenChristians. The long period of tranquillity, hardly interrupted by Maximinus (235-38), fostered the growth of Roman church organization; so much so that, underCornelius, after the first fury of theDecianpersecution, the city numbered about 50,000Christians. The last-namedpersecution produced many Romanmartyrs — Pope St. Fabian among the first — and manyapostates, and the problem of reconciling the latter resulted in theschism ofNovatian. Thepersecution ofValerian, too, fell first upon theChurch of Rome. UnderAurelian (271-76), the menace of an invasion of theGermans who had already advanced as far asPesaro compelled the emperor to restore and extend the walls of Rome. Thepersecution ofDiocletian also had its victims in the city, although there are no trustworthy records of them; it did not last long, however, in the West.Maxentius went so far as to restore to theChristians their cemeteries and other landedproperty, and, if we are to believeEusebius, ended by showing them favour, as a means of winning popularity. At this period several pretentious buildings were erected — baths, a circus, abasilica, etc. In the fourth and fifth centuries the city began to be embellished withChristian buildings, and the moribund art of antiquity thus received a new accession of vitality.
Of theheresies of this period,Arianism alone disturbed the religious peace for a brief space; evenPelagianiam failed to take root. The conflict between triumphantChristianity and dyingPaganism was more bitter. Symmachus, Prætextatus, and Nicomachus were the mostzealous and most powerful defenders of the ancient religion. AtMilan,St. Ambrose kept watch. By the end of the fourth century the desertedtemples were becoming filled with cobwebs; pontiffs and vestals were demandingbaptism. Thestatues of the gods served as public ornaments; precious objects were seldom plundered, and until the year 526 not one temple was converted to the uses ofChristian worship. In, 402 the necessity once more arose of fortifying Rome. The capital of the world, which had never beheld a hostile army since the days of Hannibal, in 408 withstood the double siege of Alaric. But the Senate, mainly at the instigation of apagan minority, treated with Alaric, deposed Honorius, andenthroned a new emperor Attalus. Two years later, Alaric returned, succeeded in taking the city, and sacked it. It isfalse, however, that the destruction of Rome began then. Under Alaric, as in the Gothicwar of the sixth century, only so much was destroyed as military exigencies rendered inevitable. The intervention ofSt. Leo the Great saved the Eternal City from the fury ofAttila, but could not prevent theVandals, in 456, from sacking it without mercy for fifteen days:statues, gold, silver, bronze, brass — whether theproperty of the State, or of theChurch, or of privatepersons — were taken and shipped to Carthage.
Rome still called itself the capital of the empire, but since the second century it had seen the emperors only at rare and fleeting moments; even the kings ofItaly preferredRavenna as a residence.Theodoric, nevertheless, made provision for the outward magnificence of the city, preserving its monuments so far as was possible. Pope St. Agapetus and the learnedCassiodorus entertained theidea of creating at Rome aschool of advanced Scripture studies, on the model of that which flourished atEdessa, but the Gothic invasion made shipwreck of this design. In that titanicwar Rome stood five sieges. In 536 Belisarius took it without striking a blow. Next year Vitiges besieged it, cutting the aqueducts, plundering the outlying villas, and even penetrating into thecatacombs; the city would have been taken had not the garrison of Hadrian'stomb defended themselves with fragments of thestatues of heroes and gods which they found in that monument. Soon after the departure ofPope Vigilius from Rome (November, 545), King Totila invested it and captured a fleet bearing supplies sent by Vigilius, who by that time had passed over toSicily. In December, 546, the city was captured, through the treachery of the Isaurian soldiery, and once more sacked. Totila,obliged to set out for the south, forced the whole population of Rome to leave the city, so that it was left uninhabited; but they returned with Belisarius in 547. Two years later, another Isaurian treachery made Totila once more master of the city, which then for the last time saw the games of the circus. After the battle of Taginæ (552), Rome opened its gates to Narces and became Byzantine. The ancient Senate and the Roman nobility were extinct. There was a breathing-space of sixteen years, and then the Lombards drew near to Rome, pillaging and destroying the neighbouring regions.St. Gregory the Great has described the lamentable condition of the city; the same saint did his best to remedy matters. The seventh century was disastrously marked by a violent assault on the Lateran made by Mauricius, thechartularius of the Exarch ofRavenna (640), by the exile of Pope St. Martin (653), and by the visit of the Emperor Constans I (663). Theimprisonment of St. Sergius, which had been ordered by Justinian II, was prevented by the native troops of the Exarchate.
In the eighth century the Lombards, with Liutprand, were seized with the oldidea of occupying allItaly, and Rome in particular. Thepopes, fromGregory II on, saved the city andItaly from Lombard domination by the power of their threats, until they were finally rescued by the aid of Pepin, when Rome and the peninsula came underFrankish domination. Provision was made for the material well-being of the city by repairs on the walls and the aqueducts, and by the establishment of agricultural colonies (domus cultœ) for the cultivation of the wide domains surrounding the city. But in Rome itself there were various factions — favouring either theFranks or the Lombards, or, later on,Frankish or Nationalist — and these factions often caused tumults, as, in particular, on the death ofPaul I (767) and at the beginning ofLeo III's pontificate (795). With thecoronation ofCharlemagne (799) Rome became finally detached from the Empire of the East. Though thepope was master of Rome, the power of the Sword was wielded by the imperialmissi, and this arrangement came to be more clearly defined by the Constitution of Lothair (824). Thus the government was divided. In the ninth century thepope had to defend Rome and CentralItaly against theSaracens. Gregoriopolis, the Leonine City, placed outside the walls for the defence of theBasilica of St. Peter, and sacked in 846, and Joannipolis, for the defence ofSt. Paul's were built byGregory IV,Leo IV, andJohn VIII. The latter two andJohn X also gained splendid victories over these barbarians.
The decline of theCarlovingian dynasty was not without its effect upon thepapacy and upon Rome, which became a mere lordship of the greatfeudalfamilies, especially those of Theodora and Marozia. When Hugh of Provence wished to marry Marozia, so as to become master of Rome, his son Alberic rebelled against him and was elected their chief by the Romans, with the title of Patrician (Patricius) and Consul. The temporal power of thepope might then have come to an end, had not John, Alberic's son, reunited the two powers. But John's life and his conduct of the government necessitated the intervention of theEmperor Otto I (963), who instituted the office ofprœfectus urbis, to represent the imperial authority. (This office became hereditary in the Vicofamily.) Order did not reign for long: Crescentius, leader of the anti-papal party, deposed andmurderedpopes. It was only for a few brief intervals thatOtto II (980) andOtto III (996-998-1002) were able to re-establish the imperial and pontifical authority. At the beginning of the eleventh century threepopes of thefamily of the counts of Tusculum immediately succeeded each other, and the last of the three,Benedict IX, led a life soscandalous as made itnecessary for Henry III to intervene (1046). Theschism of Honorius II and the struggle betweenGregory VII andHenry IV exasperated party passions at Rome, and conspicuous in the struggle was another Crescentius, a member of the Imperialist Party.Robert Guiscard, called to the rescue byGregory VII, sacked the city and burned a great part of it, with immense destruction of monuments and documents. The struggle was revived under Henry V, and Rome was repeatedly besieged by the imperial troops.
Then followed theschism ofPier Leone (Anacletus II), which had hardly been ended, in 1143, when Girolamo di Pierleone, counselled byArnold of Brescia, made Rome into a republic, modelled after the Lombard communes, under the rule of fifty-six senators. In vain did Lucius II attack the Capitol, attempting to drive out the usurpers. The commune was in opposition no less to the imperial than to thepapal authority. At first thepopes thought to lean on the emperors, and thusAdrian IV inducedBarbarossa to burn Arnold alive (1155). Still, just as in the preceding century, everycoronation of an emperor was accompanied by quarrels and fights between the Romans and the imperial soldiery. In 1188 amodus vivendi was established between the commune andClement III, the people recognizing thepope's sovereignty and conceding to him the right ofcoinage, the senators and military captains beingobliged to swear fealty to him. But the friction did not cease.Innocent III (1203) wasobliged to flee from Rome, but, on the other hand, the friendly disposition of the mercantile middle class facilitated his return and secured to him some influence in the affairs of the communes, in which he obtained the appointment of a chief of the Senate, known as "the senator" (1207). The Senate, therefore, was reduced to the status of the Communal Council of Rome; the senator was the syndic, or mayor, and remained so until 1870. In the conflicts between thepopes, on the one hand, and, on the otherFrederick II and his heirs, the Senate was mostly Imperialist, cherishing some sort of desire for the ancient independence; at times, however, it was divided against itself (as in 1262, for Richard, brother of the King ofEngland, against Manfred, King ofNaples).
