Abbey

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A monasterycanonically erected and autonomous, with a community of not fewer than twelve religious;monks under the government of anabbot;nuns under that of anabbess.

An autonomouspriory is ruled by a superior who bears the title ofprior instead of that ofabbot; but this distinction was unknown in the first centuries of monastic history. Such were the twelve greatcathedralpriories of England, immediately governed by aprior, the diocesan being considered theabbot. Otherpriories were founded as cells, or offshoots from the great abbeys, and remained dependent on the parent house, by whoseabbot the prior was appointed, and was removable at will. Originally the term monastery designated, both in the East and in theWest, the dwelling either of a solitary or of a community; whilecaenobium, congregatio, fraternitas, asceterion, etc. were applied solely to the houses of communities.Monasteries took their names from either their locality, their founders, or from somemonk whose life has shed lustre upon them; and later, from somesaint whoserelics were there preserved, or who was locally an object of specialveneration. Themonks ofEgypt and Palestine, as may be gathered from the "Peregrinatio Etheriae," also selected for their monasteries sites famous for their connection with somebiblical event or personage. The firstmonks generally settled in solitary places, away from the haunts ofmen, though sometimes they were to be found also in cities like Alexandria,Rome,Carthage, andHippo. Monasteries, founded in country places, not infrequently gathered around them settlements which, particularly in England and Germany, in the course of time developed into great centres of population and industry. Many important towns owe their origin to this cause; but the tendency never showed itself inAfrica and the East. Though the sites selected were often beautiful, many settlements, especially inEgypt, were of set purpose made amid ariddeserts. Nor was this form of austerity confined to them. In theMiddle Ages, the more dismal and savage did this site appear to be, the more did it appeal to the rigid mood of theCistercians. Still, the preference, at least with the majority of themonks of theWest, was for fertile lands, suitable for cultivation and agriculture.

The formation of communities dates from pre-Christian times, as witness theEssenes; but the earliestChristian monastic foundations of which we have definite knowledge were simply groups of huts without any orderly arrangement, erected about the abode of some solitary famous forholiness andasceticism, around whom had gathered a knot of disciples anxious to learn his doctrine and to imitate his way of life. Communities that had outgrown the accommodation afforded by their monasteries founded branch houses, and thus propagated themselves like the swarming of a beehive.Bishops founded many monasteries, while others owed their existence to the piety of princes and nobles, who also generously endowed them. TheCouncil of Chalcedon (451) forbade the foundation of any monastery without the permission of the localbishop, thus obviating the difficulties likely to arise from irresponsible action. This became the universal law, and it also safeguarded these institutions against disbandment or ruin, since they enjoyed a certain sacredness of character in popular estimation.Double monasteries were those in which dwelt communities both of men andwomen at one and the same time, under the government of a common superior, either anabbot or anabbess. TheEmperor Justinian suppressed them in the East on account of the abuses which this arrangement might lead to; but the custom long prevailed in England,France, andSpain, where strict rules, keeping the sexes entirely separate at all times, minimized the danger ofscandals. Examples of these were the houses of theOrder of St. Gilbert of Sempringham; and inFrance, Faremoutiers, Chelles,Remiremont, etc.

In the beginning, solitaries attached no importance whatever to the form of design of their dwellings. They made use of anything that Nature afforded, or their circumstances suggested. In the East, especially inEgypt, abandoned tombs and burial caves; in theWest, cave and rude huts constructed of branches of trees, mud, or sun-dried bricks, and furnished with the barest necessities, sheltered many an early solitary. When the number of such solitaries in a certain locality grew, and huts increased in proportion, gradually they came to subject themselves to a common superior and to follow a common rule of life; but they had no common buildings except a church to which they all repaired for theSundayservices. At Tabennae on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, however,St. Pachomius laid the foundations of the coenobitical life, arranging everything in an organized manner. He built several monasteries, each containing about 1,600 separate cells laid out in lines as an encampment, where themonks slept and performed some of their manual tasks; but there were large halls for their common needs, as the church, refectory, kitchen, even an infirmary and a guest-house. An enclosure protecting all these buildings gave the settlement the appearance of a walled village; but every part was of the utmost simplicity, without any pretense toarchitectural style. It was this arrangement of monasteries, inaugurated bySt. Pachomius, which finally spread throughout Palestine, and received the name oflaurae, that is "lanes" or "alleys." In addition to these congregations of solitaries, all living in huts apart, there werecaenobia, monasteries wherein the inmates lived a common life, none of them being permitted to retire to the cells of alaurae before they had therein undergone a lengthy period of training. In time this form of common life superseded that of the olderlaurae.

