Portugal

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Geography and physical characteristics

Portugal is situated on the west of the Iberian Peninsula, being bounded on the north and east bySpain and on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between latitudes 37 and 42 north, and longitudes 6 1/4 and 9 1/2 west of Greenwich. The form is approximately rectangular, with a maximum length of 362 miles, a maximum breadth of 140 miles, and an area of 35,490 square miles. For purposes of administration it is officially divided into districts, but the old division into provinces (which originated in the differences of soil, climate, and character of the population) has not lost its meaning and is still employed in common parlance. The names of these provinces are Entre-Douro-e-Minho, Traz-os-Montes, Beira, Estremadura, Alemtejo, and Algarve. The island groups of Madeira with Porto Santo and theAzores are considered as part of Continental Portugal, the other possessions being colonies. Excluding these islands, Portugal has a sea-board of nearly 500 miles and a land frontier of about 620 miles, the greater part of which is marked by rivers or mountains. But though only a small portion of this frontier is conventional, Portugal andSpain are not separated by a strongly marked natural boundary such as divides some countries; indeed they are geographically one.

As regards the nature of the soil, Portugal may be roughly divided into three zones: (1) the northern, which is mountainous and rises from 1800 to 5000 feet, including the Serra do Gerez, notable for its vegetation and thermal springs; (2) the central, a zone of extensive plains divided by mountain ranges, among the latter being the Serra da Estrella (6540 feet), the highest and largest in the country; (3) the southern, the most extensive of the three, almost entirely composed of low-lying plains and plateaus of small altitude. In all these regions the mountains are usually prolongations of Spanish systems. The only independent range of importance is the Serra de Monchique. Briefly, in the north, Portugal has many chains of mountains, plateaus of considerable height, and deep narrow valleys; in the centre, together with high and extensive mountains, we find broad valleys and large plains. Lastly, south of the Tagus, the country is one of plains throughout the Alemtejo, but in the Algarve it again becomes hilly, though the altitudes are rarely considerable. The chief rivers are: (a) the Minho, which forms the northern frontier; (b) the Douro, which rises inSpain and enters the sea nearOporto, about one-third of its course being in Portugal; (c) the Mondego, the largest river rising in Portugal, which enters the sea at Figueira after a course of 140 miles; (d) the Tagus, which rises inSpain, forms aboveLisbon a gulf more than eight miles wide, and enters the sea below that city, after a total course of nearly 500 miles, about one-third in Portugal; (e) the Sado, which flows out in a large estuary at Setubal; (f) the Guadiana, which serves in part as frontier between the two countries. The Tagus is navigable for small vessels as far as Santarem; the Guadiana, as far as Mertola. There are no lakes worthy of mention, the ria at Aveiro connecting with the sea.

Portugal has few good natural harbours. That ofLisbon is the best, and indeed one of the largest inEurope, and is of easy access at all times. The bar of the Douro is shallow and difficult; a fine artificial port has therefore been built at Leixões to serve Oporto. Setubal is a fair harbour, as is Villa Real de S. Antonio, in the Algarve, while Lagos Bay, in the same province, affords a secure anchorage for a numerous fleet. The other ports are only suitable for small craft and are continually being blocked by sand. Portugal is rich in metalliferous deposits, including antimony, copper, manganese, uranium, lead, tin and iron. Coal is scarce and of poor quality. The country has more than a hundred mineral springs, of which the most important are Gerez and Vizella (Minho), Vidago, Pedras Salgadas, and Moledo (Traz-os-Montes), S. Pedro do Sul and Felgueira (Beira Alta), Caldas da Rainha (Estremadura), Moura (Alemtejo), and Monchique (Algarve). A branch of Gulf Stream runs down the West Coast and the climate is temperate, but it differs from province to province according to soil, distance from the sea, etc.; while equable on the coasts, it is subject to sudden changes inland. The plateaux of Traz-os-Montes and Beira are cold and harsh, while the Algarve littoral is hot, but even where the temperature is most extreme, the thermometer rarely rises to 3 Fahrenheit or descends to 2 below freezing. Snow only falls in winter in the high mountains and in north. The rainfall is more abundant in the north. The rainfall is more abundant in the winter than the South, and on the littoral than inland. The humidity produces fogs which render the coasts dangerous to shipping. The most usual winds are northwest, north, and north-east, but in winter southwest winds prevail, accompanied by storms. Thenortada and the east wind are dry and disagreeable. Generally speaking, the climate is healthy, the mean temperature being 61 Fahrenheit. In the eighteenth centuryLisbon was much recommended by English physicians as a health resort, and Mont' Estoril, on the sea outside the estuary of Tagus, is now increasing in favour as a winter residence.

