Christian Doctrine

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Taken in the sense of "the act of teaching" and "the knowledge imparted by teaching", this term is synonymous with CATECHESIS and CATECHISM.Didaskalia, didache, in theVulgate,doctrina, are often used in theNew Testament, especially in the Pastoral Epistles. As we might expect, the Apostle insists upon "doctrine" as one of the most importantduties of abishop (1 Timothy 4:13, 16;5:17;2 Timothy 4:2, etc.).

The wordkatechesis means instruction by word of mouth, especially by questioning and answering. Though it may apply to any subject-matter, it is commonly used for instruction in the elements of religion, especially preparation for initiation intoChristianity. The word and others of the same origin occur inSt. Luke's Gospel: "That thou mayestknow the verity of those things in which thou hast been instructed" (katechethes,in quibus eruditus es — i, 4). InActs 18:25, Apollo is described as "instructed [katechemenos,edoctus] in the way of the Lord".St. Paul uses the word twice: "I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that I may instruct [katecheso,instruam] others also" (1 Corinthians 14:19); and "Let him that is instructed [ho katechoumenos,is qui catechizatur] in the word, communicate to him that instructeth [to katechounti,ei qui catechizat] him, in all good things" (Galatians 6:6). Hence the word, with its technical meaning of oral religious instruction, passed intoecclesiastical use, and is applied both to the act of instructing and the subject-matter of the instruction. The wordcatechism was also formerly used for the act of instructing ("To say ay, and no, to these particulars, is more than to answer in a catechism" — As You Like It, act iii, sc. 2), ascatéchisme is still used in French; but it is now more properly applied to the little printed book in which the questions and answers are contained. The subject will be treated in this article under the three heads:

I. HISTORY OF CATECHETICS;
II. PRACTICAL CATECHETICS,
III. MODERN CATECHISMS.

History of catechetics

(1) Oral instruction by means of questions and answers has occupied a prominent place in the scholastic methods of the moral and religious teachers of all countries and of all ages. TheSocratic dialogues will occur to every one as brilliant examples. But many centuries beforeSocrates' day this method was practised among the Hebrews (Exodus 12:26;Deuteronomy 6:7, 20, etc.). They had three forms of catechizing: domestic, conducted by the head of thefamily for the benefit of his children and servants; scholastic, by teachers inschools; andecclesiastical bypriests andLevites in the Temple and thesynagogues.Proselytes were carefully instructed before being admitted to become members of the Jewishfaith. The regular instruction of children began when they were twelve years old. Thus we read of Christ "in the temple, sitting in the midst of thedoctors, hearing them, and asking them questions. And all that heard him were astonished at his wisdom and his answers" (Luke 2:46, 47). During His public life He frequently made use of the catechetical method to impart instruction: "What think ye of Christ? Whose son is he?" "Whom do men say that theson of man is? . . . Whom do you say that I am?" etc. In His final charge to HisApostles He said: "Teach ye [matheteusate, "make disciples, or scholars"] all nations; . . . . Teaching [didaskontes, "instructing"] them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you" (Matthew 28:19). And after this instruction they were to initiate them into theChurch, "baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of theSon, and of theHoly Ghost" (ibid.).

(2) In obedience toChrist's command, St. Peter, "standing up with the eleven", declared to theJews on Pentecost day, andproved to them from the Scriptures thatJesus, whom they had crucified, was "Lord and Christ". When they had been convinced of thistruth, and had compunction in their heart for their crime, they asked, "What shall we do?" And Peter answered, "Do penance, and bebaptized . . . . in the name ofJesus Christ, for the remission of yoursins." "And with very many other words did he testify and exhort them" (Acts 2). We have here an abridgment of the first catechetical instruction given by theApostles. It is both doctrinal and moral — the hearers are to believe and to repent. This twofold element is also contained in St. Peter's second discourse after healing the lame man in the Temple (Acts 3). St. Stephen goes further, and brings out thatbelief inJesus as the Christ (Messias) meant the ending of the Old Covenant and the coming in of a New (Acts 6:7). St. Philip the Deacon preached "of thekingdom of God, in the name ofJesus Christ"; and theSamaritans "werebaptized, both men andwomen" (Acts 8). Furthermore, St. Peter and St. John came fromJerusalem and "prayed for them, that they might receive the Holy Ghost"; and doubtless declared to them the doctrine of that Holy Spirit (ibid.). The samedeacon's discourse to the eunuch deals with theproof from Scripture, and notably Isaias (53:7), that "Jesus Christ is the Son of God", and the necessity ofbaptism. No mention is made of penance or repentance, as the eunuch was a just man anxious to doGod'swill. So, too,Cornelius, "a religious man, and fearingGod with all his house, giving much alms to the people, and always praying toGod", did not need much moral instruction; accordingly St. Peter speaks to him ofJesus Christ who "is lord of all . . .Jesus of Nazareth: howGod anointed him with the Holy Ghost, and with power, who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed by thedevil, forGod was with him. And we are witnesses of all things that he did in the land of theJews and inJerusalem, whom they killed, hanging him upon a tree. HimGod raised up the third day, and gave him to be made manifest . . . even to us who did eat and drink with him after he arose again from the dead; and he commanded us to preach to the people, and to testify that it is he who was appointed byGod to be judge of the living and of the dead. To him all theprophets give testimony, that by his name all receive remission ofsins, whobelieve in him" (Acts 10). In this discourse we have the chief articles of the Creed: the Trinity (God,Jesus Christ "Lord of all things", the Holy Ghost), the Crucifixion, Death, andResurrection ofOur Lord; His coming to judge the living and the dead, and the remission ofsins. These are also the subjects ofSt. Paul's discourses, though, of course, in addressing thepagans, whether peasants atLystra orphilosophers atAthens, he deals with the fundamentaltruths of theexistence andattributes ofGod (Acts, xiii, xiv, xvii). As he himself summed up the matter, he taught "publicly, and from house to house, testifying both toJews andGentiles penance towardsGod, andfaith in [eis]our Lord Jesus Christ" (Acts 20). We find also that though Apollo was "instructed [katechemenos] in the way of the Lord", Priscilla and Aquila "expounded to him the way of the Lord more diligently" (akribesteron —Acts 18 — SeeAPOSTLES' CREED).

(3) The materials for describing the catechetical teaching of the ages immediately succeeding the Apostles are scanty. The books of theNew Testament were available, and all that would be needed would be to supplement these. Thus, in theDidache we find little but moral instruction; but it is clear that those to whom it is addressed must have already received someknowledge of what they were to believe. Later on we find more explicit dogmatic teaching, for instance, inSt. Justin's Apologies and in the writings ofClement of Alexandria. Still, even this is not much more advanced than what we have seen above as taught by St. Peter, except thatJustin dwells on the Creation and proves the Divinity ofChrist, the Logos and only-begotten Son of the Father.

(4) In the ages ofpersecution it becamenecessary to exercise great caution in admittingpersons to membership in theChurch. The danger of falling away, or even of betrayal, must be guarded against by a careful doctrinal and moral training. Hence the institution of the catechumenate and theDiscipline of the Secret. The work of the Apologists had been to remove prejudices againstChristianity, and to set forth its doctrines and practices in such a way as to appeal to the fair-mindedpagan. If anyone was moved to embrace thetrue religion, he was not at once admitted, as in the days of theApostles. At first he was treated as an inquirer, and only the fundamental doctrines were communicated to him. As soon as he had givenproof of hisknowledge and fitness he was admitted to the catechumenate proper, and was further instructed. After some years spent in this stage he was promoted to the ranks of theCompetentes, i.e. those ready forbaptism. As might be expected, he was now instructed more especially in the rites for this purpose. Even when he had been initiated, his instruction was not yet at an end. During the week afterEaster, while the grace of first fervour was still upon him, the various rites and mysteries in which he had just participated were more fully explained to him.

In considering the catechetical writings of the Fathers we must bear in mind the distinction of these different grades. When addressing a mere inquirer they would naturally be more guarded and less explicit than if they had to do with one who had passed through the catechumenate. Sometimes, indeed, the language was so chosen that it conveyed only half thetruth to thecatechumen, while the initiated could understand the whole. The distinction between the elementary and advanced instruction is noted bySt. Paul: "As unto little ones in Christ. I gave you milk to drink, not meat; for you were not able as yet" (1 Corinthians 3:2). For our present purpose it will be best to take as typical examples of catechesis in the patristic times the works ofSt. Cyril of Jerusalem (315-386) andSt. Augustine (354-430), merely noting by the way the work done bySt. Ambrose (the instructor ofSt. Augustine) andSt. Gregory of Nyssa ("The Catechetical Oration", ed. J.H. Strawley, 1903). We have from St. Cyril twenty-four catechetical discourses, forming together a complete course of moral and doctrinal instruction. In the first of these, called the "Procatechesis", he sets forth the greatness and efficacy of the grace of initiation into theChurch. The "Catecheses" proper (numbered i to xviii) are divided into two groups: i-v, repeating the leadingideas of the "Procatechesis", and treating ofsin and repentance,baptism, the principal doctrines of theChristian religion, and the nature and origin offaith; vi-xviii, setting forth, article by article, thebaptismal Creed of theChurch ofJerusalem. The "Procatechesis" and the eighteen discourses were intended for thecompetentes duringLent, in immediate preparation for reception into theChurch. The remaining discourses (19-24), called the "Catecheses Mystagogic", were delivered duringEaster week to those who had beenbaptized atEaster; and these, though much shorter than the others, treat clearly and openly ofbaptism, confirmation, and theHoly Eucharist, the veil of secrecy being now removed. This is not the place to point out how completely in accord with Catholic teaching are the doctrines of St. Cyril (seeCYRIL OF JERUSALEM; TRANSUBSTANTIATION), and what valuable information he gives of the details of the Liturgy in his day. In studying these "Catecheses" we should bear in mind that they were intended for grown-uppersons; hence they are not couched in the simple language which we have to use in our instructions to our children. They resemble, rather, the instruction given to converts, for which purpose they are still of great use. The same remark applies to all the catechetical writings of the Fathers.