Monasticism in the West owes its development to St. Benedict (480-543). HisRule spread rapidly, and the number of monasteries founded in England,France,Spain, and Italy between 520 and 700 was very great. More than 15,000 Abbeys, following theBenedictine Rule, had been established before theCouncil of Constance in 1415. No special plan was adopted or followed in the building of the firstcaenobia, or monasteries as we understand the term today. Themonks simply copied the buildings familiar to them, the Roman house or villa, whose plan, throughout the extent of the Roman Empire, was practically uniform. The founders of monasteries had often merely to install a community in an already existing villa. When they had to build, the natural instinct was to copy old models. If they fixed upon a site with existing buildings in good repair, they simply adapted them to their requirements, as St. Benedict did atMonte Cassino, not disdaining to turn toChristian uses what had before served for the worship of idols. The spread of the monastic life gradually effected great changes in the model of the Roman villa. The various avocations followed by themonks required suitable buildings, which were at first erected not upon any premeditated plan, but just as the need for them arose. These requirements, however, being practically the same in every country, resulted in practically similar arrangements everywhere.

The monastic lawgivers of the East have left no written record of the principal parts of their monasteries. St. Benedict, however, mentions the chief component parts with great exactness, in hisRule, as theoratory, dormitory, refectory, kitchen, workshops, cellars for stores, infirmary, novitiate, guest-house, and by inference, the conference-room orchapter-house. These, therefore, find a place in allBenedictine abbeys, which all followed one common plan, occasionally modified to suit local conditions. The chief buildings were arranged around a quadrangle. Taking the normalEnglish arrangement, it will be found that the church was situated as a rule on the north side, its high and massive walls affording themonks a good shelter from the rough north winds. The buildings of the choir,presbytery, and retrochapels extending more to the east, gave some protection from the biting east wind. Canterbury and Chester, however, were exceptions, their churches being on the southern side, where also they were frequently found in warm and sunny climates, with the obvious purpose of obtaining some shelter from the heat of the sun. The choir was ordinarily entered, in the normally plannedEnglish monasteries, by a door at the junction of the northern and easterncloisters, another door at the western end of the northcloister being reserved for the more solemnprocessions. Although in the course of time there came into existence private rooms (chequer orsaccarium) wherein the officials transacted their business, and later still private cells are to be met with, thecloisters were, in the main, the dwelling-place of the entire community, and here the common life was lived. The northerncloister, looking south, was the warmest of the four divisions. Here was the prior's seat, next to the door of the church; then those of the rest, more or less in order. Theabbot's place was at the northeastern corner. The novice-master with hisnovices occupied the southern portion of the easterncloister, while the juniormonks were opposite in the western limb. The cold, sunless, southern walk was not used; but out of it opened the refectory, with the lavatory close at hand. In Cistercian houses it stood at right angles to thecloister. Near the refectory was the conventual kitchen with its various offices. Thechapter-house opened out of the easterncloister, as near the church as possible. The position of the dormitory was not so fixed. Normally, it communicated with the southerntransept, hence it was over the easterncloister; occasionally it stood at right angles to it, as atWinchester, or on the western side, as atWorcester. The infirmary usually appears to have been to the east of the dormitory, but no fixed position was assigned to it. The guest-house was situated where it would be least likely to interfere the privacy of the monastery. In later days, when books had multiplied, a special building for thelibrary was added, at right angles to one of the walks of thecloister. To these may be added the calefactory, the parlour, orlocutorium, the almonry, and the offices of theobedientiaries; but these additional buildings fitted into the general plan where they best might, and their disposition differed somewhat in the various monasteries. TheEnglish Cistercian houses, of which there are so many extensive and beautiful remains, were mainly arranged after the plan ofCîteaux, inBurgundy, the mother-house, with slight local variations.