In 1263 Charles of Anjou, returning from the conquest ofNaples, caused himself to be elected senator for life;. butUrban IVobliged him to be content with a term of ten years.Nicholas III forbade that any foreign prince should be elected senator, and in 1278 he himself held the office. The election was always to be subject to thepope's approval. However, theselaws soon fell into desuetude. The absence of thepopes from Rome had the most disastrous results for the city:anarchy prevailed; the powerfulfamilies ofColonna, Savelli, Orsini, Anguillara, and others lorded it with no one to gainsay them; thepope's vicars were either stupid or weak; the monuments crumbled of themselves or were destroyed; sheep and cows were penned in theLateran Basilica; no new buildings arose, except the innumerable towers, or keeps, of which Brancaleone degli Andalò, the senator (1252-56) caused more than a hundred to be pulled down; the revival of art, so promising in the thirteenth century was abruptly cut off. The mad enterprise of Cola di Rieuzo only added to the general confusion. The population was reduced to about 17,000. The Schism of the West, with thewars of King Ladislaus (1408 and 1460, siege and sack of Rome), kept the city from benefiting by thepopes' return as quickly as it should. Noteworthy, however, is the understanding betweenBoniface IX and the Senate as to their respectiverights (1393). Thispope andInnocent VII also made provision for the restoration of the city.
WithMartin V the renascence of Rome began.Eugene IV again was driven out by the Romans, andNicholas V had to punish the conspiracy of Stefano Porcari; but the patronage of letters by thepopes and the new spirit ofhumanism obliterated the memory of these longings for independence. Rome became the city of the arts and of letters, of luxury and of dissoluteness. The population, too, changed in character and dialect, which had before more nearly approached theNeapolitan, but now showed the influence of immigration fromTuscany, Umbria, and the Marches. The sack of 1527 was a judgment, and a salutary warning to begin that reformation of manners to which the Brothers of the Oratory of Divine Love (the nucleus of theTheatine Order) and, later, theJesuits andSt. Philip Neri devoted themselves. In thewar betweenPaul IV and Philip II (1556), theColonna for the last time displayed their insubordination to the Pontifical Government. Until 1799 Rome was at peace under thepopes, who vied with thecardinals in embellishing the city with churches, fountains, obelisks, palaces,statues, andpaintings. Unfortunately, this work of restoration was accompanied by the destruction of ancient and, still more,medieval monuments. An attempt was also made to improve the ground plan of Rome by straightening and widening the streets (Sixths IV,Sixtus V — the Corso, the Ripetta, the Babuino, Giulia, Paola, Sistina, and other streets). The artists who have successively left their imprint on the City areBramante,Michelangelo,Vignola,Giacomo della Porta, Fontana,Maderna,Bernini,Borromini, and, in the eighteenth century, Fuga. The most important popular risings of this period were those againstUrban VIII, on account of the mischief done by the Barberini and against Cardinal Cascia, after the death ofBenedict XIII.
The pontificate ofPius VI, illustrious for its works of public utility, ended with the proclamation of the Republic of Rome (10 February, 1798) and thepope's exile.Pius VII was able to return, but after 1806 there was a French Government at Rome side by side with thepapal, and in 1809 the city was incorporated in the empire. General Miollis, indeed, deserved well of Rome for the public works he caused to be executed (the Pincian), and the archæological excavations, which were vigorously and systematically continued in the succeeding pontificates, especially that ofPius IX. Of the works of art carried away toParis only a part were restored after the Congress ofVienna.
But the Revolutionary germ still remained planted at Rome, even though it gave no signs of activity either in 1820 or in 1830 and 1831. A few politicalmurders were the only indication of the fire that smouldered beneath the ashes. The election ofPius IX, hailed as the Liberal pontiff, electrified all Rome. Thepope saw his power slipping away; the assassination ofPellegrino Rossi and the riots before the Quirinal (25 November, 1848) counselled his flight toGaeta. The Triumvirate was formed and, on 6 February, 1849, convoked the Constituent Assembly, which declared thepapal power abolished. The mob abandoned itself to the massacre of defencelesspriests, and the wrecking of churches and palaces. Oudinot's French troops restored thepapal power (6 August, 1849), thepope retaining a few French regiments. Secret plotting went on, though at Rome none dared attempt anything (the Fausti trial). Only in 1867, when Garibaldi, the victor at Monterotondo, defeated at Mentana, invaded thePapal States, was the revolt prepared that was to have burst while Enrico Cairoi was trying to enter the city; but thecoup de main failed; the stores of arms and ammunition were discovered; the only serious occurrence was the explosion of a mine, which destroyed the Serristori Barracks in the Borgo. Not until 20 September, 1870, was Rome taken from thepopes and made the actual capital of theKingdom of Italy.
The "Annuario Ecclesiastico" enumerates 358 public churches andoratories in Rome and its suburbs. Besides, there are thechapels of theseminaries, colleges,monasteries, and other institutions. Since 1870 manychurches have been destroyed, but many new ones have arisen in the new quarters.
The principal patriarchalbasilicas areSt. Peter's (theVatican Basilica),St. John Lateran (theBasilica of Constantine), andSt. Mary Major (theLiberianBasilica).
TheLiberian Basilica dates from the fourth century, when it was called the Basilica Sicinini; in the fifth century, underSixtus III, it was adorned with interestingmosaics of Biblical subjects;Eugene III added the portico, when themosaics of theapse and thefaçade were restored and, to some extent, altered. On the two sides are twochapels withcupolas: that ofSixtus V, containing the altar of theBlessed Sacrament and thetombs ofSixtus V andSt. Pius V; the other, that ofPaul V, with the Madonna of St. Luke, which existed as early as the sixth century.Benedict XIV caused it to be restored by Fuga (1743), who designed thefaçade which now almost shuts out the view of themosaics. Beneath thehigh altar, thebaldacchino of which is supported by four porphyry columns, are therelics of St. Matthew and of theHoly Crib (hence the name,S. Maria ad prœsepe). Here are buriedSt. Jerome,Nicholas IV,Clement VIII,IX, andX, andPaul V. (See alsoSAINT PAUL-OUTSIDE-THE-WALLS.)
Among the lesserbasilicas isS. Croce in Gerusalemme (Basilica Sessoriana), founded, it is said, by St. Helena in the place called the Sessorium, restored by Lucius II (1144) and byBenedict XIV (1743). Here, in the tribune, is the fresco ofPinturicchio representing the Finding of the Cross, and here are preserved therelics of the Cross ofJesus Christ, the Title, one of the Thorns, the finger of St. Thomas, etc. The church is served byCistercians, whoseconvent, however, has been converted into barracks.
St. Lawrence-Outside-the-Walls, another minor basilica, which stands in the Cemetery of S. Ciriaco, where thesaint was buried, was built under Constantine and, next to St. Peter's, was the most frequented sanctuary in Rome at the end of the fourth century (see Prudentius's description).Pelagius II (578),Honorius III, andPius IX made thorough repairs in this basilica, the last-named adding frescoes by Fracassini, representing themartyrdom ofSt. Lawrence. The frescoes of the atrium date from the thirteenth century. Thehigh altar stands beneath a raisedambo, behind which is the simpletomb ofPius IX. Themosaics of the triumphal arch date from the time ofPelagius II. Near this basilica is the Cemetery of Rome, constructed in 1837, and surpassed by few inItaly for the sumptuousness of its monuments. Both the church and the cemetery are served by Capuchina.
St. Sebastian-Outside-the-Walls, near the cemeteryad catacumbas (seeCATACOMBS), built in the fourth or fifth century and altered in 1612, containsGiorgini'sstatue of thesaint. The churches so far named are the "Seven Churches" usually visited bypilgrims and residents to gain the largeindulgences attached to them.
S. Agnese fuori le Mura, near thecatacombs of the same name, was built, by Constantine, decorated by Pope Symmachus withmosaics, in which thatpope's portrait appears, and restored by Honorius II (portrait), by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (1479), and byPius IX. It is served byCanons Regular of St. John Lateran. In one of the adjacent buildingsPius IX, in 1856, fell with the flooring of a room, but without suffering any injury.