The vegetation is rich, including nearly all the vegetable species of temperate climates and a large number of those found in hot countries. Among trees the pine is the most characteristic, but it does not grow south of the Sado. Thepinhal of Leiria planted by King Denis is the largest forest and themato of Busaco is famous for the size and variety of its trees. Fruit trees abound, especially on the Upper Douro, and in Beira. Olives and oranges are everywhere, the Algarve produces figs, and Traz-os-Montes almonds. The vine is universal and forms Portugal's principal wealth. The chief wines are port, which comes from the Douro region, and the wines of Beira and the Peninsula ofLisbon (Collares and Carcavellos), but the largest vineyard is found just south of the Tagus and is a recent creation. The cereals most grown are wheat, maize (Indian corn), and rye, but Portugal still has to depend on foreign countries for a portion of its bread supply. Wine, oil, fruit, vegetables, cattle, and cork are exported in large quantities, and the chief manufactures are cotton wool, gold and silver work, lace, and pottery. The fisheries are the main occupation of the coast population, and the sardine industry at Setubal is a flourishing one.

History

The lifework of Alfonso Henriques first King of Portugal (1128-85) consisted in his assertion, by fighting and diplomacy, of the political independence of the country, and in his enlargement of its boundaries by conquests from theMoors who occupied more than half the present kingdom when he began to rule. Though he had assumed the government in 1128, it was only after a period of fifteen years, during which he suffered a series of reverses, that he was able to obtain recognition of his kingship from Alfonso VII ofLeon, to which kingdom the territory of Portugal had formerly belonged. Alfonso Henriques early resolved to protect himself against the claims of his powerful neighbour and overlord, and in 1142 he offered his kingdom to theChurch, declared himself thepope's vassal, and promised, for himself and his successors, to pay an annualfeudal tribute of four ounces of gold. Lucius II ratified the agreement, taking Portugal under his protection and recognizing its independence, and in 1179 anotherpope,Alexander III, confirmed Alfonso Henriques in his royal dignity. The latter now gave up allidea of extending his dominions, beyond the Minho and the Douro, which rivers formed its boundaries to the north and the east, and endeavoured to increase them to the south. He carried on a persistentwarfare against the infidel by sudden incursions intoMoorish territory and by midnight assaults onMoorish towns, and on the whole he was successful. In 1147 he took the almost impregnable city of Santarem. In the same year, after a four months' siege, the great city ofLisbon, containing "154,000 men, besideswomen and children", fell to his arms assisted by a Northern fleet of 164 ships which was on its way to theSecond Crusade. The king thereupon moved his capital to the Tagus, appointed Gilbert, an Englishman, itsbishop, transported the body of St. Vincent to thecathedral, and perpetuated thesaint's memory in the arms he gave toLisbon, viz., a ship and two crows, in allusion to the manner in which therelics were transported from Cape St. Vincent and to the birds which were said to have accompanied them during the whole journey.

The reduction of the neighbouring strongholds followed, but the king had to wait for the arrival of anothercrusading fleet before he could take Alcacer do Sol, in 1158. The cities ofEvora and Beja fell into his hands soon afterwards, but he could not hold so extensive a territory, and the country south of the Tagus was retaken more than once. At the end of his life an unwarrantable attack onBadajoz placed him in the power of King Ferdinand ofLeon, and his last years were full of defeats and humiliations. Nevertheless, when he died the independence of Portugal had been secured, its area doubled, and the name of the little realm was famous throughoutEurope for its persistent struggle against the enemies of the Cross. A rough warrior, an astute politician, and a loose liver, Alfonso Henriques was yet a man of strongfaith. He corresponded withSt. Bernard and put his country under the protection of the Blessed Virgin, decreeing that an annual tribute should be paid to the abbey of Clairvaux. For theCistercian Order, to whoseprayers he attributed the capture of Santarem, he founded the greatmonastery of Alcobaça, the most famous in Portugal, and endowed it handsomely, so that its lands stretched to the ocean and contained thirteen towns in which themonks exercised authority and levied taxes. They corresponded to such generosity by reducing that great territory to cultivation, and Allocable became the mother of numerous daughtermonasteries, while itschartulary served in early times as that of the kingdom. TheAbbot of Allocable had the post of chief almoner and sat in the Royal Council and the Cortes with the honours of abishop. Furthermore, Alfonso Henriques, in 1132, established for theAugustinian Canons themonastery of Santa Cruz atCoimbra, which rivalled Allocable in its wealth and social mission, and for the same order he built S. Vicente inLisbon, which is now the residence of the Patriarch.