TheCarthusian monastery differed considerably in its arrangements from those of other orders. Themonks were practicallyhermits, and each occupied a small detached cottage, containing three rooms, which they left only to attend the services of the church and on certain days when the community met together in the refectory. These cottages opened out of three sides of a quadrangularcloister, and on the fourth side were the church, refectory,chapter-house, and other public offices. Bothlaurae andcaenobium were surrounded by walls which protected the inmates either from the intrusion of seculars or from theviolence of marauders. Nomonk might go beyond this enclosure without permission. Themonks of the earlier period considered this separation from the outer world as a matter of prime importance.Women were never permitted to enter the precincts of monasteries for men; even access to the church was oftentimes denied them, or, if accorded admission, as atDurham, they were relegated to a strictly limited space, farthest removed from themonks' choir. Even greater strictness was observed in safe-guarding the enclosure ofnuns. The danger of attack fromSaracen hordes necessitated, in the case of Eastern monasteries, the erection of lofty walls, with only one entrance place many feet above the ground, reached by a stairway or drawbridge that could be raised for defense. Themonks of theWest, not standing in fear of such incursions, did not need such elaborate safeguards, and therefore contented themselves with ordinary enclosure walls. A religious of mature age and character was selected for the responsible office ofporter, and to act as the channel of communication between the inmates and the outside world. His chamber was always close by, so that he might be at hand to fulfill hisduties of receiving the poor and of announcing the arrival of guests. In the Egyptian monasteries the guest-house, situated near the entrance gateway, was place under the charge of the porter, who was assisted by thenovices. St. Benedict so arranged that it should be a building distinct from the monastery itself, although within the enclosure. It had its own kitchen, served by two of the brethren appointed for that purpose annually; a refectory where theabbot took his meals with distinguished guests, and, when he thought fit, invited some of the seniors to join him there; an apartment for the solemn reception of guests, in which theceremony of washing their feet, as prescribed by the Rule, was performed by theabbot and his community; and a dormitory suitably furnished. Thus the guests received every attention due to them by the laws ofcharity and hospitality, and the community, while gaining the merit of dispensing them in a large-hearted way, through the appointed officials, suffered no disturbance of their own peace and quiet. It was usual for the buildings dedicated for hospitality to be divided into four: one for the reception of guests of distinction, another for poor travelers and pilgrims, a third for merchants arriving on business with the cellarer, and the last for monk-visitors.

Formerly, as now, monastic communities always and everywhere extended a generous hospitality to all comers as an important way of fulfilling their socialduties; hence monasteries lying on or near the main highways enjoyed particular consideration and esteem. Where guests were frequent and numerous, the accommodation provided for them was on a commensurate scale. And as it was necessary for great personages to travel accompanied by a crowd of retainers, vast stables and other outhouses were added to these monastic hostels. Laterxenodochia, or infirmaries, were attached to these guest-houses, where sick travelers could receive medical treatment. St. Benedict ordained that the monastic oratory should be what its name implied, a place exclusively reserved for public and privateprayer. In the beginning it was a merechapel, only large enough to hold the religious, since externs were not admitted. The size of theseoratories were gradually enlarged to meet the requirements of the liturgy. There was also usually an oratory, outside themonastic enclosure, to whichwomen were admitted.