St. Augustine's treatise "De Catechizandis Rudibus" deals with both the theory and the practice of catechizing. It is divided into twenty-seven chapters: 1-14 theory, 15-27 practice. This short work, written about the year 400, shows that the great Doctor did not disdain to devote most careful attention to the work of instructing those who wished to learn the rudiments of the Faith. It could be written only by one who had much experience of the difficulties and tediousness of the task, and who had also pondered deeply on the best method of dealing with the different classes of converts. The Deogratias, who had consultedAugustine on the subject, complained (as so many of us still do) of the weariness of going over the same old ground, and of his inability to put any fresh life into his instructions.St. Augustine begins by words of encouragement, pointing out that we must judge of our discourses not by their effect upon ourselves, but by their effect upon our healers. The story may be familiar enough to us, who go on repeating it over and over again, but it is not so to those who are listening to it for the first time. Bearing this in mind, the catechist should put himself in the position of the hearer, and speak as though he were telling something new.Hilaritas, a bright and cheerful manner, must be one of the chief qualifications of an instructor; "God loveth a cheerful giver" applies to the giving of the word as well as to the giving of wealth. He should so speak that the hearer hearing should believe,believing should hope, and hoping shouldlove (Quidquid narras ita narra, ut ille cui loqueris audiendo credat, credendo speret, sperando amet — iv, 11). But the foundation of all is the fear ofGod, "for if seldom, or rather never, happens that anyone wishes to become aChristian without being moved thereto by some fear ofGod". If he comes from some worldly motive he may be only pretending, though indeed a mere pretender may sometimes be turned into a genuine convert by our efforts. Hence, continues the holy Doctor, it is of great importance to ascertain the state of mind and the motives of those who come to us. If we are satisfied that they have received a Divine call, we have a good opening for instruction on the care ofGod for us. We should go briefly through the story ofGod's dealings with men, from the time when He made all things even to our own days; showing especially that theOld Testament was a preparation for the New, and the New a fulfilment of the Old (in veteri testamento est occultatio novi, in novo testamento est manifestatio veteris). This is a theme developed at greater length in the"De Civitate Dei". After we have finished our story we should go on to excite hope in theresurrection of the body — a doctrine as much ridiculed in St. Augustine's day as it was inSt. Paul's day, and as it is in ours. Then should come the account to be rendered at the last judgment, and the reward of the just, and the punishment of the wicked. The convert should be put on his guard against the dangers and difficulties in trying to lead a good life, especially those arising fromscandals within as well as without theChurch. Finally, he should be reminded that the grace of hisconversion is not due either to his merits or to ours, but to thegoodness ofGod. So far thesaint has been speaking ofpersons of little or noeducation. In chap. viii he goes on to deal with those who are welleducated, and are already acquainted with the Scriptures and otherChristian writings. Suchpersons require briefer instruction, and this should be imparted in such a way as to let them see that we are aware of theirknowledge of the Faith. DoubtlessSt. Augustine had in mind his own case, when he presented himself to be received into theChurch by St. Ambrose. We note, too, the wisdom of this piece of advice, especially when we have to deal withAnglican converts. But though less instruction is needed in such cases, continues the holy Doctor, we may rightly inquire into the causes which have induced thesepersons to wish to becomeChristians; and in particular as to the books which have influenced them. If these are the Scriptures or otherCatholic books we should praise and recommend them; but if these areheretical we should point out wherein they have distorted thetruefaith. Throughout our instruction we should speak with modesty, but also with authority, that he who hears us may have no scope for presumption but rather forhumility. Humility is also the principal virtue to be urged upon that intermediate class of converts who have received someeducation but not of the higher sort. These are disposed to scoff atChristian writings, and even at the Scriptures for their want of correctness of language. They should be made to see that it is the matter rather than the language which is of importance; it is more profitable to listen to atrue discourse than to one which is eloquent. The whole of this chapter should be taken to heart by many who join theChurch nowadays. After dealing with these different classes of inquirers, thesaint devotes no less than five lengthy chapters (x to xiv) to the causes of weariness (the opposite ofhilaritas) and the remedies for it. This portion is perhaps the most valuable of the whole treatise, at least from a practical point of view. Only the merest outline of St. Augustine's advice as to the remedies can be given here. We must bring ourselves down to the level of the lowest of our hearers, even as Christ humbled Himself and took upon Himself "the form of a servant". We must vary the subjects, and we must increase in earnestness of manner so as to move even the most sluggish. If it seems to us that the fault is ours, we should reflect, as already pointed out, that the instruction, though not up to our ideal, may be exactly suited to our hearer and entirely fresh and new to him; in any case the experience may be useful as a trial to ourhumility. Other occupations may be pleasanter, but we cannot say that they are certainly more profitable; forduty should come first, and we should submit toGod's will and not try to make Him submit to ours. After laying down theseprecepts,St. Augustine goes on to give a short catechetical instruction as an example of what he has been inculcating. It is supposed to be addressed to an ordinary type of inquirer, neither grosslyignorant nor highlyeducated (xvi to xxv), and might well be used at the present day. What specially strikes one in reading it is the admirable way in which thesaint brings out the prophetical and typical character of theOld-Testament narrative, and insinuates gradually all the articles of the Creed without seeming to reveal them. The sketch ofChrist's life and passion, and the doctrine of theChurch and thesacraments are also noteworthy. The discourse ends with an earnest exhortation to perseverance. This short work has exercised the greatest influence on catechetics. In all ages of theChurch it has been adopted as a textbook.

(5) When all fear ofpersecution had passed away, and the empire had become almost entirelyChristian, the necessity for a prolonged period of trial and instruction no longer existed. About the same time the fuller teaching on the subject oforiginal sin, occasioned by thePelagian heresy, gradually led to the administration ofbaptism to infants. In such cases instruction was, of course, impossible, though traces of it are still to be seen in the rite of infantbaptism, where the godparents are put through a sort ofcatechesis in the name of the child. As the child grew, it was taught its religion both at home and at the services in church. This instruction was necessarily more simple than that formerly given to grown-upcatechumens, and gradually came to be what we now understand by catechetical instruction. Meantime, however, the barbarian invaders were being brought into theChurch, and in their case the instruction had to be of an elementary character. The missionaries had to go back to the methods of the Apostles and content themselves with exacting a renunciation ofidolatry and a profession ofbelief in the greattruths ofChristianity. Such was the practice ofSt. Patrick inIreland,St. Remigius among theFranks,St. Augustine inEngland,St. Boniface inGermany. We should bear in mind that in those ages religious instruction did not cease withbaptism. Set sermons were rarer than in our time; thepriest spoke rather as a catechist than as a preacher. We may take the practice among the Anglo-Saxons as typical of what was done in other countries. "Among theduties incumbent on theparishpriest the first was to instruct his flock in the doctrines andduties ofChristianity, and to extirpate from among them the lurking remains ofpaganism . . . He was ordered to explain to his parishioners the ten commandments; to take care that all could repeat and understand theLord's Prayer and the Creed; to expound in English onSundays the portion of Scripture proper to the Mass of the day, and to preach, or, if he were unable to preach, to read at least from a book some lesson of instruction" (Lingard, "Anglo-Saxon Church", c. iv). Thelaws enacting theseduties will be found in Thorpe, "Ecclesiastical Institutes", i, 378; ii, 33, 34, 84, 191.

(6) It is the custom with non-Catholic writers to assert that during theMiddle Ages, "the Ages of Faith", religious instruction was entirely neglected, and that theProtestant Reformers were the first to restore the practice of the Early Church. In the "Dict. de théol. cath.", s.v. "Catéchisme", and in Bareille, "Le Catéchisme Romain", Introd., pp. 36 sqq., will be found long lists of authorities showing howfalse are these assertions. We must here content ourselves with stating what was done inEngland. Abbot Gasquet has thoroughly gone into the subject, and declares that "in pre-Reformation days the people were well instructed in theirfaith bypriests who faithfully discharged their plainduty In their regard" (Old English Bible and other Essays, p. 186). Inproof of this he quotes the constitutions of John Peckham,Archbishop ofCanterbury (1281), in which it is enjoined that everypriest shall explain to his people in English, and without any elaborate subtleties (vulgariter absque cujuslibet subtilitatis texturâ fantastic ), four times a year, the Creed, theTen Commandments, the twoprecepts of the Gospel (viz.love ofGod and man), the seven deadlysins, the seven chief virtues (theological and cardinal), and the sevensacraments. In these constitutions is contained a brief instruction on all these heads, "lest anyone should excuse himself on the ground ofignorance of these things which all theministers of theChurch are bound toknow". Thislegislation, after all, was nothing but an insisting on a practicedating fromSaxon days, as we have already seen. Moreover, it is constantly referred to in subsequentsynods and in countless catechetical writings. One of Peckham's predecessors,St. Edmund Rich (1234-1240), was not only a man of great learning, but also azealous teacher ofChristian doctrine among the people. He wrote familiar instructions onprayer, the seven deadlysins, the Commandments, and thesacraments. Cardinal Thoresby,Archbishop ofYork, published in 1357 a catechism in Latin and English, the "Lay Folks Catechism", for the purpose of carrying out Peckham's Constitutions, and it is based on Peckham's instruction. The two, with the English translation in rude verse, have been reprinted by the Early English Text Society, No. 118. In the episcopal Registers and Visitations we read how the people were asked whether theirpastor fulfilled hisduties, and they constantly answer that they are taughtbene et optime.Chaucer's Poor Parson may be taken as a type:

But riche he was of holy thought and work.
He was also a lerned man, a clerk,
That Christes Gospel trewly wolde preche,
His parischens devoutly wolde he teche.