Sancho I (1185-1211) continued the work of reconquest and a large part of the Algarve fell into his hands, but a fresh invading wave ofMoors fromAfrica ultimately pushed theChristian frontier back to the Tagus. In the intervals of peace allowed him, the king was active in building towns and settling his territory, thus deserving his name of "The Peopler", and, being a thrifty man, he amassed a large treasure. On his accession, he asked and obtained thepapal confirmation of his title, which protected him against hisChristian neighbours, and after some delay paid the tribute to theHoly See. This was continued by his immediate successors, but afterwards fell into abeyance. Sancho imitated hisfather's liberality to theChurch and gave further endowments tobishoprics andabbeys; he likewise favoured the military Orders of the Temple ofHospitallers of Aviz, and of S. Thiago, which, besides theirpious works, supplied the best disciplined soldiers for thewar against theMoors and garrisoned the frontier towns and castles. But he was a man of irascible temperament, and hissuperstition led him to keep a "wisewoman" in his company whom he used to consult on his enterprises. His disputes with theclergy and the violent measures he dealt out to them are explained partly by his character and partly by the influence of his chancellor Julian, who had studiedRoman Law at Bologna and aimed at increasing the royal authority. Sancho intervened in a question between theBishop ofOporto and the citizens and ignored theinterdict with whichInnocent III punished his high-handed proceedings. He also came in conflict with theBishop ofCoimbra, whom heimprisoned and treated with great cruelty.

Sancho persisted in invading therights of theChurch and in particular refused to recognize theecclesiastical forum andclericalimmunity from military service. Though he made some concessions before his death, the conflict he had opened lasted through the next two reigns, and for nearly a century theclergy and the Crown were involved in a struggle over the limits of their respective powers. All the early kings were wont to reward services by extensive grants of lands, and in these lands they gave up royaljurisdiction. In time, so large a part of the country was held inmortmain, or had passed into the hands of the nobles, that the rest did not produce enough revenue to meet the increasing expenses of government. The monarchs then tried to overcome the difficulty by arevocation of grants, which naturally met with resistance from the nobility andclergy. Denis, though so generally favourable to theChurch, employed a more equitable remedy by prohibiting, in 1286, the purchase of real estate byclerics, but this and a stricterlaw of 1291 were found too severe and had to be modified. Theevil was a great and growing one and, had there been no othercause of discord, would have sufficed to set the Crown and landowning classes at issue. Alfonso II (1211-23) took care to obtain the confirmation of his title from theHoly See, and at the Cortes of Coimbra he sanctioned the concessions made by hisfather to theChurch, whose help he hoped to have when he came to annul the large bequests of land which Sancho had made to his children. In this he was disappointed, for thepope intervened as arbiter, and Alfonso's sisters got theirlegacies, but they and they all took the veil, and his brothers never obtained the estates which had been left to them.

This was a victory for the king, who now, on the advice of his chancellor, sent a commission of enquiry through the kingdom to ascertain the titles to land and either confirm or revoke them, as seemed to him just. So far he had kept on good terms with theclergy, but Alfonso's determination to increase the power of the Crown and fill his treasury affected theirimmunities, and his action in a dispute between theBishop ofLisbon and hisdean showed that the king's attitude towards theChurch had changed. By 1221 the old differences had appeared again, and in an acute form: Alfonso had seizedchurch property, compelledecclesiastics to plead before secular justices and to serve in thewars. The learned andholyArchbishop ofBraga convoked an assembly ofprelates in which he accused the king of his breaches offaith andscandalous life. The latter met this by confiscating the goods of theprelate, who fled toRome. Honorius dispatched threeSpanishbishops to remonstrate with Alfonso, and, as this had no effect, theyexcommunicated him a year later. Thepope then threatened toabsolve the king's subjects from their allegiance and hand over the realm to any prince who cared to take it. A furtherpapal Brief, in 1222, insisting onreparation, together with an attack ofleprosy induced Alfonso to enter into negotiations of peace, and these were in progress when he died.

The reign of thisexcommunicated king witnessed a religious revival which was renderednecessary by the general laxity of bothclergy andlaity. TheFranciscans were introduced by the king's sister and, although they soon won the affection of the people, they were received with little cordiality on the part of thesecular clergy and the other orders, who saw their pecuniary interest damaged. In aBull ofGregory IX (1233) thepope complains of the hostility shown to thefriars bybishops andclergy. At Oporto thebishop ordered them out of the city, sacked theirconvent, and burned it, but the citizens sided with them, and in the end they were able to return. The order soon spread over the country,convents were built for them, members of the royal family chose their churches asburial places, and thepopes bestowedbishoprics onfriars and charged them with delicate missions. It was thecustom for testators to leave a part of theirproperty to theChurch, and Bishop Sueiro ofLisbonpromulgated a statute that one-third should be so bequeathed under pain of refusal of thesacraments and canonical burial. The citizensappealed to thepope against thisviolence, and Honorius condemned it, and charged the superiors of theDominicans andFranciscans to see that the practice was discontinued. TheDominicans had entered Portugal between 1217 and 1222, and, by virtue of their austeremorals, poverty, andhumility, they obtained a welcome second only to that given theFranciscans. Sancho II (1223-48) was still only a boy when he succeeded hisfather. Hisministers bound him to make satisfaction for the material losses inflicted on theChurch by Alfonso II, and to punish the guilty parties. They also promised thatecclesiastical privileges should be respected, but those responsible for the outrages of the last reign remained in power, and the king had small control over them.