The refectory was the common hall where themonks assembled for their meals. Strict silence was observed there, but during the meals one of the brethren read aloud to the community. The refectory was originally built on the plan of the ancient Romantriclinium, terminating in anapse. The tables were ranged along three sides of the room near the walls, leaving the interior space for the movements of the servers. Near the door of the refectory was invariably to be found the lavatory, where themonks washed their hands before and after meals. The kitchen, was, for convenience, always situated near the refectory. In the largermonasteries separate kitchens were provided for the community (where the brethren performed theduties in weekly turns), theabbot, the sick, and the guests. The dormitory was the community bed-chamber. A lamp burned in it throughout the night. Themonks slept clothed, so as to be ready, as St. Benedict says, to rise without delay for the night Office. The normal arrangement, where the numbers permitted it, was for all to sleep in one dormitory, hence there were often very large; sometimes more than one was required. The practice, however, gradually came in of dividing the large dormitory into numerous small cubicles, one being allotted to eachmonk. The latrines were separated from the main buildings by a passage, and were always planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanliness, a copious supply of running water being used wherever possible.

Although St. Benedict makes no specific mention of achapter-house, nevertheless he does ordermonks to "come together presently after supper to read the 'Collations.'" Nochapter-house appears on the plan of the greatSwissmonastery ofSt. Gall, dating back to the ninth century; in the early days, therefore, thecloisters must have served for the meetings of the community, either for instruction or to discuss the affairs of themonastery. But convenience soon suggested a special place for these purposes, and there is mention of chapter-rooms in the Council ofAix-la-Chapelle (817). The chapter-room was always on thecloister level, on to which it opened. Thecloisters, though covered, were generally open to the weather, and were an adaptation of the old Romanatrium. Besides providing a means of communication between the various parts of themonastery, they were both the dwelling-place and the workshop of themonks, and thus the wordcloister became a synonym for the monastic life. How themonks managed to live in these open galleries during the winter months, in cold climates, is a mystery; a room, called a "calefactory," heated by flues, or in which a fire was kept up, where themonks might retire occasionally to warm themselves, was provided inEnglishmonasteries.

On theContinent the practice in regard to thenovices differed somewhat from that prevailing in England. Not being as yet incorporated into the community, they were not permitted to dwell in the interior of themonastery. They had their places in choir during theDivine Office, but they spent the rest of their time in the novitiate. A seniormonk, called the novice-master, instructed them in the principles of thereligious life, and "tried their spirits if they be ofGod," asSt. Benedict's Rule prescribed. This period of probation lasted a whole year. Abroad, the building set apart for thenovices was provided with its own dormitory, kitchen, refectory, workroom, and occasionally even its owncloisters; it was, in fact, a miniaturemonastery within a larger one.

The infirmary was a special building set apart for the accommodation of the sick and infirm brethren, who there received the particular care and attention they needed, at the hands of those appointed to theduty. A herbal garden provided many of the remedies. When death had brought its reward, themonks were laid to rest in a cemetery within the monastic precincts. Thehonour ofburial amongst the religious, a privilege highly esteemed, was also sometimes accordedbishops, royal personages, and distinguished benefactors.

Nomonastery was complete without its cellars for the storing of provisions. There were, in addition, the granaries, barns, etc., all under the care of the cellarer, as also such buildings and outhouses as were used for agricultural purposes. Gardens and orchards provided such vegetables and fruit as were cultivated in theMiddle Ages. The work of the fields did not, however, occupy all the time of themonks. Besides cultivating the arts, and transcribingmanuscripts, they plied many trades, such as tailoring, shoe-making, carpentering, etc., while others baked the bread for daily consumption. Mostmonasteries had a mill for grinding their own corn. It will thus be seen that an Abbey, especially if it maintained a large community, was a little city, self-contained and self-sufficing, as St. Benedict wished it to be, to obviate as far as possible any necessity for themonks to leave the enclosure. The enormous development of themonastic life brought in its train a similar development in the accommodation suitable for it. The monastic buildings, at first so primitive, grew in time till they presented a very imposing appearance; and the arts were requisitioned and ancient models of architecture copied, adapted, and modified. The Basilican plan, indigenous toItaly, was, naturally, that first adopted. Its churches consisted of anave andaisles, lighted by clerestory windows, and terminating in a semicircular sanctuary orapse. As time went on, the roundarch, typical of Basilican and Romanesque architecture, gradually gave place to the pointed arch, peculiar to the newGothic style, which is defined as "perfected Romanesque." In England a tendency developed of making the sanctuary rectangular instead of apsidal. The Normans adopted this arrangement; and in their church-planning theEnglish oblong type ofchancel gradually took the place of the Romanesque and continentalapse, and theBasilica plan was abandoned for that of the Gothic, of a crossing ortransept, separatingnave from chancel, the latter being extended to make room for the choir. The final evolution of the style peculiar to England is due to theCistercians, the characteristic of whose Abbeys was extreme simplicity and the absence of needless ornament; their renunciation of the world was evidenced in all that met the eye. Pinnacles, turrets, traceried windows, andstained glass were, in their early days at least, proscribed. And during the twelfth centuryCistercian influence predominated throughout WesternEurope. TheCistercian churches of this period,Fountains, Kirkstall, Jervaulx, Netly, andTintern, have rectangular chancels. These and other twelfth century churches belong to what is known as the Transitional or Pointed Norman style. Then followed the greater elaboration of Early and Decorated English, as seen atNorwich and Worcester, or rebuilt Westminster, culminating in the splendours of the Perpendicular, or Tudor style, of which Henry VII's Chapel, atWestminster, is so superb an example. FewEnglish Abbeys of note, however, were of homogeneous architecture; in fact, the mixture of styles, though sometimes almost bewildering, adds to what is left of these stately piles a greater picturesqueness ever pleasing toarchaeologist andartist.