His tale is practically a treatise on theSacrament of Penance. As regards catechetical manuals we need only mention the "Pars Oculi Sacerdotis" (about the middle of the fourteenth century) which was very popular; "Pupilla Oculi", by John de Burgo (1385); "Speculum Christiani", by John Wotton, containing simple English rhymes as well as the Latin text. "One of the earliest books ever issued from an English press by Caxton . . . . was a set of four lengthy discourses, published, as they expressly declare, to enablepriests to fulfil theobligation imposed on them by the Constitutions of Peckham" (Gasquet, op. cit., p. 191). The part which pictures,statues, reliefs, pageants, and especiallymiracle plays took in the religious instruction of the people must not be forgotten. All of these giveproof of an extensiveknowledge of sacred history and an astonishing skill in conveying doctrinal and moral lessons. If is enough to refer to Ruskin's "Bible ofAmiens", and to the Townley,Chester, and Coventrymiracle plays. (Cf. Bareille, op. cit., pp. 42 sqq.)

(7) The invention of printing and the revival of learning naturally had great influence on catechetical instruction. The first great name to be mentioned, though indeed it belongs to a slightly earlier period, is that ofJohn Gerson (1363-1429). He realized that the much-needed reform of theChurch should begin by the instruction of the young; and though he was chancellor of theUniversity of Paris he devoted himself to this work. He composed a sort of little catechism entitled "The A B C of Simple Folk". To enable theclergy to catechize he also composed the "Opus Tripartitum de Præceptis Decalogi, de Confessione, et de Arte bene Moriendi", in which he briefly explained the Creed, theCommandments of God, thesins to be mentioned in confession, and the art of dying well. This was printed many times and was translated into French. It was the forerunner of the Catechism of theCouncil of Trent. In the year 1470, beforeLuther was born, a German catechism, "Christenspiegel" (the Christian's Mirror), written by Dederich, was printed, and at once became very popular. Two other catechisms, "The Soul's Guide" and "The Consolation of the Soul", were printed a little later and issued in many editions.Johann Janssen's great "History of the German People at the Close of theMiddle Ages" will be found a complete refutation of the popular notion that theProtestant Reformers, and especiallyLuther, were the first to revive catechetical instruction and to print catechisms. It is, however, proper to acknowledge their activity in this matter, and to note that this activity stirred up thezeal of theCatholics to counteract their influence.Luther's famous "Enchiridion", which was really the third edition of his smaller catechism, was published in 1529, and speedily ran through a number of editions; it is still used inGermany and in otherProtestant countries. In 1536Calvin composed a catechism in French: "Le formulaire d'instruire les enfans en la chrestienté, fait en manière de dialogue oú le ministre interroge et l'enfant répond". He candidly admits that it was always the custom in theChurch to instruct children in this way. Of course he takes care to introduce the chief points of hisheresy: thecertainty ofsalvation, the impossibility of losingjustice (righteousness), and the justification of children independently ofbaptism. It is noteworthy that as regards the Eucharist he teaches that we receive not merely a sign, butJesus Christ Himself, "really and effectually by atrue and substantial union". InEngland the firstBook of Common Prayer (1549) contained a catechism with a brief explanation of the Commandments and theLord's Prayer. The explanation of thesacraments was not added until the year 1604. If this catechism be compared with that of Cardinal Thoresby, mentioned above, it will be seen that the instruction given toProtestant children in the middle of the sixteenth century was far inferior to that given in pre-Reformation days. In 1647 the Westminster Assembly of Divines drew up thePresbyterian "Larger" and "Smaller" Catechisms.

On theCatholic sidePeter Canisius published three catechisms, or rather one catechism in three forms: major (1555), minor (1558), and minimus (1556). Taking as his foundationSirach 1:33, he divides his treatment into two great parts: wisdom andjustice. In the first he deals with Faith (the Creed), Hope (theLord's Prayer and theHail Mary), Charity (the Commandments). In the second he deals with avoidingevil (sin and the remission ofsin) and doing good (prayer,fasting and almsdeeds, the cardinal virtues, the gifts and fruits of the Holy Ghost, the beatitudes, the evangelical counsels, and theFour Last Things). To obtain and to preserve both wisdom andjustice thesacraments arenecessary, and hence he places the treatment of thesacraments between the two parts. After theCouncil of Trent (1563)Canisius added a chapter on the Fall and Justification. The form of the three books is that of questions and answers, some of the latter being as long as four or five pages. In striking contrast to theProtestant catechisms, the tone throughout is calm, and there is an absence of controversial bitterness. The success of Canisius' catechisms was enormous. They were translated into every language inEurope, and were reprinted in many hundreds of editions, so that the nameCanisius came to be synonymous with Catechism (Bareille, op. cit., p. 61).

TheCatechism of the Council of Trent (Catechismus Romanus) is not a catechism in the ordinary sense of the word. It is rather a manual of instruction for theclergy (Catechismus ad Parochos) to enable them to catechize those entrusted to their spiritual care. The fathers of the council "deemed it of the utmost importance that a work should appear, sanctioned by the authority of the Holy Synod, from which perishpriests and all others on whom theduty of imparting instruction devolves may be able to seek and derive certainprecepts for the edification of the faithful; that as there is 'one Lord one Faith' so also there may be one common rule and prescribed form of delivering thefaith, and instructing theChristian people unto all theduties ofpiety" (Pr f., viii). The composition of the work was entrusted to four distinguishedtheologians (two of themarchbishops and one abishop), under the supervision of threecardinals.St. Charles Borromeo was the presiding spirit. The original draft was turned into elegant Latin by Pogianus and Manutius, and this version was translated by command of thepope (St. Pius V) into Italian, French, German, and Polish. Brought out under such conditions (1566), the authority of this catechism is higher than that of any other, but is, of course, not on a level with that of the canons and decrees of a council, As to its valueCardinal Newman's estimate may be gathered from these words: "I rarely preach a sermon, but I go to this beautiful and complete Catechism to get both my matter and my doctrine" (Apologia, p. 425). (SeeROMAN CATECHISM.)

CardinalBellarmine's Catechism was ordered byClement VIII to be used in thePapal States, and was recommended for use throughout the world. It appeared in two forms: "Dottrina Cristiana Breve" (1597) and "Dichiarazione più Copiosa della Dottrina Cristiana" (1598). The first is for scholars, the second for teachers; in the first the teacher asks the questions and the scholar replies, whereas in the second this process is reversed. The first, which is meant to be learnt by heart, contains eleven chapters and ninety-five questions, and is arranged in the following order: the Calling of theChristian and theSign of the Cross; the Creed, theLord's Prayer, and theHail Mary; theCommandments of God, theCommandments of the Church, and the Counsels; the Sacraments, the Theological and Cardinal Virtues, the Gifts of the Holy Ghost, theWorks of Mercy, Sins, theLast Things, and theRosary. It is an improvement on Canisius' catechisms, and hence it was recommended at theVatican Council to serve as a model for the projected universal catechism.

The first catechism in English after theReformation was "A Catechisme or Christian Doctrine necessarie for Children and Ignorante People, briefly compiled by Laurence Vaux, Bacheler of Divinitie"; 1st ed., 1567; reprinted 1574, 1583 (twice), 1599, 1605; 18mo. This has been reprinted for the Chetham Society, new series, vol. IV,Manchester, 1883. Next came a small volume, "A Briefe Instruction by way of Dialogue concerning the principall poyntes of Christian religion gathered out of theHoly Scripture, Fathers and Councels. By the Reverend M. George Doulye, Priest. Imprinted at Louvaine by Laurence Kellam, anno 1604": "A Shorte Catechisme of CardinalBellarmine illustrated with Images." In Augusta, 1614: "A briefe Christian Doctrine to be lerned by heart"; "A Summa of Christian Doctrine composed in Latin by Father Petrus Canisius of the Society of Jesus with an Appendix of the Fall of Man and Justification. Translated into English (by Fr. Garnet?) at St. Omers for John Heigham. With permission of Superiors: 1622"; "A Catechisme of Christian Doctrine in fifteen Conferences. Paris: 1637", 2nd ed., 1659. The author wasThomas White, alias Blacklow, ofLisbon andDouai. The most important, however, was the book which came to be known as "The Doway Catechism", "An Abridgement of Christian Doctrine with proofs of Scripture for points controverted. Catechistically explained by way of question and answer", printed atDouai, 1st ed., 1649; again 1661, and so constantly. The last editions mentioned by Gillow are London, 1793, and Dublin, 1828; the author was Henry Turberville, aDouaipriest. There was also a smaller edition, "An Abstract of the Douay Catechism. For the use of children and ignorant people. London, printed in the year 1688"; it was reprinted many times, and continued in use until theDouai students came toEngland. In 1625, theFranciscanFlorence O'Conry published anIrish catechism atLouvain, entitled "Mirror of aChristian Life". This, like the catechisms ofO'Hussey (Louvain, 1608) andStapleton (Brussels, 1639), was written for the benefit of theIrish troops serving in theNetherlands. In the same century another member of theFranciscan order,Father Francis Molloy, a native of the County Meath,Ireland, and at the time professor oftheology inSt. Isidore's College,Rome, published a catechism inIrish under the title "Lucerna Fidelium" (Rome,Propaganda Press, 1676). We should also mentionAndrew Donlevy's "The Catechism or Christian Doctrine by way of question and answer. Paris, 1742". This was in English andIrish on opposite pages. "The Poor Man's Catechism or the Christian Doctrine explained with short admomitions", 1st ed., 1752; it was edited by the Rev. George Bishop. The author's name does not appear, but a later work tells who he was: "The Poor Man's Controversy, By J. Mannock, O. S. B., the author of the Poor Man's Catechism, 1769." Dr. James Butler,Archbishop ofCashel, published his catechism in 1775, and it was soon adopted by manyIrishbishops for theirdioceses. An account of it was given by Archbishop Walsh in the "Irish Eccl. Record", Jan., 1892. In 1737 Bishop Challoner published "The Catholic Christian instructed in the Sacraments, Sacrifice, Ceremonies, and Observances of the Church by way of question and answer. By R. C. London 1737." There is also "An Abridgement of Christian Doctrine with a Short Daily Exercise", "corrected by the lateBishop Challoner", 1783. Bishop Hay's admirable works: "The Sincere Christian instructed in the Faith of Christ from the Written Word" (1781); "The Devout Christian instructed in the Faith of Christ" (1783); and "The Pious Christian" are catechisms on a large scale in the form of question and answer.