Thebishops showed as little desire for peace as the nobles, and vied with them in vexing themonasteries by their monetary exactions. With each succeeding year a state ofanarchy increased over the kingdom. The bellicoseBishop ofOporto, Martinho Rodrigues, presented to thepope a long list of accusations against the monarch, in reply to which Cardinal John de Abavila was dispatched to Portugal on a reforming mission, but though he did much good he was unable to end the discords. Bishop Sueiro then put himself at the head of the malcontents andpainted in dark colours the condition of theChurch. Theclergy were blackmailed and deprived of theirproperty, the king and the nobles despisedecclesiastical censures, public offices were given toJews, and so on.Pope Gregory thereupon sent a commission to require the king to correct abuses under threat of penalties, but at first there were some difficulties in the way of reform. Thebishops too often abused theirimmunities, they admitted men to orders who were only anxious to evade military service, and sometimes to avoid answering to the secular courts for their crimes. Thepope remedied these evils, but the Government failed to repress those which were charged against it. Yet theHoly See was averse to extreme measures, because it appreciated Sancho'scrusading energy — for, though a bad man and an indolent administrator, he was a bold soldier. An ancient dispute betweenbishop and citizens as to thejurisdiction over the City ofOporto revived again, andbishop and king were soon at issue. Furthermore, the latter roused strong opposition by refusing to allowecclesiastical bodies orindividuals to accept gifts of land, or to purchase it, and, not content with robbing and profaning churches, he slew somepriests. He brought matters to a climax when he intervened in a disputed succession to thebishopric ofLisbon and used the most brutal methods to enforce his will andGregory IX, who had previously threatened, now confirmed a sentence ofinterdict.

Sancho gave way for the moment, and peace was made, the king turning his arms against theMoors, but in an interval between his successful campaigns he became enamoured of awidow, Dona Mercia Lopes de Haro, whom he met during a visit to the Court of Castile, and under her influence his character deteriorated. Thebishops renewed their complains of the disorders in Portugal, and in 1245, by theBull "grandi non immerito",Innocent IV committed the government to Sancho's brother Alfonso who was living inFrance. The latter undertook to remedy the ills of the kingdom and grievances of theChurch, and on his arrival the greater part of the country accepted him for regent in accordance with thepapal directions. Sancho, finding resistance hopeless, passed intoSpain, where he died a year later. In the reign of Alfonso III (1248-79) Portugal attained its farthestEuropean limits by the conquest of The Algarve from theMoors, but Alfonso X of Castile claimed the kingdom, and the Portuguese king was forced to recognizeCastilian suzerainty and, though already married, to further purchase his possessions by agreeing to wed Beatrice, his brother monarch'sillegitimate daughter. Fortunately, the first wife of Alfonso III died shortly afterwards, and the king's bigamous union with Beatrice and their issue were legitimated byUrban IV at the request of thebishops.

So far there had been peace between the king and theclergy, but the former did not intend to keep the promises on the strength of which he had ascended the throne, and the latter would not abate their claims. In 1258 Alfonso sent a commission of inquiry through the kingdom to determine the royalrights and fiscalobligations of his subjects, and as result he revoked, in 1265, many of the crown grants of land. Seven of thebishops took up the challenge, and in 1267 appealed toClement IV. They alleged that the king, besides seizing their possessions, deprived them of their liberty of action, refused to paytithes, exacted forced loans, compelled ladies to marry men of no birth, and men offamily to wed lowwomen, or those ofMoorish or Jewish race. The abuses of civil administration were dealt with in five articles,ecclesiastical grievances occupied forty-three. The charges weretrue in the main, but the king met them by presenting to thepope a petition signed by all theconcelhos in favour of his rule, and, to defeat thebishops by a policy of delay, he took the Cross for acrusade led by St. Louis, but never went. Moreover, thepope and some of the protestingbishops died, while certain abuses were remedied. Relying on his good fortune he became more oppressive than ever, usurping the revenues of four sees, and in 1273Gregory X ordered the heads of theFranciscan andDominican Orders inLisbon to remonstrate with the king. It was long before Alfonso would see them and then he assembled the cortes at Santarem and had a committee appointed to correct everything done "without reason". This committee was composed of his friends so that the concession was illusory. On hearing of the king's duplicity, thepope sent him a strongly-wordedBull,dated 4 Sept., 1275, reminding him of what he owed theChurch and requiring him to keep the agreement made inParis under pain of censure and, in the last resort, of losing the realm.