The routine of amonastery could be maintained and supervised only by thedelegation of some of theabbot's authority to various officials, who thus shared with him the burden of rule and administration, and the transaction of business--considerable and ever increasing in volume, where a large and importantmonastery was concerned. The rule was exercised in subordination to theabbot by the claustral prior and sub-prior; the administration, by officials termedobedientiaries who possessed extensive powers in their own spheres. Their number varied in different houses; but the following were the ordinary officials, together with theirduties, most commonly named in old Customals: The cantor, orprecentor, regulated thesinging in the church service, and was assisted by the succentor or sub-cantor. He trained thenovices to render the traditionalchant properly. In some places he acted as master to the boys of the claustralschool. He was the librarian and archivist, and in this capacity, had charge of the precious tomes andmanuscripts preserved in a special aumbry or book-cupboard, and had to provide the choirbooks and those for reading in the refectory. He prepared and sent round the briefs, or mortuary-rolls, announcing the death of any of the brethren to othermonasteries. He was also one of the three official custodians of theconvent seal, holding one of the keys to the chest where it was kept. To thesacristan and his assistants was committed the care of the church fabric, together with its sacred plate andvestments. He had to see to the cleaning and lighting of the church, its decking for greatfestivals, and the vestments used by the sacred vestments. The cemetery was also under his charge. To his office pertained the lighting of the entire of the entiremonastery: and thus he superintended the candle-making, and bought the necessary stores of wax, tallow, and cotton for wicks. He slept in the church, and took his meals near at hand, so that day and night the church was never left without a guardian. His chief assistants were a revestiarius, who saw to the vestments, the linen, and the hangings of the church, and was responsible for their being kept in repair, or replaced when worn out; and the treasurer, who was in special charge of the shrines,reliquaries,sacred vessels, and other plate.