Not far off isS. Costanza, the mausoleum ofConstantine's daughter, which was made into a church in 1256.S. Giorgio in Velabro,Cardinal Newman's diaconal title, takes its name from the ancient Velabrum, where it stands, and dates from the fourth century; it has a fine tabernacle, but the church is much damaged by damp.S. Lorenzo in Damaso, built byPope Damasus (370), was, in the time ofBramante, enclosed in the palace of the Cancelleria; it contains modern frescoes and thetombs of Annibale Caro andPellegrino Rossi.S. Maria ad Martyres (the Pantheon) is a grandiose circular building with a portico. It was built in 25 by Marcus Agrippa and has often been restored; in 662 Constantine II caused the bronze which covered itsdome to be taken away; it contains thetombs ofRaphael,Cardinal Consalvi and Kings Victor Emmanuel II and Humbert I.S. Maria in Cosmedin, which stands on the foundations of atemple of Hercules and a granary, dates from the sixth century at latest; it was adiaconate and the seat of the Greek colony, and was restored byAdrian I,Nicholas I, andCardinal Albani (1718), and at last was remodelled in its original form. It has a noteworthyambo and tabernacle (c. 130), and its campanile, with seven intercolumnars, is the most graceful in Rome. This was the title ofReginald Cardinal Pole.S. Maria in Trastevere, the title of Cardinal Gibbons,Archbishop ofBaltimore, dates from St. Callistus or, more probably, fromSt. Julius I, and was restored byEugene III byNicholas V, and byPius IX, to the last-named of whom are due themosaics of thefaçade, the antique columns, and the rich baroque ceiling. Themosaics of the tribune are of the twelfth century, the others are by Cavallini (1291). It contains thetombs ofStanislaus Hosius and othercardinals. The fourbasilicas enumerated above have collegiate chapters.
S. Agostino was built (1479-83) by Cardinal d'Estoutevile, with Giacomo di Pietrasanta for architect. On thehigh altar, byBernini, is the Madonna of St. Luke, brought from Constantinople. Itschapel of St. Augustine contains a picture by Guercino; in itschapel of theBlessed Sacrament is thetomb of St. Monica; its altar of St. Peter has a relief by Cotignola, and below one of the pilasters isRaphael's Isaias. In the basement of this church is the Madonna del Parto, the work of Jacopo Tatto, one of the most highlyvenerated images in Rome. The adjoiningconvent, once the residence of the general of the Augustinians, is now the Ministry of Marine; but the Angelica Library, founded (1605) byCardinal Angelo Rocca, an Augustinian, is still there.S. Alfonso, built in 1855 for theRedemptorists, who have their generalate there, has fine pictures by von Rhoden. Itshigh altar possesses a Byzantine image of unknown origin, called the Madonna del Perpetuo Soccorso.S. Ambrogio della Massima, in the paternal mansion of St. Ambrose, belongs to the CassineseBenedictines.S. Andrea della Valle (Theatines), notable for the severe majesty of its lines, was built byCarlo Maderna in 1591; it contains thechapel of the Strozzi, thetombs ofPius II, of Nicolò della Guardía, and, opposite, ofPius III, and the frescoes ofDomenichino, his most perfect work, as well as other very modern frescoes. In this church, on every feast of the Epiphany, solemn Mass is celebrated in every rite subject to Rome, and there are sermons in the variousEuropean languages — a festival instituted by Ven. Vincent Gallotta.S. Andrea de Quirinale belongs to theJesuits, who have theirnovitiate here, in which the cell of St. Stanislaus Kostka is still to be seen.S. Andrea delle Fratte, belonging to the Minims, was, in theMiddle Ages, the national church of the Scots; it received its present form (acupola and a fanciful Campanile) from the architects Guerra andBorromini in the seventeenth century and has twoangels byBernini. Before the Lady altar of this church took place the conversion ofVenerable Marie Alphonse Ratisbonne.S. Angelo in Pescheria, built in the eighth century and restored in 1584, is occupied by the Clerics Regular Minor, who were transferred to it from S. Lorenzo in Lucina.S. Anselmo, on the Aventine, is a Romanesque building (1900), annexed to the international college of theBenedictines, and is the residence of theabbotprimate of their order.Santi Apostoli, adjoining the generalate of the MinorConventuals, dates from the fifth century; it was restored byMartin V, with frescoes byMelozzo da Forli, remodelled in 1702 by Francesco Fontana, and contains thetombs of Cardinals Riario andBessarion. Theconvent is occupied by the headquarters of a military division.S. Bartolomeo all' Isola,Friars Minor, stands on the site of the ancient temple of Æsculapius and was built byOtto III, in 1001, inhonour ofSt. Adalbert. Therelics of St. Bartholomew were brought thither fromBeneventum, those ofSt. Paulinus of Nola being given in exchange. The church has been several times restored.S. Bernardo alle Terme,Cistercians, is a round church built in 1598, its foundations being laid in thecalidarium of the baths (Italianterme) ofDiocletian.S. Bonaventura, on the Palatine,Friars Minor, contains thetomb ofSt. Leonard of Port Maurice.S. Camillo, a very modern church, is the residence of the Camilline Attendants of the Sick, and has ahospital connected with it.S. Carlo (Carlino) of the Spanish Trinitarians belongs to theBorromini.S. Carlo ai Catinari,Barnabites, formerly dedicated to St. Biagius, was put into its present shape by Rosati in 1612, with frescoes and framed pictures byDomenichino,Pietro da Cortona,Guido Reni, and Andrea Sacchi. Itsconvent is occupied by a section of the Ministry of War.S. Carlo al Corso, the church of the Lombards, was built by the Lunghi for thecanonization ofSt. Charles Borromeo, on the site of a little church dedicated to S. Niccolo del Tufo. The decorations of thecupola are byPietro da Cortona; there is a picture byMaratta and astatue of Judith by Le Brun. TheRosminians have officiated in this church for some years past.S. Claudio dei Borgognoni is served by the Congregation of the Most Holy Sacrament; it has Exposition all the year around.
S. Clemente, the church of theIrishDominicans (1643), and titular church of William Cardinal O'Connell,Archbishop ofBoston, existed as early as the fourth century, dedicated to St. Clement,pope andmartyr. It is characterized by the twoambos which project about half way down thenave and an atrium which is also the courtyard of theconvent which stands in front of the basilica. Theambos date fromJohn VIII (872); the altar and tabernacle, from Paschal II. The church was destroyed in the conflagration kindled byRobert Guiscard (1084); its rebuilding was begun immediately, but the plan was adopted of raising somewhat the pavement of the old church, which was filled in with debris; the new church was also less spacious. At this period themosaics of theapse were executed. In thechapel of st. Catherine are some frescoes attributed toMasaccio (1428); in thechapel of theBlessed Sacrament, thetombs of Cardinals Brusati and Roverella; in that of St. Cyril, who is buried in the basilica, modern frescoes. In 1858 the excavation of the old basilica was begun, through the efforts of theDominican prior, Mulhooly. The frescoes, seventh to eleventh century, are important; in them may be distinguished the first indications of a new birth ofChristian art, and particularly interesting are those relating to Sts. Cyril and Methodius. The original basilica was raised upon the remains of a still earlier building, in which, moreover, there was aspelœum, or grotto, ofMithras; it is probable that this building was St. Clement's paternal home.Santissima Concenzione,Capuchins, near the Piazza Barberini, was built by theCapuchin Cardinal Barberini, twin brother ofUrban VIII (1624).Bl. Crispin of Viterbo is buried here. The church is noted for aSt. Michael byGuido Reni, a St. Francis byDomenichino, a St. Felix of Cantalico by Turchi, and other pictures by Sacchi andPietro da Cortona. Beneath the church is theossarium of thefriars.Sts. Cosmas and Damian,Franciscan Tertiaries, is made up of two ancient buildings, thetemples of Romulus, son ofMaxentius, and of the Sacra Urbs, which were given to theChurch byTheodoric and converted into abasilica byFelix IV (528), to whom are due themosaics of theapse and the arch, retouched in the ninth and sixteenth centuries.Urban VIII caused its pavement to be raised ten feet. In thecrypt are thetomb ofFelix II and some objects belonging to the old church.
St. Crisogono, Trinitarians, dates at least as far back as the fifth century, and was restored by Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1623). It has a fine tabernacle and, in theapse,mosaics by Cavillini (1290). Excavations have recently been made under this church, which is associated with English history as having been the titular church of Cardinal Langton.S. Cuore al Castro Pretorio,Salesians, a fine church built in 1887 by Vespegniani, is due to thezeal of Don Bosco. Connected with it is a boarding-school of arts and industries.S. Francesca Romana (S. Maria Nova),Olivetans, was erected byLeo IV in place of S. Maria Antiqua, which was in danger of being injured by the ruins of the Palatine, on a portion of the ruined temple of Venus and Rome, where once stood achapel commemorating the fall ofSimon Magus. It was restored byHonorius III and underPaul V. In theapse aremosaics of 1161; in the confession, thetomb ofSt. Frances of Rome (1440). There is a group by Meli, also thetombs ofGregory XI (1574), Cardinal Vulcani, and Francesco Rido.S. Francesco a Ripa, the provincialate of theFriars Minor (1229), has pictures by the Cavaliere d'Arpino and by Sabiati (Annunciation), and thetomb of Lodovico Albertoni, one ofBernini's best works.S. Francesco di Paola belongs to the Minims, theconvent being now occupied by a technical institute.