Again, however, time favoured the king, forGregory and his two successors all died in 1276, and, though the PortugueseJohn XXI took the matter up, the king would do nothing until the terms ofGregory'sBull, which he calledordinatio diabolica, were softened. Aninterdict was therefore pronounced on the realm, and Alfonso's subjects were absolved from their allegiance, but without effect, for the king had a stronger position than Sancho II. However, he relented when death approached; he promised restitution to theChurch and made his heir swear to perform what he himself had promised. His understanding with the municipalities enabled Alfonso III to consolidate the power of the Crown by limiting that of the nobility, bothlay andclerical, and even tobrave the censures of theChurch, which by constant repetition had lost some of their effect. Denis (1279-1325), a cultured man, abstained from foreignwars and developed himself to developing the resources of the country, his care to agriculture winning him the title of "the Cultivator". He favoured commerce, founded the royal navy, and above all gave peace to theChurch. After long negotiations aconcordat of forty articles was signed in 1289, and this was followed by two others. Thebeneplacitum regium was abandoned, theproperty seized by Alfonso III was restored, and the king bound himself to respectecclesiastical privileges andimmunities, and to observe the oldlaws and customs of the realm. The free election ofbishops was secured, and the extortions practised by lay patrons of churches andmonasteries were prohibited.

The long struggle betweenChurch and Crown terminated; but if the first gained most of the points contended for, its commanding position ceased. With the increasing weakness of thepapacy, theclergy became more dependent on the monarch. Moreover, the complete nationalization of themilitary orders effected by Denis also tended to increase the central power, and it was of him "that he did all he wished". On the initiative and at the expense of the Priors of Santa Cruz atCoimbra, S. Vicente atLisbon, and Santa Maria at Guimaraens and theAbbot of Alcobaca, auniversity was established atLisbon and confirmed, in 1290, bypapal Bull, with faculties of arts, canon andcivil law, and medicine, but nottheology, which was studied in themonasteries. The king showed great liberality to the new foundation, which was subsequently, bypapal permission, moved to Coimbra. When theTemplars were suppressed,John XXII allowed theirproperty to go to the new Order of Christ established in 1319.

If Denisproved a wise and just ruler, some of the credit is due to his wife, St. Isabel. She intervened successfully more than once to end the rebellions of his son. Alfonso IV, (1325-57) continued hisfather's policy. He lived on good terms with the other peninsular sovereigns, but when his daughter was ill-treated by her husband, Alfonso XI, he invaded Castile. Once more St. Isabel intervened. Leaving herconvent ofPoor Clares atCoimbra, she came between the opposing armies at Estremoz, and settled the dispute so effectually that when, in 1340, the King ofMorocco crossed intoSpain to aid the King ofGranada against theChristians, Alfonso IVobeyed thepapal summons and led a contingent which helped Alfonso XI to win the great battle of Salado. His later years were clouded by the Black Death and the rebellion of son Pedro, who, though married, had become enamoured of the beautiful Dona Ines de Castro. To end this infatuation, Alfonso was unfortunately persuaded to consent to her assassination, whereupon the prince rose in arms against hisfather and devastated the country.Benedict XII exacted the payment of the tribute promised by Alfonso Henriques and took measures against the incontinency of theclergy (a recurringevil in Portuguese history), whileClement VI answered the complaints of the Kings of Portugal and Castile as the appointment of foreigners toecclesiastical benefices. The chief characteristic of Pedro I (1357-67), was the pleasure he took in seeking out and punishing lawbreakers, whetherlaymen orclerics; hence his title, "the Doer of Justice". Allying himself with Pedro the Cruel of Castile, he took summary vengeance on the murderers of his mistress. He repressed theviolence of the nobles and theusury of theJews, and this with his generosity earned him the respect of the people, savage despot though he was. It is noteworthy that an especial avenger of adulteries, as well as ofwitchcraft, he lived an immoral life and had several bastards, one of whom became King John I.