The cellarer was the purveyor of all food-stuffs and drink for the use of the community. This entailed frequent absences, and hence exemption from much of the ordinary choirduties. He had charge of the hired servants, whom he alone could engage, dismiss, or punish. He superintended the serving up of the meals. To his office belonged the supplying of fuel, carriage of goods, repairs of the house, etc. He was aided by a sub-cellarer and, in the bakery, by a granatorius, or keeper of the grain, who saw to the grinding and quality of flour. The refectorian had charge of the refectory, or "fratry," keeping it clean, supplied with cloths, napkins, jugs, and dishes, and superintended the laying of the tables. To him, too, was assigned the care of the lavatory, and the providing it with towels and, if necessary, hot water. The office of the kitchener was one of great responsibility, for to him fell the portioning out of the food, and it was only great experience which could preserve the happy mean between waste and niggardliness. He had under him an emptor, or buyer, experienced in marketing. He had to keep a strict account of his expenditures and of the stores, presenting in books weekly to theabbot for examination. He presided over the entire kitchen department, seeing particularly that all the utensils were kept scrupulously clean. The discharge of hisduty entailed frequent exemption from choir. The weekly servers helped in the kitchen, under the kitchener's orders, and waited at table during the meals. The concluded their week's work on Saturday evenings by washing the feet of the brethren. The infirmarian had to tend the sick with affectionate sympathy, and, as far as might be necessary, was excused from regularduties. If apriest, he said Mass for the sick; if not, he got apriest to do so. He always slept in the infirmary, even when there were no sick there, so as to be found on the spot in case of emergency. The curious practice of blood-letting, looked on as so salutary in ancient times, was carried out by the infirmarian. The chiefduty of the almoner was to distribute thealms of themonastery, in food and clothing, to thepoor, with kindness and discretion; and; while ministering to their bodily wants, he was not to forget those of theirsoul also. He superintended the daily maundy orwashing of the feet of the poor selected for that purpose. Another of hisduties was to take charge of any school, other than the claustral school, connected with themonastery. To him also fell the task of seeing to the circulation of the mortuary-rolls.

Inmedieval days the hospitality extended to travelers by themonasteries was of such constant occurrences that the guest-master required a full measure of tact, prudence, and discretion, as well as affability, since the reputation of the house was in his keeping. His firstduty was to see that the guest-house always ready for the reception of visitors, whom he was to receive, as enjoined by the Rule, as he wouldChrist Himself, and during their stay to supply their wants, entertain them, conduct them to the church services, and generally to hold himself at their disposal. The chiefduties of the chamberlain of amonastery were concerned with the wardrobe of the brethren, repairing or renewing their worn-out garments, and preserving cast-off clothes for distribution to the poor by the almoner. He had also to superintend the laundry. As it belonged to him to provide cloth and other material for the clothing, he had to attend the neighbouring fairs to purchase his stock. On him, too, devolved the task of making preparation for the baths, feet-washing, and shaving of the brethren.

The novice-master was of course one of the most important officials in every monastery. In church, in the refectory, in thecloister, in the dormitory, he kept a watchful control over thenovices, and spent the day teaching them and exercising them in the rules and traditional practices of thereligious life, encouraging and helping those who showed real signs of a monasticvocation. The weekly officials included, besides the servers already referred to, the reader in the refectory, who was enjoined to make careful preparation so as to avoid mistakes. Also, the antiphoner whoseduty it was to read the invitatory atMatins, intone the firstantiphon of the Psalms, the versicles and responsories, after thelessons, and the capitulum, or little chapter, etc. The hebdomadarian, orpriest of the week, had to commence all the variouscanonical Hours, give all the blessings that might be required, and sing the High Mass each day.

The greater Abbeys in England were represented through their superiors in Parliament, in Convocations, and in Synod. Their superiors were regularly included in the Commissions of Peace, and in all things acted as, and were considered the equals of, their greatfeudal neighbours. Thealms bestowed on the poor by themonasteries, together with those furnished by law, by theparishpriests, served to support them without recourse to the more recent poor-laws. The lot of the poor was lightened, and they knew that they could turn for help and sympathy to the religious houses.Poverty as witnessed in these days was impossible in all theMiddle Ages, because themonks, spread over all the country, acted as merely stewards ofGod's property, and dispensed it, if lavishly, yet with discretion. The relations between themonks and their tenants were uniformly kindly; the smaller cottagers were treated with much consideration, and if it became necessary to inflict fines,justice was tempered with mercy. The monastic manors were worked somewhat on the principle of a co-operative farm. If we may form a judgment on the whole of England from the "Durham Halmote Rolls," the conditions of village life left little to be desired. Provisions for watching over the public health were enforced, a guard kept over water supplies, stringent measures taken in regard to springs and wells, and the cleansing of ponds and milldams. A common mill ground the tenants' corn, and their bread was baked in a common oven. The relation of themonks to their peasant-tenants was rather that of rent-chargers than of absolute owners.

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