The Gesù, connected with the professed house and general's residence of theJesuits, is the work ofVignola (1568-73), completed byGiacomo della Porta, through the munificence of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. It became the model of the style known as "Jesuit". Its altar of St. Ignatius, who is buried there, has a silverstatue of thesaint which is ordinarily covered by a picturepainted by theJesuitPozzo; the globe and four columns are of lapis lazuli Opposite is the altar ofSt. Francis Xavier, where an arm of that saint is preserved, and a picture byMaratta. The ceiling ispainted by Gaulli with the Triumph of the Name of Jesus. The Madonna della Strada isvenerated in one of thechapels. In this church are thetombs of CardinalBellarmine and Ven. Giuseppe Maria Pignatelli.Gesù e Maria, Calced Augustinians, with its magnificenthigh altar, is in the Corso.S. Gioacchino,Redemptorists, was erected for thesacerdotal jubilee ofLeo XIII, its sidechapels being subscribed for by the various nations.S. Giovanni Calibita, on the Island of S. Bartolomeo, belongs to the Fatebenefratelli, who have ahospital.SS. Giovanni e Paolo, on the Cælian,Passionists, was built by Pammachius in the house of these twosaints, who were officials in the palace ofConstantia, daughter of Constantine, and were slain by order ofJulian. In 1154 the church was enlarged and adorned with frescoes, some of which are preserved in thechapel of theBlessed Sacrament. Thechapel ofSt. Paul of the Cross is modern. Under the church are still to be seen thirteen interstices of the house of thesaints with othersaints. This was the titular church of Edward Cardinal Howard, afterwardsCardinal-Bishop ofFrascati (died 1892).S. Gregorio al Celio,Camaldolese, was built byGregory II in the paternal home ofSt. Gregory the Great, and was modernized by Soria (1633) and Ferravi (1734). It contains an altar of thesaint, with his stone bed and his marble chair, and there is an ancient image of the Madonna. In themonks' garden there are also threechapels; those ofSt. Silvia, mother ofSt. Gregory, with herstatue by Cordieri and frescoes byGuido Reni, of St. Andrew, decorated byReni andDomenichino, and ofSt. Barbara, with astatue ofSt. Gregory by Cordieri. The title of this church was borne successively byHenry Edward Cardinal Manning andHerbert Cardinal Vaughan,Archbishops of Westminster.
S. Ignazio,Jesuits, was built in 1626 by Cardinal Ludovisi, under the direction of theJesuit Grassi. The frescoes of the vault, representing the apotheosis of St. Ignatius, werepainted by theJesuitlay brotherPozzo, whose are also some of the pictures on the altars. Sts.Aloysius Gonzaga and John Berchmans, buried here, have splendid altars; in the adjoining Roman College (now the Ginnasio-Liceo and National Library) there are still otherchapels with souvenirs of these twosaints. On the highest point of thefaçadeFather Secchi caused to be erected a pole with a ball which, by a mechanical contrivance, drops precisely at noon every day.S. Isidoro belongs to theIrishFranciscans. In the adjoiningconvent the famousLuke Wadding wrote his history of theFranciscan Order.S. Marcello,Servites, is believed to be built over the stable in which Pope St. Marcellus was compelled to serve. It was restored in 1519 by order of Giuliano de' Medici (Clement VII), completed in 1708 by Carlo Fontana, and containspaintings by Pierin del Vaga and Federico Zuccaro. It was the titular church ofThomas Cardinal Weld.S. Maria in Ara Cœli, on the Capitol, once the general's residence of theFranciscans (beginning from 1250), is (1911) the titular church of Cardinal Falconio. It stands on the site of the ancient citadel of Rome and the temple of Juno Moneta, and is approached by a flight of 124 steps. Thefaçade is still of brick, and the church contains antique columns and capitals; in the Buffalinichapel are frescoes (Life of St. Bernardino) byPinturicchio, and on thehigh altar is a Madonna attributed to st. Luke, where was formerly the Madonna ofFoligno. To the left a small building, known as the Cappella Santa di Sant' Elena (Holy Chapel of St. Helena), marks the spot where, according to a legend winch can be traced to the ninth century, theEmperor Augustus saw the Blessed Virgin upon an altar ofheaven (Latinara cœli). To this legend something was contributed by Virgil's fourth eclogue, in which he speaks of the "nova progenies" descending fromheaven, and which was interpreted inChristian antiquity as a prophecy of the coming of Christ (thus Constantine in the sermon "Ad sanctorum cœtum"). In thesacristy isvenerated the "Santo Bambino", a little figure of olive wood from the Mount of Olives (sixteenth century) for which the Romans have a great devotion. The sepulchral monuments of this church are numerous and important, including those of Cardinal Louis d'Albert, with figures of St. Michael and St. Francis; Michelangelo Marchese di Saluzzo, by Dosio; Pietro de' Vincenti, bySansovino;Honorius IV and others of the Savellifamily in the Savellichapel, which dates from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; Cardinal Matthew of Acquasparta; Catherine, Queen of Bosnia (1478). The Crib, built every year in the secondchapel on the left, is famous; atChristmas and Epiphany children recite dialogues and little discourses near it.
S. Maria in Traspontina, in the Borgo, CalcedCarmelites, was erected bySixtus IV on the site of achapel that had been built there, in 1099, to drive away thedemons which haunted the ashes ofNero. The architect was Meo del Caprina;Bramante andBernini modified the building. It is one of the most beautiful monuments of theRenaissance, itscupola being the first of its kind built in Rome. It containspaintings byPinturicchio — the Adoration of the Shepherds, all thepaintings of the Lady Chapel and thechapel of St. Augustine, the frescoes of the vault, etc.Raphael designed themosaics of the Chigichapel, and there arepaintings byCaracci,Caravaggio andSebastiano del Piombo (the Birth of the Blessed Virgin). The sepulchral monuments are costly including those of Giovanni della Rovere, Cardinal Costa, Cardinal Podocatharo, Cardinal Girolamo Basso, bySansovino, and Cardinal Sforza, by the samesculptor, Agostino Chigi, in the Chigichapel after suggestions, and decorated, byRaphael, and Cardinal Pallavicino. Thepainted windows, the most beautiful in Rome, are by Guillaume de Marcilot (1509).S. Maria del Priorato, Knights of Malta, on the Aventine, was built in 939, when Alberic II gave his palace to St. Odo of Cluny. The present form of the church, however, is due toPiranesi (1765). Some of thetombs of the grand masters of the Order of Malta — Caraffa, Caracciolo, and others — are interesting. The adjoining residence commands a splendid panorama.S. Maria del Rosario, on Monte Mario, belongs to theDominicans.S. Maria della Scala, DiscalcedCarmelites, built by Francesco da Volterra, is so called from an image of the Madonna found under the stairs of a neighbouring house, and containspaintings by Saraceni and Gerhard Honthorst. In the adjoiningconvent, a great part of which is occupied by the Guardie di Pubblica Sicurezza, thefriars have a pharmacy where they make the "Acqua della Scala".S. Maria della Vittoria,Carmelites, was erected byPaul V in memory of the victory of the Imperialists over theProtestants at Prague (1623), and contains pictures byDomenichino, Guercino, and Serra (1884), also a famous group byBernini, ofSt. Teresa transfixed by anangel, andTurkish standards captured at the siege ofVienna (1683).S. Maria in Aquiro, the ancientdiaconatetitulus Equitii, was restored in 1590. It was formerly an asylum for the destitute;Clement VIII gave it to theSomaschi Brothers, who still have anorphanage there under the supervision of the municipality.S. Maria in Campitelli was built in 1665 to receive the image of S. Maria in Portica (now S. Galla) in thanksgiving for Rome's deliverance from the plague (1658). It contains a picture ofSt. Anne, byLuca Giordano, and thetomb ofCardinal Pacca. It is served by theClerics Regular of the Mother of God.