The chiefecclesiastical interest this uneventful reign centered in the Cortes of Elvas, in which theclergy submitted a list of thirty-three grievances, some of which received attention. As regards the admission ofpapal letters, the king promised to see them and order their publication in so far as was right. It was a shuffling reaffirmation of thebeneplacitum regium. Ferdinand (1367-83) had hisfather's generosity without his strength, and, though he deserves the credit for wiselaws encouraging navigation and agriculture, and for the fortification ofLisbon, he fell a victim to animal passion and foolishambition. His first attempt to win the Throne of Castile against Henry of Tratamara failed, and in 1371 the Peace of Alcoutim was made under the auspices ofGregory XI, Ferdinand agreeing to marry Henry's daughter. But he could never keep a treaty, and, having fallen inlove with Dona Leonor Telles, the wife of one of his nobles, he married her, notwithstanding theangry protest of the citizens ofLisbon. Moreover he entered into an agreement to assist John of Gaunt, who claimed the crown ofCastile. Henry thereupon invaded Portugal, in 1373, and would have capturedLisbon, had not Cardinal Guy de Bologne, thepapal legate, forced him to retire and make peace with Ferdinand at Vallada. Leonor now entirely dominated her vacillating and indolent husband, and by obtaining honors and lands for her kinsfolk and friends provided against the time when he should die. Losing all scruples, she engineered themurder of her own sister, and betrayed the king by an intrigue with the Galician noble, Andeiro, whom she persuaded him to create Count of Ourem. A few years laterLisbon was again besieged unsuccessfully by aCastilian army, and in 1381 Ferdinand undertook awar of revenge with the help of an English force under the Duke of Cambridge. He invaded Castile, but when in the presence of the enemy took fright and made peace with King John, one of the terms being that the latter should wed Ferdinand's heiress Beatrice, which would have led to the union of Portugal and Castile.

At the beginning of theGreat Schism it was only the firmness of thebishops that kept Portugaltrue toUrban VI and prevented the king from offering his obedience to theantipope,Clement VII. The resistance ofLisbon to twoCastilian sieges had saved Portuguese independence, and by aBull ofBoniface IX its see was raised tometropolitan rank. The people would not submit to a foreign king, and shortly after Ferdinand's death the citizens ofLisbon rose against Leonor; Andeiro and thearchbishop were slain, and John, Grand Master of Aviz,illegitimate son of Pedro I, became defender of the realm. The King of Castile laid seige toLisbon, but a pestilence compelled him to retire, and in April, 1385, thanks to the eloquence of the great lawyer John das Regras, the Grand Master of Aviz was elected king (1385-1433) at the Cortes of Coimbra. On 14 August he totally defeated the Castilians at Aljubarrota, and this, together with the victories gained by Nuno Alvares Pereira, "the Holy Constable", secured Portuguese independence. The king erected on the field of battle the greatmonastery of Batalha and there he and his sons were buried. On 9 May, 1388, he made the Treaty of Windsor withEngland and, though acleric, sealed the alliance by wedding Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt. In 1391Boniface IX legitimated the marriage.

Portugal now turned her face to the ocean and prepared to become a great maritime power. The oversea conquest began with the capture of Ceuta, in 1415, and under the auspices of Prince Henry the Navigator the voyages were organized which ultimately led to the discovery of the road toIndia round the Cape of Good Hope. Thepope encouraged these efforts, which had for their object the spread ofChristianity as well as of commerce, and, by aBull of 4 April, 1418, confirmed to the king all the lands he should take from theMoors. In the previous year Ceuta had been created adiocese, and it was the first of many sees erected in non-Christian countries where the Portuguese carried theirfaith and flag. John made twoconcordats with theChurch, the first at the Cortes of Elvas, the second, in 1427, at the Cortes of Santarem, but he did not abandon thebeneplacitum regium. He had been compelled to make large grants to the nobles as the price of their support in the War of Independence. One of the first acts of his son Edward (in Portuguese Duarte-1433-38) was topromulgate the "Lei Mental" which enacted that these properties should only descend in the direct male line of the grantee, on the failure of which they reverted to the Crown. The ill result of the expedition against Tangier, which was undertaken against the advice ofEugenius IV and ended in the captivity of the Infanta Ferdinand, hastened the end of thecrownedphilosopher, and Alfonso V (1438-81) succeeded to the throne in childhood. The people would not accept his mother, Queen Leonor, as regent, and that office was conferred on the Infanta Pedro, Edward's brother. The queen and her party never forgave this act; they stirred up Alfonso against his uncle, who was defeated and slain at the battle of Alfarroeira. The authors of this tragedy wereexcommunicated by thepope, and relations between Portugal andRome ceased, but were reestablished in 1451, and from 1452 onwards became very close.

Alfonso, a typicalmedieval knight, full of thecrusading spirit, was bent on fighting theMoors, and he received every encouragement.Nicholas V, by aBull of 8 January, 1454, conceded to him all conquests in Africa from Cape Non to Guinea, with power to build churches the patronage of which should be his, and prohibited any vessels from sailing to those parts without leave from the King of Portugal. By anotherBull of the samedate thepope extended Portuguese dominion over all the seas fromAfrica toIndia. A subsequentBull granted to the Order of Christ authority in spirituals over the peoples subdued by the Portuguese as far asIndia, and provided that no one but the King of Portugal should be entitled to send expeditions of discovery to those parts. Finally, in 1481,Sixtus IV confirmed to the kings of Portugal all islands and territories discovered now or in the future from Cape Non toIndia. The voyages continued during Alfonso's reign, and the equator was passed in 1471. But the king thought more of land conquests in North Africa, where he made three successful expeditions, and continued to covet the throne of the neighbouring country until he was defeated, in 1476, at the battle of Toro. His reign was rendered notable by the publication, in 1446 of the Alfonsine Code.