During the eighteenth century catechetical instruction received a fresh impulse fromPope Benedict XIII, who issued (1725) three ordinances prescribing in detail the methods: division into small classes and special preparation for confession and Communion. Against therationalistic tendencies in the pedagogical movement of the century,Clement XIII uttered a protest in 1761.Pius VI wrote (1787) to the Orientals, proposing for their use a catechism in Arabic prepared by thePropaganda. InGermany the "Pastoral Instruction" issued by Raymond Anton,Bishop ofEichstädt (1768; new ed., Freiburg, 1902) emphasized the need and indicated the method of instruction (Tit. XIV, Cap. V). Prominent among the writers on the subject were Franz Neumayr, S.J. in his "Rhetorica catechetica" (1766); M.I. Schmidt, "Katechisten", andJ.I. von Felbiger, "Vorlesungen über die Kunst zu katechisieren" (Vienna, 1774). InFrance, during the same century, great activity was shown, especially by thebishops, in publishing catechisms. Each diocese had its own textbook, but though occasional attempts were made at uniformity, they were not successful. Several catechisms composed by individual writers other than thebishops were put on the Index (seeMigne, "Catéchismes", Paris, 1842). The French original of "An Abridgment of the Quebec Catechism" (Quebec, 1817) appeared inParis (1702) and Quebec (1782).

The pedagogical activity of the nineteenth century naturally exerted an influence upon religious instruction. German writers of the first rank were Overberg (d. 1826), Sailer (d. 1832), Gruber (d. 1835), and Hirscher (d. 1865), all of whom advocated thepsychological method and the careful preparation of teachers.Deharbe's "Catechism" (1847) was translated between 1853 and 1860 into thirteen languages, and his "Erkl rungen des Katechismus" (1857-61) has passed through numerous editions. InFrance,Napoleon (1806) imposed upon all the churches of the empire uniformity in the matter of catechisms and, in spite of the opposition ofPius VII, published the "Imperial Catechism", containing a chapter onduties towards the emperor. This was replaced after the fall of the empire by a large number ofdiocesan catechisms which again led to various plans for securing uniformity.Dupanloup, one of the foremost writers oneducation, published his Catéchisme chrétien" in 1865. At the time of theVatican Council (1869-1870) the question of having a single universal catechism was discussed. There was great diversity of opinion among the Fathers, and consequently the discussion led to no result (see Martin, "Les travaux du concile du Vatican", pp. 113-115). The arguments for and against the project will be examined when we come to speak of catechisms in the third part of this article. The most important event in the recent history of catechetics has been the publication of theEncyclical "Acerbo nimis" on the teaching ofChristian doctrine (15 April, 1905). In this documentPius X attributes the present religious crisis to the widespreadignorance of Divinetruth, and lays down strict regulations concerning theduty of catechizing (see below). For the purpose of discussing the best methods of carrying out these orders a number of catechetical congresses have been held: e.g., atMunich, 1905 and 1907; Vienna, 1905 and 1908; Salzburg, 1906; Lucerne, 1907; Paris, 1908, etc. At these gatherings scientific, yet practical, lectures were delivered, demonstrations were given of actual catechizing inschool, and an interesting feature was the exhibition of the best literature and appliances. Two periodicals have likewise appeared: "Katechetische Blätter" (Munich) and "Christlich-pädagogische Blätter" (Vienna).

In theUnited States, the fewpriests who in the early days toiled in this vast field were so overburdened with work that they could not produce original textbooks for religious instruction; they caused to be re-printed, with slight alterations, books commonly used inEurope. Others were composed in the manner described byDr. England, firstBishop ofCharleston, who, in 1821, published a catechism which, he writes, "I had much labor in compiling from various others, and adding several parts which I considerednecessary to be explicitly dwelt upon under the peculiar circumstances of my diocese." The first to edit a catechism, so far as is known, was theJesuit Father Robert Molyneux, an Englishman by birth and a man of extensive learning, who, till 1809, laboured among theCatholics inMaryland andPennsylvania. Copies of this work are not known to exist now, but, in letters to Bishop Carroll, Father Molyneux mentions two catechisms which he issued — one in 1785, "a spelling primer for children with aCatholic catechism annexed". In 1788 a catechism was published in New York which in all likelihood was a reprint of "Butler's Catechism" mentioned above. Bishop Hay's "Abridgement of Christian Doctrine" (152 pp) appeared in Philadelphia in 1800; another edition (143 pp.) in 1803, and one with some alterations in the language in Baltimore in 1809 (108 pp.). Many editions were published of the catechism entitled "A Short Abridgement of Christian Doctrine, Newly Revised for the Use of the Catholic Church in the United States of America". The size of these small catechisms is from 36 to 48 pages. One edition, with title page torn, bears on the last page the record: "Bought September 14, 1794". The Philadelphia edition of 1796 is styled the thirteenth edition; that ofBaltimore, 1798, the fourteenth. Whether all these editions were printed in America, or some of the earlier ones inEurope, cannot be ascertained.

This "Short Abridgement of Christian Doctrine", approved by Archbishop Carroll, was generally used throughout theUnited States until about 1821. In that yearBishop England published his catechism for his own diocese, and in 1825 appeared the "Catechism of the Diocese of Bardstown", recommended as a class-book by Bishop Flaget of Bardstown, Kentucky. The author of the latter catechism was Jean-Baptiste David, coadjutor of Bishop Flaget. It comprised the "First or Small Catechism for Little Children" (13 pp.), and the "Second Catechism" (149 pp.). The English were criticized byArchbishop Maréchal and others. Still more defective and inexact in language was the catechism of Bishop Conwell of Philadelphia, and, at the request of thearchbishop, the author suppressed the book. An old English catechism, the "Abridgement of Christian Doctrine", by Henry Turberville, first published atDouai in 1649, was reprinted in New York in 1833. Whereas this edition preserved the quaint old language of the original, another edition of the same book appeared in Philadelphia, as "revised by theRight Rev. James Doyle and prescribed by him for the uniteddioceses ofKildare and Leighlin" (Ireland). In the New England States the "Boston Catechism" was used for a long time, the "Short Abridgement of Christian Doctrine", newly revised and augmented and authorized by Bishop Fenwick ofBoston. But the catechisms which were used most exclusively during several decades were Butler's "Larger Catechism" and "Abridged Catechism". In 1788 Samuel Campbell, New York, published "A Catechism for the Instruction of Children. The Seventh Edition with Additions, Revised and Corrected by the Author". This seems to be the first American edition of Butler's Catechism; for Dr. Troy,Bishop ofOssory, wrote, soon after Butler's Catechism had appeared: "It has been printed here under the title: 'A Catechism for the Instruction of Children', without any mention of Dr. Butler". Butler's Catechism became very popular in theUnited States and the FirstProvincial Council ofCanada (1851) prescribed it for the English-speakingCatholics of the Dominion. Some other American catechisms may be briefly mentioned: the so-called "Dubuque Catechism" by Father Hattenberger; the Small and the Larger Catechism of theJesuit missionary,Father Weninger (1865); and the three graded catechisms of theRedemptorist Father Müller (1874). Far more extensively used than these was the English translation ofDeharbe. From 1869 numerous editions of the small, medium, and large catechisms, with various modifications, were published in theUnited States. An entirely new and much improved edition was issued in New York in 1901.