S. Maria in Vallicella (the Chiesa Nuova, or "New Church"),Oratorians of St. Philip Neri, is associated with the spiritual renewal of the City by the labours of St. Philip, who founded it. The frescoes of the vaulting and of thecupola are byPietro da Cortona, the three pictures of thehigh altar byRubens, and others by Scipione Gaetano, Cavaliere d'Arpino Maratta,Guido Reni (St. Philip), Ronocelli, andBaroccio. Thechapel of thesaint is rich in votive offerings; in the adjoining house, until now almost entirely occupied by the Assize Court, is his cell, withrelics and souvenirs of him. Thelibrary (Vallicelliana) now belongs to the State.S. Maria in Via,Servites is a fine church of the lateRenaissance (1549).S. Maria Maddalena, Servants of the Sick (formerly their generalate), is now occupied by the elementary communalschools. Here the cell of St. Camillus of Lellis is preserved, with the crucifix which encouraged him to found his order.S. Maria Sopra Minerva, the only authenticGothicchurch in Rome, belongs to theDominicans, who had their general staff and their higherschools in the adjoiningconvent, now the Ministry of Instruction, as well as the Casanatense Library, now in the hands of the State. This was the titular church of theCardinal of Norfolk, Cardinal McCloskey,Archbishop of New York, andCardinal Taschereau,Archbishop of Quebec (see JOHN MCCLOSKEY; ELZÉAR ALEXANDRE TASCHEREAU); its title is now (1911) held by Cardinal Farley,Archbishop of New York. The church stands on the ruins of atemple of Minerva, one of those built by Pompey. In the eighth century there was a Greekmonastery here. In 1280 Fra Sisto and Fra Ristoro,Dominicans, began the new church by order ofNicholas III, and with the aid of the Caetani, Savelli, and Orsini. It was completed in 1453. The pillars of thenave are clustered columns; the sidechapels are inRenaissance orbaroque style. Beneath thehigh altar rests the body ofSt. Catherine of Siena. Thechapel of the Annunziata has a confraternity, founded by Cardinal Torquemada, which every year distributes dowries to 400 poor youngwomen, and there is a picture by Antoniazzo Romano dealing with the subject. The Caraffafamilychapel of St. Thomas contains frescoes byFilippo Lippi (1487-93); that of St. Dominic, pictures by Maratta; of the Rosary, by Venusti. There are alsopaintings by Baronio and others. Thestatue of the Risen Christ is byMichelangelo. Here also are thetombs of Giovanni Alberini (1490),Urban VII, by Buonvicino, the Aldobrandinifamily byGiacomo della Porta,Paul IV, by Sigorio and Casignola, Gulielmus Durandus, by Giovanni di Cosma (1296), Cardinal Domenico Capranica (1458),Clement VII andLeo X, by Baccio Bandienelli, Blessed Angelico, ofFiesole, with an epitaph byNicholas V, and Cardinal Schönberg (1537).
S. Martino ai Monti,Carmelites, probably dates from the time of Constantine, when thepriest Equitius built an oratory on his own land. Symmachus rebuilt it, dedicating it to St. Silvester andSt. Martin of Tours, and then again to St. Martin, Pope. In 1559 it was given to theCarmelites, who in 1650 remodelled it. It is notable for its landscapes byPoussin. Under the more modern church is the oldchurch of St. Silvester, with remains ofmosaics, frescoes, etc.Our Lady of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (formerlyS. Giacomo degli Spagnuoli), in the Piazza Navona, belongs to the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart, who have an apostolic school there.S. Onofrio on the Janiculum,Hieronymites, was built in 1439 by the de Cupisfamily and Nicolò da Forca Palena. The frescoes of the portico are byDomenichino, three scenes from the life ofSt. Jerome; within are frescoes byBaldassare Peruzzi, and thetombs ofCardinal Mezzofanti and the poetTasso, who died in theconvent, where his cell contains a small museum of objects that belonged to him.S. Pancrazio fuori le Mura was built by Pope Symmachus (c. 504) near the Cœmeterium Calepodii; in 1849 it was wrecked by the Garibaldians; the government caused it to be freshly decorated. NearS. Pancrazio degli Scolopii is the generalate of thePiarists (Scolopii).S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane belongs to theTrappists, who have put the surrounding land under cultivation. Theabbey contains three churches. The oldest,SS. Vincenzo e Anastasio, founded by Honorius I, came into the hands of Greekmonks;Innocent II restored and assigned it, with theabbey, to theCistercians. There is a finecloister adjacent to this church, the earliest example of its kind.S. Maria Scala Cœli, ninth century, was rebuilt in 1590 byGiacomo della Porta, and contains amosaic by Francesco Zucca.S. Paolo alle Tre Fontana was built by the sameGiacomo della Porta (1599) on the three springs which appeared, as the legend says, on the three places successively touched by the head ofSt. Paul, who was beheaded here. The springs, however, existed beforeSt. Paul'smartyrdom as the Aquæ Salviæ, and in 1869 some ancientmosaic pavements were dug up here.S. Pietro in Montorio,Friars Minor, was in earlier days known as S. Maria in Castro Aureo, and had connected with it amonastery which passed into the hands of various orders until, in 1472, it was given to theFranciscans for the training of subjects for the foreign missions. Ferdinand theCatholic had the church andconvent rebuilt, and they were dedicated to St. Peter, following abelief which had gained acceptance owing to a somewhat unfortunate conjecture hazarded by Maffeo Vegio, and which is even yet keenly debated. The rose-window of thefaçade is very fine and there are frescoes and otherpaintings bySebastiano del Piombo (the Flagellation),Vasari,Daniele da Volterra, Baluren. (the Entombment), and others;Raphael's Transfiguration is on thehigh altar, and there is a beautiful balustrade. Here, too, are thetombs of Cardinals Fabiano and Antonio del Monte (Ammannati), and of Giuliano,Archbishop ofRagusa (Dosio). In the courtyard of theconvent, on the spot where St. Peter is supposed by some to have been crucified, standsBramante'stempietto the most graceful work of that genius. A splendid view of Rome may be had from the piazza in front of the church. It was the titular church ofPaul Cardinal Cullen,Archbishop ofDublin.
S. Pietro in Vincoli,Canons Regular of St. John Lateran, existed as thetitulus Apostolorum as early as 431.Sixtus III made alterations in the church with funds given him by the Empress Eudoxia, who also presented theJerusalem chain of St. Peter together with his Roman chain. Theserelics had beenvenerated here long beforeSixtus III, but the title,a vinculis S. Petri, occurs for the first time only in 530. Filings from the chains were given asrelics — like those taken toSpoleto by Bishop Achilles in 419. The chains themselves are kept in a preciousreliquary attributed toPollaiulo. The church was restored bySixtus IV andJulius II. Its twenty monolithic columns are antique, and it contains pictures by Guercino andDomenichino (The Deliverance of St. Peter) amosaic (St. Sebastian) of about the year 680, and thetombs ofJulius II, with the celebratedstatue of Moses, and ofCardinal Nicholas of Cusa, with a portrait in relief. In the adjoiningmonastery thescuola di applicazione of the Engineers is established.S. Prassede,Vallombrosans, was built by Paschal II (822) at some distance from the older S. Prassede which, then in ruins, was restored byNicholas V andSt. Charles Borromeo. Its twenty-two antique columns are still standing, and there are interestingmosaics of the ninth century (thechapel of St. Zeno and theapse) and the thirteenth century (thecrypt). In thecrypt are antique sarcophagi with therelics of Sts. Praxedes, Pudentiana, and others, and Paschal caused the bones of 2300 (?)martyrs, brought by him from thecatacombs, to be laid in an enclosed cemetery. There are pictures byGiulio Romano, Federico Zuccaro, and the Cavaliere d'Arpino.Santi Quaranta in Trastevere belongs to theSpanishFranciscans.Santi Quattro Coronati,Capuchins, was theTitulus Æmilianœ as early as the fourth century, and is dedicated to four soldiers (cornicularii) who weremartyred on the Via Labicana, with whom were afterwards associated fivemartyrs, stonecutters of Pannonia. Honorius built a vast basilica, which, however, Paschal II reduced to the proportions of what had been thenave. There are remains of the older basilica in the two atria and, in the church, frescoes by Giovanni Manozzi and aciborium by Capponi (1493). Annexed to this church is thechapel of the Corporation of Stonecutters, with pictures of the thirteenth century. The Augustinian Sisters have a refuge for youngwomen adjoining the church.S. Sabina all' Aventino,Dominicans, built underClement I by the Illyrianpriest Petrus (424), is remarkable for a half-door decorated with wood-carving of the fifth century, while its columns of Parian marble were taken from the temple of Diana on the Aventine. In theapse and above the door aremosaics, and the picture bySassoferrato (the Madonna of the Rosary) is famous. In the adjoiningconvent, formerly the Savelli palace, are shown the cells of St. Dominic andSt. Pius V.