John II (1481-95) showed great energy in the work of discovery, which had been somewhat neglected since the death of Prince Henry, and under his auspices Bartholomew Diaz passed the Cape of Good Hope in 1486, and in 1498Vasco da Gama reachedIndia. A firm believer in absolute government and a man of inflexible will, John broke the power of the nobility, which had become enormous through the unwise liberality of hisfather, following on the donations of John I. He deprived them of their right to administerjustice on their estates, and when they resisted, led by the Duke of Braganza, the king had him arrested and beheaded, and completed his work by himself stabbing the Duke of Viseu and ordering the execution of theBishop ofEvora and others. A great confiscation of estates followed and enriched the Crown, which now became the one power of the realm. John maintained good relations with Castile and, in 1494, made the Treaty of Tordesillas, confirmed by theBull ofAlexander VI, by which the limits of the possessions ofSpain and Portugal in the regions discovered by their seamen were fixed by an imaginary line drawn at 360 leagues west of Cape Verde, theSpaniards acquiring theright to all lands lying to the west and the Portuguese getting those to the east. Under this division of the world most of the coastline ofBrazil found in 1500 fell to Portugal, and the rest of America and West Indies toSpain.

Provincial anddiocesansynods had become less frequent with each succeeding century (in the fifteenth century not one provincial synod was held) with the result thatecclesiastical discipline declined. Thebishops of the best-endowed sees were almost invariably chosen from noblefamilies and some of them lived away from their diocese. This was the case with Ceuta and Tangier. By aBrief of 13 October, 1501, issued at the instance of King Emanuel, thebishops were ordered to fulfil theirduty of visitation, which they seem to have generally neglected. From the beginning, the monastic orders and the chapters had attracted the best talents, and theparochialclergy were usually asignorant as they were poor.Innocent VIII had to issue aBull in 1485, providing that no one unable to construe Latin well should beordained. The prevailing laxity had affected themonasteries, but the orders themselves responded to the desires of the king and theHoly See. A reform of theDominicanmonasteries began at Bemfica and spread to the other houses. Thezeal of theFranciscans was equally marked, no less than twenty-threeconvents of Observants were founded within a century, and these despite the opposition of theConventuals, restored the order to its pristine purity.

King Emanuel (1495-1521) reaped the harvest sown by his predecessors, and every year of his reign witnessed some new discovery, some great deed. The genius of Alburquerque gave him the maritime keys ofAsia, and the monopoly of the Eastern trade made him the richest king inChristendom. In 1514 the monarch sent his splendid embassy toRome to offer the tribute ofIndia at the feet ofLeo X, to urge thepope to proceed with the reform of theChurch, and to secure a league ofChristian princes against theTurks. Though these objects failed, the king obtained many personal favours, including the amplification of thePadroado, or right of patronage over churches in non-Christian countries. Thepope received the submission of theAbyssinian Church through Emanuel and, recognizing the king as the chief protector and propagator of the Faith, twice sent him theGolden Rose. Emanuel was especially anxious to add Castile to his world-wide dominions, and he made three marriages to that end, but all in vain. It was a condition of his first marriage (to the eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) that he should expel theJews and unconvertedMoors. TheJews had enjoyed the protection of previous kings and had supplied them with trusted servants, but, as both theclergy and the peoplehated them for theirusury, andenvied their talents and wealth, Emanuel sacrificed them, against the protests of some of his best councillors. They were given the choice of conversion or exile, and naturally, from worldly motives, the greater part accepted the former alternative and became known as "new Christians", intermarrying with oldChristians. Many of these converts went back toJudaism and became the victims of bitter and continualpersecution, when theInquisition was established.