Repeated efforts have been made in theUnited States towards an arrangement by which a uniform textbook ofChristian Doctrine might be used by allCatholics. As early as 1829, thebishops assembled in the FirstProvincial Council ofBaltimore decreed: "A catechism shall be written which is better adapted to the circumstances of this Province; it shall give theChristian Doctrine as explained in CardinalBellarmine's Catechism, and when approved by theHoly See, it shall be published for the common use ofCatholics" (Decr. xxxiii). The clause recommendingBellarmine's Catechism as a model was added at the special request of theCongregation of Propaganda. It may be mentioned here thatBellarmine's "Small Catechism", Italian text with English translation, was published atBoston, in 1853. The wish of thebishops was not carried out, and the First andSecond Plenary Council of Baltimore (1852 and 1866) repeated thedecree of 1829. In the Third Plenary Council (1884) manybishops were in favour of a "revised" edition of Butler's Catechism, but finally the matter was given into the hands of a committee of sixbishops. At last, in 1885, was issued "A Catechism of Christian Doctrine, Prepared and Enjoined by Order of the Third Council of Baltimore". Although the council had desired a catechism "perfect in every respect" (Acta et Decr., p. 219),theologians and teachers criticized several points (Nilles, "Commentaria", II, 265, 188). Soon various editions came forth with additions of word-meanings, explanatory notes, some even with different arrangements, so that there is now a considerable diversity in the books that go by the name of Catechism of the Council ofBaltimore. Besides, in recent years several new catechisms have been published, "one or two a decided improvement over the Council Catechism" (Messmer, "Spirago's Method", p. 558). Among the recent catechisms are the two of Father Faerber, the large and small catechisms of Father Groenings, S.J., and the "Holy Family Series of Catholic Catechisms", by Francis H. Butler, of theDiocese of Boston (1902). The three graded catechisms of this series give on the left page the questions and answers, on the right a "Reading Lesson)", dealing in fuller, and connected, form with the matter contained in the questions and answers. Some very practical features (reading part, followed by questions and answers, appropriatehymns, and pictorial illustrations) mark the "Text-books of Religion for Parochial and Sunday Schools", edited since 1898 by Father Yorke. These last two series to some extent depart from the traditional method and indicate a new movement in catechetical teaching. A more radical change in the style of the catechism, namely the complete abandonment of the question-and-answer method, has recently been proposed (see below, under II and III of this article, and "Am. Eccl. Rev.", 1907; Jan., and Feb., 1908). The FirstPlenary Council of Baltimore (1852) appointed Bishop Neumann to write, or revise, a German catechism the use of which, after itsapprobation by thearchbishop and all the German-speakingbishops, should beobligatory. Thisdecree shared the fate of the council's demand for a uniform English catechism. The Third Plenary Council (1884) decreed that the catechism to be issued by its order should be translated into the languages of thoseparishes in which religious instruction is given in any other than the English tongue. But the translation of the council catechism met with little favour. Another regulation, however, contained in the samedecree of the council (ccxix), was gradually carried into effect. Thebishops assembled expressed an earnest desire that inschools where English was not used theChristian Doctrine should be taught not only in the foreign tongue there used, but also in English. Undoubtedly this was a wise provision. For the young people of the second or third generation find it difficult to understand the native language of theirparents; hearing discussions or attacks on their religion, they are hardly able to answer if they have not learnt the catechism in English. Moreover, after leavingschool many young people have to live among English-speaking people, in places where there is no congregation of their own nationality; if they have not been taught religion in English they are tempted not to attend sermons, they feel embarrassed in going to confession, and thus may gradually drift away from theChurch. In order to obviate these dangers, various catechisms (Deharbe, Faerber, Groenings, etc.) have been published with German and English texts on opposite pages. Similarly, there are Polish-English, Bohemian-English, and other editions with double text. In most Italianschools catechism is taught chiefly in English, and only theprayers in Italian. Unwise as it would be to force a change of languages in catechetical teaching, it would be equally injudicious to artificially retard the natural development. The slow but steady tendency is towards the gradual adoption of the English language in preaching and teaching catechism, and it seems but reasonable to think that some day there will be among theCatholics in theUnited States not only unity infaith in the substance of the catechism, but also in its external form and language.

A number of German immigrants enteredPennsylvania about 1700, a considerable portion of them beingCatholics. In 1759 the GermanCatholics in Philadelphia outnumbered those of the English tongue, and in 1789 they opened the church of theHoly Trinity, the first, exclusively national church in theUnited States. Since 1741 GermanJesuits have ministered to the spiritual needs of their countrymen, andCatholicschools have been established in thePennsylvania settlements. It was natural that the GermanJesuits should introduce the Catechism ofCanisius, which for centuries had been universally used throughoutGermany. The best Known American edition of this famous catechism is that printed in Philadelphia, in 1810: "Catholischer Catechismus, worin die Catholische Lehre nach den fänf Hauptstäcken V. P. Petri Canisii, aus der Gesellschaft Jesu, erkl¨rt wird". The author or editor of this book was Adam Britt,pastor of theHoly Trinity Church, Philadelphia, who died at Conewaga (1822) as a member of theSociety of Jesus. During several decades the Catechism ofCanisius was generally used by the GermanCatholics in theUnited States. TheRedemptorists came to this country in 1833 and soon had charge of flourishing Germanparishes in nearly all the more important cities. The Venerable John N. Neumann, afterwardsBishop of Philadelphia, wrote, whilerector of theRedemptorist house atPittsburg, about the year 1845, a small and a large catechism. These texts, also known as the "Redemptorist Catechisms", had a wide circulation, whereas those written later byFather Weninger, S.J., and Father Müller, C. SS. R., never became popular. The second half of the nineteenth century may be called the era ofDeharbe's Catechism. In 1850 the "Katholischer Katechismus der Lehrbegriffe" was issued inCincinnati, which by this time had become a centre of GermanCatholic population with flourishingparochialschools. Bishop Purcell declares in theapprobation that the German catechisms previously published were not to be reprinted, but that this "Regensburg [Ratisbon] Catechism, long in use in Germany", was to be the only one in hisdiocese. Although the name of the author was not given, it was in realityFather Deharbe's "Large Catechism". Since that time numerous editions of the different catechisms ofDeharbe appeared with various adaptations and modifications, and for nearly fifty yearsDeharbe reigned supreme. This supremacy has been challenged within the last two decades. Father Müller, C. SS. R., in the preface to his catechism, severely criticizedDeharbe's as a book "which it is difficult for children to learn and to understand". Father Faerber, who devoted forty years to catechetical instruction, produced in 1895 a textbook which commends itself by its simplicity and clearness, although the critics, who charged it with incompleteness and a certain lack of accuracy, were not altogether wrong. Almost simultaneously with Father Faerber's book appeared an excellent, thoroughly revised, edition ofDeharbe's texts, from which many defects had been expunged. Finally, in 1900, Father Groenings, S.J., published two catechisms, a small and a large one.

Development of Catechizing after the Council of Trent -- Mindful that the work of catechizing was more important than the issue of catechisms, theCouncil of Trent decreed that "thebishops shall take care that at least on the Lord's day and other festivals the children in everyparish be carefully taught the rudiments of thefaith and obedience toGod and theirparents" (Sess. IV, De Ref., c. iv). In 1560 theConfraternity of Christian Doctrine was founded inRome by aMilanese, and was approved bySt. Pius V in 1571.St. Charles Borromeo in hisprovincial synods laid down excellent rules on catechizing; everyChristian was toknow theLord's Prayer, theHail Mary, the Creed, and theTen Commandments; confessors were ordered to examine their penitents as to theirknowledge of these formularies (V Prov. Concil., 1579). He also establishedschools in the villages, in addition to increasing the number in the towns. Besides the renewed activity of the older orders, theJesuits, theBarnabites, and theClerks Regular of Pious Schools (Piarists), who devoted themselves to theeducation of the young, took special care of the religious instruction of those entrusted to them. In this connection three names are especially worthy of mention:St. Vincent de Paul,St. Francis de Sales, andM. Olier. One ofSt. Francis's first acts as abishop was to organize catechetical instruction throughout hisdiocese, and he himself took his turn with his canons in this holy work. St. Vincent founded his congregation of Priests of the Mission for the purpose of instructing thepoor, especially in the villages. The missionaries were to teach the catechism twice a day during each mission. In his ownparish of Châtillon he established the Confraternity for the Assistance of the Poor, and one of theduties of the members was to instruct as well as to give material aid. So, too, the Sisters of Charity not only took care of the sick and the poor but also taught the children.M. Olier, both in theseminary and in theparish of Saint-Sulpice, laid special stress on the work of catechizing. The method which he introduced will be described in the second part of this article. TheBrothers of the Christian Schools, founded bySt. Jean-Baptiste de la Salle, devoted themselves especially to religious as well as secular instruction. Finding that the very poor were unable to attendschool on weekdays, the saintly founder introduced secular lessons onSundays. This was in 1699, nearly a century before such teaching was given inProtestantEngland.

Practical catechetics

Catechizing (catechesis), as we have seen, is instruction which is at once religious, elementary, and oral.

Catechizing is a religious work not simply because it treats of religious subjects, but because its end or object is religious. The teacher should endeavour to influence the child's heart and will, and not be content with putting a certain amount of religiousknowledge into its head; for, asAristotle would say, the end of catechizing is notknowledge, but practice. Knowledge, indeed, there must be, and the more of it the better in this age of widespread seculareducation; but theknowledge must lead to action. Both teacher and child must realize that they are engaged in a religious work, and not in one of the ordinary lessons of the day. It is the neglect to realize this that is responsible for the little effect produced by long and elaborate teaching. Religiousknowledge comes to be looked upon by the child merely as a branch of otherknowledge, and having as little to do with conduct as the study of vulgar fractions. "When the child is fighting its way through thetemptations of the world, it will have to draw far more largely on its stock ofpiety than on its stock ofknowledge" (Furniss, "Sunday School or Catechism?). The work of a teacher in theChurch will be directed chiefly to this, that the faithful earnestly desire 'toknowJesus Christ and Him crucified', and that they be firmly convinced and with the innermostpiety and devotion of heart believe, that 'there is no other name underheaven given to men whereby we must besaved', for 'He is the propitiation for oursins'. But as in this we doknow that we have known Him, if 'we keep His commandments', the next consideration and one intimately connected with the foregoing, is to show that life is not to be spent in ease andsloth, but that we 'ought to walk even as He walked', and with all earnestness 'pursuejustice, godliness,faith, charity, mildness'; for He 'gave Himself for us that He might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify unto Himself a people acceptable, pursuing good works'; which things the Apostle commandspastors to 'speak and exhort'. But as our Lord and Saviour has not only declared, but has also shown by His own example, that the Law and the Prophets depend onlove, and as also, according to the confirmation of the Apostle, 'the end of the commandments and the fulfilment of the Law is charity, no one candoubt that this, as a paramountduty, should be attended to with the utmost assiduity, that the faithful people be excited to alove of theinfinitegoodness ofGod towards us; that, inflamed with a sort of divine ardour, they may be powerfully attracted to the supreme and all-perfect good, to adhere to which is solidhappiness" (Catechism of the Council of Trent, Pref., x).