S. Salvatore della Scala Santa,Passionists, contains, according to the legend, the stairs ofPilate's prætorium, which were bathed with the Blood ofChrist, but of which there is no mention earlier than 845. By these stairs, which were restored byNicholas III and by Cosmas II,pilgrims ascend on their knees (ginocchioni) to the Cappella Sancta Sanctorum, in which the most famousrelics of the pontifical palace of the Lateran are preserved (seeSCALA SANCTA). There is a ninth-centurymosaic picture and a very ancient picture of the Saviour, on cedarwood, believed to have been made not by human hands.S. Silvestro in Capite, Pallottini (seePIOUS SOCIETY OF MISSIONS), built byPaul I (761) in his paternal home, was given to some Greekmonks and subsequently passed into the possession of various orders. It was restored by Domenico de Rossi in 1681, and has ahigh altar by Rinaldo. This is, in a sense, the national church of theEnglishCatholics. Itsmonastery has now become the Postal Department.S. Stefano degli Abissini, Trinitarians, with an interesting doorway, was erected bySt. Leo the Great, and was one of the churches surrounding theBasilica of St. Peter's.S. Stefano del Cacco,Sylvestrines, was erected by Honorius I (630) on the ruins of the temple of Isis, of which it contains twelve columns.S. Teresa, with the generalate of the DiscalcedCarmelites, in the Lombard style, is one of the recently erected churches (1900).Santissima Trinità in the Via Condotti,Dominicans of thePhilippines Province, was erected in the sixteenth century, and has fine pictures on its altars.Santissima Trinità in the Via della Missione belongs to theLazarists, who have a house of retreat for theclergy there.S. Venanzio, MinorConventuals, is at the foot of the Capitol.Santi Vincenzo ed Atanasio, in the Piazza di Trevi,ministers of the sick, was built byCardinal Mazarin (1650). Here are kept the urns containing the viscera of deceasedpopes.
Other notable churches are the following:S. Agata dei Goti, or in Suburra, built in 460 for theArians (Goths and other Germans), by Ricimerus, who caused amosaic to be made there (destroyed in 1633), and who was buried there. In 591St. Gregory the Great dedicated it toCatholic worship, and it is connected with theIrish College. In it is thetomb ofJohn Lascaris, the famous Greekhumanist (1535).S. Agnese al Circo Agonale stands on a part of the site ofDomitian's stadium, where St. Agnes was exposed to shame (the vaults of the church), and where she wasput to death. The older church is not mentioned in any records earlier than the ninth century; the present one, inbaroque style, is the work of Carlo Rinaldi (1652); its turrets are byBorromini. On thehigh altar is a tabernacle of 1123; there is an antiquestatue transformed into a St. Sebastian by Paolo Campi and a monument ofInnocent X.S. Alessio sull' Aventino was originally dedicated to the Romanmartyr Boniface.S. Anastasia, at the foot of the Palatine, built in the fourth century and modernized in 1721, contains thetomb ofCardinal Angelo Mai. Here is preserved achalice which was probably used bySt. Jerome.S. Appollinare, the church of the Roman Seminary, formerly of the German College, was restored byBenedict XIV and contains a picture of theschool ofPerugino.S. Balbina, on the Aventine,consecrated bySt. Gregory the Great, has a house of correction for boys adjoining it. It was the titular church ofCardinal Kemp,Archbishop ofCanterbury.S. Benedetto in Piscinula (Trastevere) stands on the site of the mansion of the Anicii, St. Benedict'sfamily, and contains a picture of thesaint.S. Caterina dei Funari, on the ruins of the Circus Flaminius, was begun in 1549. Itsfaçade is byGiacomo della Porta, and it contains pictures byCaracci, Federico Zuccari, and others. Connected with it is a refuge for penitentwomen founded by St. Ignatius.
S. Cecilia, a very ancient church, stands on the site of that saint's house. Paschal I, admonished by a vision, restored it and transferred the body of thesaint thither from theCatacombs (821). Cardinal Rampolla had its ancient character partly restored. In theapse are somemosaicsdating from Paschal. The tabernacle of thehigh altar is byArnolfo di Cambio (1283); there are some ancient frescoes and some by Pietro Cavallini; in the confession is a recumbentstatue of thesaint byMaderno, showing her as she was found when the sarcophagus was opened in 1599; also thetomb of theEnglishcardinal, Adam of Hertford (died 1398). It was the titular church ofCardinal Wolsey.S. Cesareo, on the Appian Way,erroneously identified with S. Cesareo in Palatio (which has recently been discovered on the Palatine), is older than the days ofSt. Gregory the Great, and has an interestingambo of the thirteenth century andmosaics of about the year 1600.S. Cosimato in Trastevere, built in the ninth century and completely transformed underSixtus IV, is notable forpaintings byPinturicchio and a tabernacle taken from S. Maria del Popolo. In the adjoiningmonastery, originallyBenedictine and then Clarissan (1234), is a finecloister with coupled columns (twelfth century). Thismonastery is now used as a home for oldwomen.Santi Domenicho e Sisto,Dominican Sisters, thirteenth century, was restored in 1640, with a finefaçade.S. Eligio dei Ferrari contains a fine picture by Sermoneta;S. Eusebio, frescoes byMengs.S. Eustacchio is an ancientdiaconate and possesses therelics of thesaint.S. Giacomo in Augusta, in the Corso, is connected with thehospital for incurables (1338).S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini is the work ofSansovino (1521) and contains a picture bySalvator Rosa.S. Girolamo dei Shiavoni was built bySixtus IV for the Dalmatians,Croatians, and Albanians who had fled from theTurks;Sixtus V restored it; it contains fine frescoes by Gagliardi (1852).S. Giuseppe a Capo le Case with itspaintings by Andrea Sacchi (St. Teresa) andDomenichino (St. Joseph), has aconvent of theCarmelite Sisters which is now used as a museum of the industrial arts.S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami is built upon the ancient Tullian Dungeon, where, according to tradition, St. Peter wasimprisoned.
S. Lorenzo in Lucina preserves the gridiron on whichSt. Lawrence sufferedmartyrdom. It is believed that here was the house of the matron, Lucina, so often mentioned in the Acts of Romanmartyrs; this house was transformed bySixtus III into abasilica which was repeatedly restored. It has a fine campanile, a picture byGuido Reni (The Crucifixion), and thetomb ofPoussin.S. Lorenzo in Miranda was built over the temple of Faustina (141) in the Forum. InS. Lorenzo in Fonte, it is believed, was thesaint'sprison.S. Marco, enclosed within the Palazzo di Venezia, is attributed to thepope of that name (336). The Rogation procession (25 April), instituted bySt. Leo the Great, used to set out from this church. It was restored in the ninth century, in the fifteenth century, and byCardinal Quirini in 1727. In the tribune aremosaics of the time ofGregory IV; there are also pictures by Palma il Giovane andMelozzo da Forli; two ciboria, in thesacristy, one of the twelfth century, the other byMino da Fiesole; thetombs ofPesaro, byCanova, and of Cardinal Gregorio Barbarigo.S. Maria degli Angeli was built byMichelangelo at the command ofPius IV, within the baths ofDiocletian. The church was given to theCarthusians. Here are to be seen many of the original designs for themosaics now in St. Peter's; also Houdon's famousstatue ofSt. Bruno, and thetombs ofPius IV and Cardinal Serbelloni. The adjoiningmonastery now contains the Museo Nazionale delle Terme.
S. Maria della Pace, the titular church of Michael Cardinal Logue,Archbishop ofArmagh, commemorates the peace concluded in 1482 between thepope,Florence,Milan, andNaples. It was built forSixtus IV byPietro da Cortona, who added a beautiful semicircular portico in front. In the Chigichapel are the famous Sibyls ofRaphael; there are also frescoes byPeruzzi. The adjoiningmonastery (Canons Regular of the Lateran) contains a courtyard byBramante and thechapel of the St. Paul's Association of the Clergy of Rome.S. Maria in Campo Marzio belongs to theBenedictine Sisters.S. Maria di Loreto, an octagonal church with acupola, is the work of Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane (1507), and has astatue of St. Susanna byDuquesnoy. The Churches ofS. Maria de' Miracoli andS. Maria di Monte Santo were built in 1662 by Cardinal Gastaldo, and form the termination of three streets — the Ripetta, the Corso Umberto and the Babuino — which lead from the Piazza del Popolo.S. Maria dell' Orto (1489) is the fruit-vendors' church.S. Maria in Trivio, in the Piazza di Trevi, has a beautifulfaçade of the fifteenth century.S. Maria in Lata, a very ancientdiaconate, stood near the Arch of Diocletian, but was destroyed in 1485; its present subterranean form is due toPietro da Cortona. Here, according to the legend,St. Paul and St. Mark wereimprisoned, and here are the remains of theSœpta Julia and of the ancient basilica, with some frescoes.Santi Martina e Luca, in the Forum, occupies the site of the Secretarium Senatus; it existed before the seventh century and contained the body ofSt. Martina the Romanmartyr; in 1640 the new church was built above the old byPietro da Cortona (who made astatue ofSt. Martina), and was dedicated to St. Luke, being the church of the Academy of St. Luke.Santi Nereo e Achilleo, on the Appian Way, a very ancient church, containsmosaics of the time ofLeo III and anambo of the thirteenth century.S. Nicola in Carcere stands on the ruins of the threetemples of Pietas, Juno Sospita, and Spes.Santissimo Nome di Maria, in Trajan's Forum, was built to commemorate the deliverance ofVienna from theTurks (1683). One Church ofSS. Pietro e Marcellino stands in the Via Merulana; the other is outside the walls, on the Labicana, near the mausoleum of St. Helena.S. Prisca, on the Aventine, occupies the site of the temple of Diana Aventina. The legend has it that Priscilla, the wife ofAquila, mentioned in theActs of the Apostles as entertaining St. Peter, lived here.
S. Pudenziana, again, is associated with memories of St. Peter: it was the mansion of the senator, Pudens, whose daughters, Pudentiana and Praxedes, gave it toSt. Pius I, and from that time it became a church. Since the time of Siricius (384) it has had the form of abasilica, and itsapse has been adorned with the most beautifulmosaics in Rome. It was restored in 1598, and acupola was added with frescoes by Roncalli. At the altar of St. Peter isvenerated the wooden table which St. Peter used for the celebration of the Eucharist. There is a marble group of Christ giving the keys to St. Peter, byGiacomo della Porta. The title of S. Pudenziana was borne byNicholas Cardinal Wiseman, firstArchbishop ofWestminster.S. Saba, on the Aventine, existed in the time ofSt. Gregory, whose mother retired to a spot near by. To her were dedicated some ancient frescoes recently brought to light. That it was even then the abode ofmonks is indicated by the namecella and by an ancient burial-place of an earlier date (c. 649). Here a community of Greekmonks was installed until the ninth century. After that it passed to theBenedictines, and then to the German College, which still possesses it.S. Salvatore in Lauro, the church of the Sodality of the Piceni, earlier than the thirteenth century, was restored in 1450 and in 1591. It has a finecloister and thetombs of Maddalena Orsini and ofEugene IV (transferred hither from St. Peter's), the work of Isaia da Pisa.S. Sisto Vecchio, earlier than the sixth century, has a fine campanile and frescoes of the fifteenth century. Here was the first house of theDominicans in Rome. The title was borne byCardinal Langham*,Archbishop ofCanterbury (seeSIMON LANGHAM).S. Spirito in Sassia is so called because in this quarter (the Borgo) an Anglo-Saxon colony led by King Ina, was established, with a church called S. Maria in Saxia. In 1201Innocent III built ahospital andfoundling institute which was entrusted to theHospitallers of the Holy Ghost.Sixtus IV removed thehospital, andPaul III had the present church built by Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane (1544); but the campanile dates fromCallistus III. The residence of the superior (Palazzo del Commendatore dello Spedale) is adjacent to the church, but about half of it has been pulled down for the construction of the Victor Emmanuel Bridge.S. Stefano Rotondo, built byPope Simplicius on the foundations of an ancient building consisting of three, concentric circles divided by two rings of twenty columns in all, is decorated with frescoes by Pomarancio and Tempesta. It was the titular church ofCardinal Beaton,Archbishop of St. Andrews, and now belongs to the German College.S. Susanna, dedicated to the Romanmartyr of that name, dates back to the fourth century. In its restoration byMaderno (1600) themosaics of 796 perished, and it was decorated with frescoes by Croce. It was the titular church ofCardinal Moran,Archbishop ofSydney.S. Teodoro, at the foot of the Palatine, also stands on a circular structure, an ancientdiaconate. It has amosaic of the time ofAdrian I.Santissima Trinità dei Monti is said to have been built through the munificence of Charles VIII ofFrance. Its great flight of stairs, leading from the Piazza di Spagna, was built by order ofLouis XIV. It contains fine pictures of theschool ofPerugino, also byRaphael, Pierin del Vaga,Veit,Daniele da Volterra (Taking down from the Cross). The church belongs to the Ladies of the Sacred Heart who have an institution (1827) in thechapel of which isvenerated theTer Admirabilis (Thrice Admirable) Madonna. Of the churches outside the City special mention should be made of the sanctuary of theMadonna del Divino Amore (of the Divine Love) on the Via Ardeatina, near an old castle of the Orsini, which is visited by a great concourse of people ou Whit-Monday.
S. Antonio (Portuguese); S. Luigi (French-1496); S. Maria dell' Anima (German), with a hospice forpilgrims founded in 1399; the present church was built in 1500; pictures by Saraceni,Seitz, andGiulio Romano (high altar);tombs ofAdrian VI and Duke Charles Frederick of Cleves byLucas Holstenius (seeROMAN COLLEGES); S. Maria della Pietà, with the German Burial Ground, dating from the time ofCharlemagne; S. Maria di Monserrato (Spanish). Also the churches of various cities — Florence,Naples,Siena,Venice,Bergamo, Bologna, the Marches — ofItaly. — Churches of the Oriental rites. — Besides the churches of the various colleges (seeROMAN COLLEGES), the following should be mentioned: theArmenian Church of St.Mary of Egypt, occupying the site of the ancient temple of Fortuna Virilis; the Græco-MelchiteBasilian Church of S. Maria in Domnica (mosaics of the eighth century); S. Lorenzo ai Monti, for Græco-Ruthenian Uniats. Moreover there are eightProtestant churches intended for propaganda work, each having one or two halls, known assale cristiane, connected with it while five others are principally for the benefit of foreigners, and theGermans have decided to build one more. The Orthodox Russians, too, have a church, where theBishop of Kronstadt officiates. The Hebrews have a large newsynagogue and an oratory, besides aschool of religious learning and various benevolent organizations.
The Palace of the Cancelleria, byBramante; theCuria ofInnocent X now occupied by the Italian Parliament; the Quirinal Palace, the king's residence, built byGregory XIII and enlarged byPaul V andPius VI, where thepopes formerly resided, and theconclaves were held; the Palazzo di Giustizia, built by Calderari entirely of travertine; the Bank ofItaly (Koch) and the Palazzo Buoncompagni, the residence of the queen-mother; the Palazzo Braschi (offices of the Ministry of Internal Affairs), Palazzi Capitolini (Michelangelo), Palazzo del Consulta (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Villa Medici (French Academy), Palazzo Venezia (Austrian Embassy), built byPaul II, Palazzo Corsini (Accademia dei Lincei), Palazzo Farnese (Michelangelo), now theproperty ofFrance and occupied by the French Embassy. Among the private palaces are the Altieri (Clement X), Barberini (Bernini), Borghese (Paul V), Caetani (Ammannati), Pamfili, Esedra, Giraud (Bramante — now belonging to the Torloniafamily), Massimo, Odescalchi, Farnesina (Sangallo), and Ruspoli. The chief private villas are the Doria Pamfili and the Massimo (frescoes byOverbeck). Of all the public monuments we need mention only that recently inaugurated to the memory of Victor Emmanuel II at the back of the Capitoline Hill, consisting of a gilded equestrianstatue, with a semicircularcolonnade behind it. The principal fountains are: the Acqua Paola, on the Janiculum (Paul V); the Piazza S. Pietro fountain, the Tartarughe (Raphael), the Fontana del Tritone (Bernini), and, most magnificent of all, the Trevi (Clement XII, Nicolà Salvi).
The Flavian Amphitheatre, orColosseum, begun byVespasian. Much of its material, particularly on the south side, has been pilfered, this destructive practice having been effectively stopped only in the eighteenth century. The Arch of Constantine was erected in 312 to commemorate the victory overMaxentius, the decorations being, in part, taken from the Arch of Trajan. That ofMarcus Aurelius, on the Flaminian Way (Corso), was removed byAlexander VII; its decorations are preserved in the Capitol. That ofSeptimius Severus (203) is richly decorated withstatues andbas-reliefs; that of Titus, commemorating his victory over theJews, has the celebratedbas-relief representing objects taken from theTemple of Jerusalem; that of Drusus (Trajan?) is near the Porta S. Sebastiano. The Arch of Dolabella ( 10) is surmounted by three conduits taken from a branch of the Aqua Claudia. The Arch ofGallienus dates from 262. The secularbasilicas are the Æmilian, or Fulvian (167 ), the Julian (54 ), the Basilica of Constantine ( 306-10), and the Ulpian, on the Forum of Trajan, with which alibrary was once connected.
ForChristiancatacombs seeROMAN CATACOMBS. The most importantcatacombs of the Hebrews are those of Vigna Randanini, on the Appian Way.