Thepersons concerned in catechizing (teachers and taught) and the times and places for catechizing can hardly be treated apart. But it will be best to begin with thepersons. Theduty of providing suitable religious instruction for children is primarily incumbent on theirparents. This they may fulfil either by teaching them themselves or by entrusting them to others. Next to the naturalparents the godparents have thisduty. Theparishpriest should remind both theparents and godparents of theirobligation; and he, too, as the spiritual father of those entrusted to his care, is bound to instruct them. InPius X'sEncyclical Letter on the teaching ofChristian doctrine it is enacted

"(1) that allparishpriests, and in general, all those entrusted with the care ofsouls, shall on everySunday andfeast day throughout the year, without exception, give boys and girls an hour's instruction from the catechism on those things which every one must believe and do in order to be saved; (2) at stated times during the year they shall prepare boys and girls by continued instruction, lasting several days, to receive thesacraments of penance and confirmation; (3) they shall likewise and with special care on all the weekdays inLent, and ifnecessary on other days after the feast ofEaster, prepare boys and girls by suitable instruction and exhortations to make their first Communion in a holy manner; (4) in each and everyparish thesociety, commonly called theConfraternity of Christian Doctrine, shall be canonically erected; through this theparishpriests, especially in the places where there is a scarcity ofpriests, will have lay helpers for the catechetical instruction inpiouslay persons who will devote themselves to the office of teaching."

In countries where there areCatholicschools religious instruction is given on weekdays either before or after the secular instruction. As is well known, for the sake of this privilege the faithful have contributed enormous sums of money to build and supportschools. Where this is the case the difficulty is only a financial one. Nevertheless, the FirstProvincial Council of Westminster warns thepastor not to make over thisduty of catechizing "so far to others, however good or religious they may be, as not to visit theschools frequently and instill into the tender minds of youth the principles oftruefaith andpiety". We see, then, that the work of giving religious instruction belongs to theparents, topriests with the care ofsouls, to the teachers inCatholicschools, and to other lay helpers.

Turning now to those who are to be taught, we may consider first the young and then those who are grown up. The young may be divided into those who are receiving elementaryeducation (primary scholars) and those who are more advanced (secondary scholars). Although in manydioceses the scholars are arranged in classes corresponding to the secular classes, we may consider them for our present purpose as divided into three groups: those who have not been to confession; those who have been to confession but have not made their first Communion; and those who have made their first Communion. In the case of the first group the instruction must be of the most rudimentary kind; but, as already pointed out, this does not mean that the little ones should be taught nothing except the first part of some catechism; they should have the Creed and the Commandments, theOur Father and theHail Mary, explained to them, together with the forgiveness ofsin by the Sacraments of Baptism and Penance. The principal events in the life of Christ will be found to be an ever-interesting subject for them. How far it is wise to talk to them about Creation and the Fall, theDeluge and the stories of the earlypatriarchs, may be a matter of discussion among teachers. In any case great care should be taken not to give them any notions which they may afterwards have to discard. If is of importance at this stage to tell the children in the simplest language something about the services of theChurch, for they are now beginning to be present at these. Any one who has charge of them there, or, better still, who will recall his own early memories, will understand what a hardship it is to a child to have to sit through a high Mass with a sermon. The second group (those preparing for first Communion) will of course be able to receive more advanced instruction in each of the four branches mentioned above, with special reference to theHoly Eucharist. In instructing both groups the subjects should be taught dogmatically, that is, authoritatively, appealing rather to the children'sfaith than to their reasoning powers. The after-Communion instruction of elementary scholars will be almost similar to the instruction given to younger secondary scholars, and will consist in imparting wider and deeperknowledge and insisting more uponproofs. When they grow up their difficulty will be not only the observance of thelaw, but the reason of it. They will ask not only, What must I believe and do? but also, Why must I believe it or do it? Hence the importance of thorough instruction in the authority of theChurch, Scripture texts, and also appeals to rightreason. This brings us to the subject of catechizing grown-uppersons.Pius X goes on to speak of this matter, after laying down the regulations for the young: "In these days adults not less than the young stand in need of religious instruction. All perishpriests, and others having the care ofsouls, in addition to thehomily on the Gospel delivered at theparochial Mass on all days ofobligation, shall explain the catechism for the faithful in an easy style, suited to the intelligence of their hearers, at such time of the day as they may deem most convenient for the people, but not during the hour in which the children are taught. In this instruction they shall make use of theCatechism of the Council of Trent; and they shall so order if that the whole matter of the Creed, the Sacraments, theDecalogue, theLord's Prayer, and the Precepts of theChurch shall be treated in the space of four or five years."

The subjects to be treated of are laid down byPius X: "As the things divinely revealed are so many and so various that it is no easy task either to acquire aknowledge of them, or, having acquired thatknowledge, to retain them in the memory, . . . our predecessors have very wisely reduced this whole force and scheme of saving doctrine to these four distinct heads: theApostles' Creed; the Sacraments; theTen Commandments; and theLord's Prayer. In the doctrine of the Creed are contained all things which are to be held according to the discipline of theChristian Faith, whether they regard theknowledge ofGod, or the creation and government of the world, or theredemption of thehuman race, or the rewards of the good and the punishments of the wicked. The doctrine of the Seven Sacraments comprehends the signs and as it were the instruments for obtaining divine grace. In theDecalogue is laid down whatever has reference to the Law, 'the end' whereof 'is charity'. Finally, in theLord's Prayer is contained whatever can be desired, hoped, or salutarilyprayed for by men. It follows that these four commonplaces, as it were, ofSacred Scripture being explained, there can scarcely be wanting anything to be learned by aChristian man" (ib., xii). It must be borne in mind that catechetical instruction should be elementary; but this of course is a relative term, according as the pupil is an adult or a child. This difference has been dealt with above in speaking of thepersons concerned in catechizing. It may be pointed out here, however, that elementaryknowledge is not the same as partialknowledge. Even young children should he taught something of each of the four divisions mentioned above, viz., that they have tobelieve inGod and to doGod's will, and to obtain His grace by means ofprayer and thesacraments. Further instruction will consist in developing each of these heads. Besides what is ordinarily understood byChristian doctrine, catechizing should treat ofChristian history andChristian worship.Christian history will include the story of theOld Testament, theNew Testament, and theChurch.Christian worship will include theChurch's calendar (the feasts andfasts) and her services and devotions. These three — doctrine, history, and worship — are not altogether distinct, and may often be best taught together. For example, the second article of the Creed should be taught in such a way as to bring out the doctrine of the Incarnation, the beautiful story ofChrist's birth and childhood, and the meaning and the services ofAdvent andChristmas. The Bible history and thehistory of the Church will afford countless instances bearing on the various doctrines andheresies of the doctrinal part of the catechism, and the virtues and contrary vices of the practical part.

The question of catechetical methods is difficult and has given rise to much controversy.Father Furniss long ago, in his "Sunday School or Catechism?" and Bishop Bellord later on, in his "Religious Education and its Failures", passed a wholesale condemnation on our present method, and attributed to it the falling away of so manyCatholics from the Faith. "The chief cause of the 'leakage' is the imperfection of our systems of religious instruction. Those methods seem to be antiquated, injudicious, wasteful, sometimes positively injurious to the cause" (Bp. Bellord, op. cit., p. 7). Part of the blame is laid upon catechizing, and part upon the catechisms. Of the latter we shall speak presently. Again, the blame is twofold and is not altogether consistent. The children are declared not toknow their religion, or, knowing it quite well, not to put it into practice. In either case they are of course lost to theChurch when they grow up. Both thebishop and theRedemptorist complain that religious instruction is made a task, and so fails either to be learnt at all, or, if it is learnt, it is learnt in such a way as to becomehateful to the child and to have no bearing on his conduct in after-life. Both are especially severe on the attempt to make the children learn by heart. Thebishop quotes a number of experienced missionarypriests who share his views. It seems to us that, in considering the methods of catechizing, we have to bear in mind two very different sets of conditions. In some countries religious instruction forms part of the daily curriculum, and is mainly given on weekdays by trained teachers. Where this is the case it is not difficult to secure that the children shall learn by heart some official textbook. With this as a foundation thepriest (who will by no means restrict his labours to Sunday work) will be able to explain and illustrate and enforce what they have learnt by heart. The teachers' business will be chiefly to put the catechism into the child's head; thepriest must get it into his heart. Very different are the conditions whichFather Furniss and Bishop Bellord are dealing with. Where thepriest has to get together on a Sunday, or one day in the week, a number of children of all ages, who are notobliged to be present; and when he has to depend upon the assistance oflay persons who have no training in teaching; it is obvious that he should do his best to make the instruction as simple, as interesting, and as devotional as possible. As in other branches of instruction we may follow either the analytical or the synthetical method. In the former we take a textbook, a catechism, and explain it word for word to the scholar and make him commit it to memory. The book is of prime importance; the teacher occupies quite a secondary place. Though it might convey a wrong impression to call this theProtestant method, yet it is exactly in accordance with theProtestant system of religious teaching generally. The written, printed word (Bible or Catechism) is to them all in all. The synthetical method, on the other hand, puts the teacher in the forefront. The scholars are bidden to look up to him and listen to his voice, and receive his words on his authority. "Faith cometh by hearing." After they have thoroughly learnt their lesson in this way, a book may be then set before them, and be explained to them and committed to memory, as containing in a fixed form the substance of what they have received by word of mouth. Whatever may be said of the relative advantages of the two methods in the teaching of secular subjects, there can be nodoubt that the synthetical method is the proper one for catechetical instruction. The office of catechizing belongs to theChurch'smagisterium (teaching authority), and so is best exercised by the living voice. "Thelips of thepriest shall keepknowledge, and they shall seek thelaw at hismouth" (Malachi 2:7).

The Sulpician method

The Sulpician Method of catechizing is celebrated throughout the world, and hits produced wonderful fruits wherever it has been employed. We cannot, therefore, do better than give a short account of it here.

The whole catechism consists of three principal exercises and three secondary ones. The principal are:

The secondary exercises are:

These should be interspersed with the former. The duration fixed by St. Francis de Sales for a complete catechism is two hours. The place should be the church, but in a separatechapel rather than in the body of the church, Great importance is attached to the "game of the goodmark" (le jeu du bon point) and theanalyses. The former consists in selecting the child who has answered best in the first part (the questioning on the catechism), and putting to him a series of short, clear, and definite questions upon the matter in hand and doing this as a sort of challenge to the child. The other children are roused to interest at the notion of a contest between the catechist and one of themselves, and this gives occasion for a better understanding of the subject under treatment. If the child is considered to have won, he receives a small card of reward (le bon point). "For the success of the game of the bon point it is important to prepare beforehand and to write down the questions which are to be put to the children, even the commonest ones." The children should be made to write out a short account of the instruction given after the questioning. Theseanalyses should be corrected by the teacher, and a mark ("fair", "good", "very good") should be attached to each. In order to secure regular attendance, registers should be carefully kept, and rewards (pictures,medals, etc.) should be given to those who have not missed a catechism. Treats and feasts should also be given. The spirit of emulation should be encouraged both for attendance and good answering and analyses. Various minor offices should be conferred upon the best children. Punishment should very seldom be resorted to.

Though the Sulpician method insists upon a thoroughknowledge of the letter of the catechism, it is clear that the teacher is of prime importance rather than the book. Indeed, the success or failure of the catechism may be said to depend entirely upon him, If is he who has to do the questioning and give the instruction and thehomily on the Gospel. Unless he can keep the attention of the children fixed upon him, he is bound to fail. Hence, the greatest care should be taken in selecting and training the catechists. These are sometimes seminarists ornuns, butlay persons must often be taken. By far the larger portion of "The Method of Saint Sulpice" is devoted to the instruction of the catechists (cap. iv, "Of the instruction of the children"; cap v, "Of the sanctification of the children"; cap. vi, "Of the necessity of making the catechism pleasant to the children, and some means for attaining this object"; cap. vii, "How to turn the catechism into exercises of emulation"; cap. viii, "How to maintain good order and ensure the success of thecatechisms").

So far the "Method" has dealt with the catechisms generally. Next comes the division of the catechisms. These are four in number: the Little Catechism, the First-Communion Catechism, the Weekday Catechism, and the Catechism of Perseverance. The Weekday Catechism is the only one which requires any explanation here. A certain time before the period of first Communion a list is made out of such children as are to be admitted to theHoly Table, and these are prepared by more frequent exercises, held on weekdays as well as onSundays. As a rule, only children who have attended for twelve months are admitted to the weekday catechisms, and the usual age is twelve years. The weekday catechism is held on two days of the week and for about three months. The order is much the same as that of the Sunday catechism, except that the Gospel and thehomily are omitted. The children are examined twice during the weekday catechisms: the first time about the middle of the course; the second, a week before the retreat. Those who have often been absent without cause or who have answered badly, or whose conduct has been unsatisfactory, are rejected.

A complete account of the method will be found in "The Method of Saint Sulpice" (Tr.), and also in "The Ministry of Catechising" (Tr.) byMgr. Dupanloup.

The Munich method

In 1898 Dr. A. Weber, editor of the "Katechetische Blätter" ofMunich, urged the adaptation of the Herbart-Ziller system in teachingChristian doctrine. This system requires, "first, a division of the catechetical matter into strict methodical units, so that those questions are co-ordinated which are essentially one. Secondly, it insists on a methodical following of the three essential steps, viz., Presentation, Explanation, and Application — with a short Preparation before Presentation, then Combination after Explanation, as more or less nonessential points.It therefore never begins with the catechetical questions, but always with an objective Presentation — in the form of a story from life or theBible, a catechetical, Biblical or historical picture, a point of liturgy,church history, or the lives of thesaints, or some such objective lesson. Out of this objective lesson only will the catechetical concepts be evolved and abstracted, then combined into the catechism answer and formally applied to life. These catechists aim at capturing the child's interest from the start and preserving his good-will and attention throughout" (Amer. Eccl. Rev., March, 1908, p. 342). "Preparation turns the attention of the pupil in a definite direction. The pupil hears the lesson-aim in a few well-chosen words. At this stage of the process the pupil'sideas are also corrected and made clearer.Presentation gives an object-lesson. If at all possible, use one such object only. There are soundpsychological reasons for this, although it becomes occasionally useful to employ several.Explanation might also be called concept-formation, Out of the objective lesson are here construed, or evolved, the catechetical concepts. From the concrete objective presentation we here pass to the general concept.Combination gathers all theideas derived from the lesson into the text of the catechism.Application finally strengthens and deepens thetruths we have gathered and variously widens them for purposes of life. We can here insert further examples, give additional motives, apply the lessons to the actual life of the child, train the child in judging his own moral conduct, and end with some particular resolution, or an appropriateprayer, song,hymn, or quotation" (Amer. Eccl. Rev., Apr., 1908, p. 465). In the same number of the Review (p. 460) will be found an excellent lesson on "Sin", drawn up on the lines of theMunich Method. Further information will be found in Weber's "Die Münchener katechetische Methode", and Göttler's "Der Münchener katechetische Kurs, 1905".

Instruction of converts

The careful instruction of those who apply for admission into theChurch, or who wish information about her doctrines and practices, is a sacredduty incumbent at times on almost everypriest. No one may prudently embrace theChristian religion unless he sees clearly that it is credible. Hence the motives of credibility, the sure arguments that convince the understanding and move the will to command the assent offaith, must be clearly set forth. The higher the social orintellectual position of inquirers, the more thorough and diligent should be the instruction. Each one is to be guided not merely to understand theChurch'sdogmas, as far as he can, but to practise the exercises ofChristian perfection. Before the usual profession offaith, converts ought to be examined on theirknowledge of all matters that must be known in order to be saved. This should be done with great care, for at this time they are docile. After their admission to thesacraments some may easily fancy themselves fully instructed, and for want of further study remainignorant until death, unable to train properly their children or dependents. In the case of uneducatedpersons who are drawn to theChurch, the prudent director will avoid such controversy as might lead his pupil to defenderrors hitherto unknown. Bettereducated inquirers are to be fully satisfied on all points that they have held against Catholic doctrine and must be provided with the means of resisting both internal and externaltemptations. The length of time and the character of the instruction will vary with each individual.

It follows from what has been said that the times and places will vary according to the different sorts ofpersons to be instructed and the habits of the different countries. Speaking generally, however, at least some instruction should be given onSundays and in the church, so as to bring out thereligiouscharacter of catechizing.

Modern catechisms

When speaking of the history of catechetics we saw that, though the method was originally and properly oral, the custom soon arose of composing catechisms — i.e. short manuals of elementary religious instruction, usually by means of questions and answers.

A catechism is of the greatest use both to the teacher and the scholar. To the teacher it is a guide as to the subjects to be taught, the order of dealing with them, and the choice of words in which the instruction should be conveyed; above all, it is the best means of securing uniformity and correctness of doctrinal and moral teaching. The use which the teacher should make of if must be understood in connection with what has been said above about the methods of catechizing. To the scholar a catechism gives in a brief form a summary of what the teacher has been imparting to him; and by committing it to memory he can be sure that he has grasped the substance of his lesson. As already observed, this is not a difficult matter where there areCatholicschools under trained expert teachers accustomed to making the children learn by heart; but where the teaching has to be done in evening or Sundayschools by inexperiencedpersons, and the scholars are not under the same control as in the dayschools, the portions to be committed to memory must be reduced to a minimum.

A good catechism should conform strictly to the definition given above. That is to say, it should be elementary, not a learned treatise ofdogmatic,moral, andascetical theology; and it should be simple in language, avoiding technical expressions as far as consistent with accuracy. Should the form of question and answer be maintained? Nodoubt it is not an interesting form for grown-uppersons; but children prefer it because it lets themknow exactly what they are likely to be asked. Moreover, this form keeps up theidea of a teacher and a disciple, and so is most in conformity with the fundamental notion of catechizing. What form the answers should take —Yes orNo, or a categorical statement — is a matter of disagreement among the best teachers. It would seem that the decision depends on the character of the different languages and nations; some of them making extensive use of the affirmative and negative particles, while others reply by making statements. Archbishop Walsh ofDublin, in his instructions for the revision of the catechism, recommended "the introduction of short rending lessons, one to be appended to each chapter of the catechism. These reading lessons should deal, in somewhat fuller form, with the matter dealt with in the questions and answers of the catechism. The insertion of such lessons would make if possible to omit without loss many questions the answers to which now impose a heavy burden on the memory of the children. . . . If these lessons are written with care and skill, and in a style attractive as well as simple, the children will soon have them learned by heart, from the mere fact of repeatedly reading them, and without any formal effort at committing them to memory" (Irish Eccl. Record, Jan., 1892). An excellent means of assisting the memory is the use of pictures. These should be selected with the greatest care; they should be accurate as well as artistic. The catechism used inVenice whenPius X was patriarch was illustrated.

As there are three stages of catechetical instruction, so there should be three catechisms corresponding with these. The first should be very short and simple, but should give the little child some information about all four parts of religiousknowledge. The second catechism, for those preparing for first Communion, should embody, word for word, without the slightest change, all the questions and answers of the first catechism. Further questions and answers, dealing with a more extensiveknowledge, should be added in their proper places, after the earlier matter; and these will have special reference to thesacraments, more particularly theHoly Eucharist. The third catechism, for those who have made their first Communion, should in like manner embody the contents of the first and second catechisms, and add instruction belonging to the third stage mentioned above. For scholars beyond the elementary stages this third catechism may be used, with additions not in the form of question and answer and not necessarily to be learnt by heart. The greatidea running through all the catechisms should be that the later ones should grow out of the earlier ones, and that the children should not be confused by differently worded answers to the same questions. Thus, the answer to the questions: What is charity? What is a sacrament? should be exactly the same in all the catechisms. Further information can be introduced by fresh questions. In some rare cases additions may be made at the end of the earlier answers, but never in the middle.