The Circuses are: that ofDomitian, now the Piazza Navona; the Flaminian (the Palazzo Mattei); the Circus Maximus, the oldest of all, erected in the Murcian Valley, between the Palatine and the Aventine, where, even in the days of Romulus, races and other public amusements used to be held (as on the occasion of the Rape of the Sabines); that ofNero, near St. Peter's, where the Apostle wasmartyred; that ofMaxentius outside the city, near the Via Appia. Trajan's Column on the forum of the same name, with a spiral design of the emperor's warlike exploits, is 100 Roman feet (about 97 English feet) in height, erected by the senate and people 113. That ofMarcus Aurelius, with reliefs showing thewars with the Marcomanni, Quadi, Sarmati, etc. (172-75), is interesting for its representation of themiraculous rainfall which, as early asTertullian's time, was attributed to theprayers of theChristian soldiers. This column bears a bronzestatue ofSt. Paul, asTrajan's iscrowned with astatue of St. Peter (Sixtus V, 1589). That of Phocas was erected in 608 by theexarch Smaragdus. The Roman Forum was originally the swampy valley between the Palatine, Capitoline, and Esquiline, which became a market and a meeting-place for the transaction of public business. Soon it was surrounded with shops and public buildings —basilicas, theCuria Hostilia, the Rostra, or platform for public speakers, and varioustemples. Other forums were those ofAugustus, of Peace, ofNero, the Julian, andTrajan's, in the same neighbourhood.
The Mausoleum of Augustus, between the Corso and the Via Ripetta, is now a concert hall. The Mausoleum of Hadrian (Castle of S. Angelo) was used as a fortress byGoths and Romans as early as the sixth century; in the tenth and following centuries it often served as aprison,voluntary or compulsory, for thepopes;Boniface IX,Alexander VI, andUrban VIII were thepopes who did most to restore and transform it. The Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, on the Via Appia, still fairly well preserved, was a stronghold of the Caetani in theMiddle Ages, and from them passed to the Savelli and theColonna. The Pyramid of Caius Cæstius (time ofAugustus) is more than 120 feet in height. Thetomb of Eurysaces, outside the Porta Maggiore, has interestingbas-reliefs showing the various operations of baking bread. That of the Scipios, near the Gate of St. Sebastian, was discovered in 1780, with the sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus, consul in 298 which is now in the Vatican Museum. The Appian Way was lined with numbers of sepulchral monuments; among these mention may be made here of thecolumbaria, or grottoes where afamily or an association was wont to deposit in niches the cinerary urns of its members. The most important of these are in the Vigna Codini and near S. Giovanni in Oleo.
WithSeptimius Severus a newarchitectural period was inaugurated, which was continued byHeliogabalus andAlexander Severus. The house ofAugustus, that ofTiberius, the hippodrome, thelibrary, the house of Livia, thepœdagogium, or quarters of the imperial pages (where the celebrated drawing of a certain Alexamenos adoring a crucified ass was discovered)—all these are still clearly distinguishable. There were also atemple of the Great Mother (205 ), one of Jupiter Victor (295 —commemorating the victory of Sentinum), and one of Apollo, surrounded by a great portico in the enclosure of which now stands the Church of S. Sebastiano in Palladio. In the substructures of the palace of Caligula was discovered some years ago the ancient basilica of S. Maria Antiqua, probablydating from the fourth century, in which frescoes of the eighth and ninth centuries (including a portrait of Pope St. Zacharias, then living) were found. It is evident at certain points, where thepaintings have been broken, that two other layers ofpainting lie beneath. Othertemples are those ofConcordia, three columns of which are still standing in the Roman Forum, built in 388 for the peace between the Patricians and the Plebeians, and in which the Senate often assembled; of the Deus Rediculus, outside the city, near the Appian Way, on the spot where Hannibal, alarmed by a vision, resolved to retire without besieging Rome; of Castor and Pollux, built in 484 to commemorate the victory of Lake Regillus, over the Latins, and restored in 117 (three columns remaining); of Faustina and Antoninus (S. Lorenzo in Miranda); of Fortuna Virilis (second century now the Church of St.Mary of Egypt); of Julius Cæsar, erected byAugustus in the Forum, on the spot where Cæsar's body was burned; of Jupiter Capitolinus, now the German Embassy; of Mars Ultor (the Avenger) erected in the Forum of Augustus to fulfil hisvow made at the battle ofPhilippi, where he avenged the assassination of Cæsar; of Minerva Medica, which is, indeed, rather a nymphæum, or reservoir for distributing the water supply; of Neptune, with its stone piazza, now the Exchange; of Peace, built byVespasian after his victory over theJews; of Romulus (the son ofMaxentius) which now, like Sacræ Urbis temple (of the Holy City), forms part of Santi Cosmo e Damiano; of Saturn, in the Forum. The twotemples of Venus and Rome have theirapses touching each other, and were surrounded by a common peristyle, a plan designed by theEmperor Hadrian himself; to the temple of Vesta, below the Palatine, is annexed the house of the Vestals; the small round temple of the Mater Matuba, in the Forum Boarium, has been commonly called Vesta's.
Characteristic of Rome are the lofty brick towers generally square with few windows, winch may still be seen here and there throughout the city. They were built, for the most part, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and are monuments of the discord between the most powerfulfamilies of Rome. The most important of them are: the Torre Anguillara in Trastevere, adjoining the palace of the Anguillarafamily, reconstructed and used as amedieval museum; the two Capocci towers, in the Via Giovanni Lanza; that of the Conti, once the largest and strongest, built by Riccardo, brother ofInnocent III; that of the Scimmia, or of the Frangipani, near S. Antonio dei Portoghesi surmounted by astatue of the Madonna; the Torre Millina, in the Via dell' Anima; the Torre Sanguigna. The Torre delle Milizie has beenerroneously called "Nero's Tower", that emperor being supposed to have watched from it the burning of Rome; it was built, however, underInnocent III, by his sons Piero and Alessio, partisans of the senator Pandolfo, who opposed thepope's brother Riccardo.
Guida Commerciale di Roma e Provincia (annual);Monografia della città di Roma (publ. of the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Rome, 1881).
History. — MOMMSEN, tr. DICKSON,The History of Rome (London, 1886); DYER,A History of the City of Rome (London, 1865); GREGOROVIUS,History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages (London, 1894-1902); GRISAR,Geschichte Roms und der Päpste im Mittelalter (Freiburg im Br., 1901); REUMONT,Gesch. Roms im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1905); ADINOLFI,Roma nell' età di mezzo (Rome, 1881); TOMMASSETTI,La Campagna di Roma 1879-1910; EHRLE,Roma prime di Sisto V (Rome, 1908); POMPILI-OLIVIERI,Il Senato Romano (1143-1870) (Rome, 1886); CALVI,Bibliografia di Roma nel Medio Evo (476-1499) (Rome, 1906);Appendix (more complete) (1908).
Monuments, Antiquities, etc. — CHANDLERY,Pilgrim Walks in Rome (St. Louis and London, 1905); CRAWFORD,Ave, Roma Immortalis (London, 1905); DE WAAL,Roma Sacra (Munich, 1905); STETTINER,Roma nei suoi monumenti (Rome, 1911); ANGELI,Roma, in Italia Artistica, XXXVII, XL (Bergamo, 1908); PETERSEN,Das alte Rom (Leipzig, s. d.); STEINMANN,Rom in der Renaissance (Leipzig, 1902); LANCIANI,Pagan and Christian Rome (Boston, 1893); IDEM,Ancient Rome (New York, 1889); IDEM,Forum e Palatino; BOISSIER,Promenades archéologiques (Paris, 1881); RICHTER,Topographie der Stadt Rom (Nordlinger, 1889); NIBBY,Roma e suoi dintorni (Rome, 1829); HELBIG,Guide to the Public Collections of Classical Antiquities in Rome (Leipzig, 1895-96); ARMELLINI,Le chiese di Roma (Rome, 1891); ANGELI,Le chiese di Roma (milan, 1906).
Archæological Reviews. —Bulletino d'Arch. Crist. (1863-):Nuovo Bulletino d'Arch. crist. (1895-);Bulletino della Comissione arch. comunale di Roma (1873-);Archivo della Società Romano di Storia Patria (Rome, 1877-);Notizie degli scavi di antichità (Rome, 1876-);Ann. Ecclesiastico (Rome, 1911).
APA citation.Benigni, U.(1912).Rome. InThe Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13164a.htm
MLA citation.Benigni, Umberto."Rome."The Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 13.New York: Robert Appleton Company,1912.<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13164a.htm>.
Transcription.This article was transcribed for New Advent by Douglas J. Potter and Deborah Tankersley.Dedicated to the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Ecclesiastical approbation.Nihil Obstat. February 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, D.D., Censor.Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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