It was mentioned in the historical portion of this article that at the time of theVatican Council, a proposal was made for the introduction of a uniform catechism for use throughout theChurch. As the proposal was not carried out, we may here discuss the advantages and disadvantages a universal catechism. There can be nodoubt that the present system of allowing eachbishop to draw up a catechism for use in hisdiocese is open to strong objection. Happily, in these days there is no difficulty on the head of diversity of doctrine. The difficulty arises rather from the importance attached to learning the catechism by heart. People do not nowadays remain stationary in the neighbourhood in which they were born. Their children, in passing from one diocese to another, areobliged to unlearn the wording of one catechism (a most difficult process) and learn the different wording of another. Even where all thedioceses of a province or country have the same catechism the difficulty arises in passing into a new province or country. A single catechism for universal use would prevent all this waste of time and confusion, besides being a strong bond of union between the nations. At the same time it must be recognized that the conditions of theChurch vary considerably in the different countries. In aCatholic country, for instance, it is notnecessary to touch upon controversial questions, whereas in non-Catholic countries these must be thoroughly gone into. This will notably be the case with regard to the introduction of texts in the actual words of theHoly Scripture. Thus, in the Valladolid Catechism there is not a single quotation from the Old orNew Testament except theOur Father and the first part of theHail Mary — and even of these the source is not mentioned. The Commandments are not given in the words of Scripture. There is no attempt to prove any doctrine; everything is stated dogmatically on the authority of theChurch. A catechism on these lines is clearly unsuited for children living amongProtestants. As already pointed out, the instruction of those who have made their first Communion should embraceproof as well as statement. The Fathers of theVatican Council recognized the difficulty, and endeavoured to meet it by a compromise. A new catechism, based uponBellarmine's Catechism and other catechisms of approved value, was to be drawn up in Latin, and was to be translated into the different vernaculars with the authority of thebishops, who were empowered to make such additions as they might think fit; but these additions were to be kept quite distinct from the text. The unhappy events of the latter part of the year 1870 prevented this proposal from being carried out.

(a) The present pontiff [1909],Pius X, has prescribed a catechism for use in the Diocese ofRome and in itsecclesiastical province, and has expressed a desire that it should be adopted throughoutItaly. It has been translated into English, French, Spanish, and German, and a movement has begun with a view to extending its use to other countries besidesItaly, especially toSpain, where the conditions are similar. (See "Irish Eccl. Record", March, 1906, p. 221; "Amer. Eccl. Rev.", Nov., 1906.) This catechism consists of two parts, or rather two distinct books: one for "lower classes" and one for "higher classes". The first, or "Shorter Catechism", is meant for those who have not made their first Communion; the second, or "Longer Catechism", for those who have already been through the other. Both are constructed on the same lines: an introductory portion, and then five sections treating in turn of the Creed,Prayer, the Commandments, the Sacraments, the Virtues, etc. The "Longer Catechism" contains, in addition, in catechetical form, an instruction on the feasts ofOur Lord, the Blessed Virgin, and the Saints, and a short "History of Religion" (theOld Testament, theNew Testament, and theChurch) in the form of a narrative. But though the two catechisms are on the same main lines, they have very little connection with each other. Hardly any of the questions and answers are the same; so that aknowledge of the wording of the first is of little use, but rather an obstacle, in learning the second. It is worthy of note that, though texts of Scripture are not quoted, the second catechism contains a large number of questions and answers relating to theHoly Scripture, among others the following: "Is the reading of theBiblenecessary to allChristians? — The reading of theBible is notnecessary to allChristians, because they are taught by theChurch; still, the reading of it is very useful and recommended to all." Many of the answers in the second catechism are much longer than those in other catechisms. The catechism itself, without counting the lengthy instruction on the feasts and the "History of Religion", fills more than 200 pages 12mo in Bishop Byrne's translation.

(b) Throughout Great Britain only one catechism is officially in use. It was drawn up by a committee appointed by the SecondProvincial Council of Westminster (1855), and is based upon theDouai Catechism. It has undergone several revisions, the last of these being for the purpose of eliminating the particles Yes and No, and making all the answers distinct categorical statements. If is remarkable for its frequent appeal toproofs fromHoly Scripture. Though it has been subject to many attacks, it is justly considered to be a clear andlogical statement ofCatholicbelief and practice, fitted to the needs of both children and grown-uppersons seeking instruction. Perhaps it has this latter class too much in view, and hence it is sometimes wanting in simplicity. The omission of Yes and No and the avoidance of pronouns in the answers have been carried to a pedantic excess. Besides this ordinary catechism there is a smaller catechism, for younger children, which goes over the whole ground in a more elementary form; it is to some extent free from the objection just mentioned; but this advantage involves some verbal differences between the answers of the two catechisms. There is no official advanced catechism. For the more advanced classes a number of excellent "Manuals" are in use, e.g. "Instructions in Christian Doctrine"; Wenham's "Catechumen"; Carr's "Lamp of the Word"; Cafferata's "The Catechism, Simply Explained"; Fander's (Deharbe's) "Catechism". Howe's "Catechist" and Spirago's "Method of Christian Doctrine" (ed. Messmer) are used by those who are being trained to be teachers. Short Bible Histories, none of them official, are used in the more elementary classes, especiallyFormby's volumes; in the higher classes, Wenham's "New Testament Narrative", Richards' "Scripture History", and Knecht's "Practical Commentary". There are also separate books of theNew Testament, edited by Mgr. Ward and by Father Sydney Smith, etc. It should be added that the elementaryschools and the training colleges, besides many of the secondaryschools and colleges, are examined in religiousknowledge by inspectors appointed by thebishops.

(c) InIreland the catechism most commonly used at the present time is the "Catechism ordered by the National Synod of Maynooth. . . . for General Use throughout the Irish Church". After a short Introduction onGod and the creation of the world and on man and the end of his creation, it treats in turn of the Creed, the Commandments,Prayer, and the Sacraments. The answers are short and clear, and, thoughYes andNo are excluded, the form of the answers is not always a rigid repetition of the words of the question. Various important improvements have been suggested by Archbishop Walsh (see "Irish Eccl. Record", Jan., 1892, and following numbers). There is also a smaller edition of the Maynooth Catechism. The manuals used in the advanced classes are much the same as those used in Great Britain, together with the "Companion to the Catechism" (Gill). Religious inspection is general.

(For theUnited States, see above under HISTORY OF CATECHETICS.)

(d) The FirstProvincial Council of Quebec (1852) ordered two catechisms for use inCanada: Butler's Catechism for those speaking English, and a new French catechism for those speaking French. The latter is called "The Quebec Catechism", and is also issued in an abridged form.

(e) InAustralia the Maynooth Catechism is generally used. But thebishops in thePlenary Council of 1885decreed that a new catechism should be drawn up for use throughoutAustralia.

From this enumeration it will be seen how far we are from having any uniform catechism for the English-speaking peoples. If we consider the Continent ofEurope, we find that inFrance,Germany, andSpain different catechisms are in use in the differentdioceses. In the German-speaking provinces ofAustria there is one single catechism for all thedioceses, approved by the whole episcopate in 1894. It is issued in three forms: small, middle, and large. All of these are arranged on exactly the same lines: a short introduction, Faith and theApostles' Creed, Hope andPrayer, Charity and the Commandments, Grace and the Sacraments, Justification and theLast Things. The middle catechism contains all the questions and answers of the small, in exactly the same words, and adds a considerable number of fresh ones. In like manner, the large catechism makes further additions. The small catechism has no texts from Scripture; the other two contain many texts, usually placed in notes at the foot of the page. The chief difference between the middle and large catechisms is that the latter deals more with reasons andproofs, and consequently gives a greater number of Scripture texts.Austria is, therefore, better off than most countries in the matter of the catechism. She has none of the difficulties arising from a multiplicity of manuals, and her single textbook is in the three forms described above as the ideal for all countries. Schuster's excellent Bible History is also in universal use, and is arranged by means of different type and signs so as to be accommodated to the three stages of the catechism. Religious training inAustria has, however, been severely criticized by Dr. Pichler, a high authority in that country. He considers the catechism as cumbersome, the work of a goodtheologian but a poor catechist; he advocates the compilation of a new Bible History on the lines of Knecht's manual; and he advocates the adoption ofinductive methods. See "Unser Religionsunterricht, seine Mängel und deren Ursachen".

One of the best of the German catechisms is that of theDiocese of Augsburg, mainly the work of Kinsel and Hauser, and published in 1904. It is on the lines ofDeharbe, but much simplified, and copiously illustrated. So, too, is the new Hungarian catechism (1907), which is issued in three editions: one for the first and second grade of elementaryschools, one for the remaining four grades, and one for the high schools. Bishop Mailath ofTransylvania has had the direction of the work.Poland has not been behindhand in reforming her catechetical teaching. A catechism has just been drawn up for the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades by Bishop Likowski and Valentine Gadowski. The answers to be learnt by heart are limited to forty in each year, and are short and simple. Each is followed by a fairly long explanation. This catechism contains 215 illustrations.

It should be noted that all Continental reformers have dropped theidea of making the answers theologically complete. The subsequent explanations supply what may be wanting. The answers are complete sentences,Yes andNo being seldom used by themselves, and the order of the words in the answers follows that in the questions.

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