King Emanuel and his son, John III, were great builders; the former erected theHieronymite church andmonastery at Belem, to commemorateVasco da Gama's discovery, and the later made great additions to the superbconvent of Christ at Tomar. Though the Golden Age apparently continued, Portugal began to decline in the reign of John III (1521-57). Emigration drained the best blood of the country; the East corrupted, while it enriched, its conquerors; the cultivation of the soil was left to slaves; commerce was blighted by theInquisition, which drove capital abroad. The Government could not make both ends meet, and the wealth of the Hebrews invited their spoliation. The king, a serious, conscientious man, but of smalleducation, satisfied the complaints of the people against that race by petitioning theHoly See in 1531 to establish theInquisition. After a twenty years' struggle atRome with the Hebrews, marked by disgraceful bribery on both sides, John forced thepope's consent in 1547, and the bigoted Infanta Henry, afterwards king, became chief inquisitor. The tribunal was popular and practically destroyedJudaism, but its methods divided the nation into spies and victims, encouraged blackmail andfalse denunciations, and contributed to undermine the national character. It put a new weapon into the hands of the monarch, who now had no check on his rule, for the Cortes had lost their power by the end of the preceding century. In 1540 the firstJesuits came, and the king became a warm patron of their early missionary labours in the East. In addition to the ministry of the confessional and thepulpit, theSociety devoted itself to teaching and opened colleges which were crowded by youths of the better classes. Theuniversity, which since its foundation had moved to and fro betweenLisbon and Coimbra, was fixed at the latter place in 1537, and distinguished professors, Portuguese and foreign, raised itsintellectual level. Experienceproved however that their learning was superior to theirorthodoxy andmorals, and they were replaced by theJesuits, who by degrees obtained that control of highereducation which they held for two centuries.

John deserves credit for his policy of peace abroad and for the colonization ofBrazil, in which he had the assistance of theJesuits, who civilized the natives and protected them from theEuropean settlers. A number of the new colonialdioceses were founded in this reign, and Portuguesetheologians among them Ven. Bartholomew of the Martyrs, took a prominent part in theCouncil of Trent. On John's death, hiswidow became regent for her grandson Sebastian (1557-78), who was a minor. The latter grew up an exalted mystic andknight errant of the Cross, without interest in the work of government. Though pressed bySt. Pius V, he refused to marry and obstinately insisted on attempting to conquer North Africa without sufficient men or money. His rout and death at the battle of Alcacer decided the fate of Portugal, for Cardinal Henry (1578-80) lived less than two years, and in 1580Philip II of Spain claimed the throne as next heir. Partly by force and partly by bribery, he secured election as Philip I of Portugal (1580-98) at the Cortes of Thomar in 1581, and for sixty years the Crowns of Portugal andSpain were united. If Philip I and II (1598-1621) ruled well, the period was none the less a disastrous one from a religious, as from a political point of view, and Portugal suffered heavily in the duel between theProtestant Powers andSpain. Her Eastern possessions fell into the hands of the English andDutch, and the latter seized a large part of the coastline ofBrazil. The monetary exactions of Philip III (1621-40) and the determination of his minister Olivares, to destroy the liberties of Portugal, aroused in all classes a fierce hostility to foreign rule. The lowerclergy andreligious orders embraced the popular cause. The tolerance shown to theJews, who were permitted to return, and the expulsion of thepapal nuncio, Castracani, outraged their feelings, and the increasing burden of taxation pressed them hard, so that they encouraged their flocks to look for a deliverer in the Duke of Braganza and greatly contributed to issue.

The revolution of 1640 raised John IV (1540-56) to the throne, and liberated Portugal and her remaining possessions from a foreign yoke, but it led to an exhaustingwar withSpain which lasted twenty-eight years. Moreover, owing to Spanish pressure, thepopes refused to recognize the new monarch; see after see fell vacant and remained so, andecclesiastical discipline became relaxed. These evils continued during the reign of Alfonso VI (1656-83), an imbecile youth of criminal tastes, who was deposed in 1667, his brother Pedro becoming regent and, on Alfonso's death, ascending the throne. The reign of Pedro (1683-1706) is marked by the discovery of gold inBrazil, by the signature of the Methuen Treaty withEngland, and by the participation of Portugal in the War of the Spanish Succession, when an Anglo-Portuguese army enteredMadrid. Though the Portuguese had lost most of their possessions in the East, their missionaries continued to spread the Faith inpagan countries and actually defended remote possessions like Timor against theDutch. In 1690 theBishoprics of Pekin and Nankin were established byAlexander VIII, and, after a conflict with thePropaganda, the claim of Portugal to nominateprelates for all sees in the East was allowed.

In 1691 the Cortes met for the last time previous to the Revolution of 1820. The leadingecclesiastical figure of the age was Father Antonio Vieira, preacher, protector of the Indians ofBrazil, and confidential agent of John IV. The relations between theJesuits and theInquisition had never been cordial, and the tribunal, aware of Vieira's sympathy for the convertedJews, and anxious tohumble theSociety, condemned certain propositions taken from his writings, sentenced him to seclusion in acollege, and deprived him of theright to preach. Thereupon Vieira went toRome and presented a memorial to thepope, who ordered an inquiry into the methods of theInquisition and suspended it until reforms should be introduced. It submitted after a struggle, and, whenInnocent XI revoked the suspension in 1681, the tribunal had to adopt a milder procedure. The gold and diamonds ofBrazil enabled John V (1706-50) to imitateLouis XIV in magnificence. To licentious habits he united a taste forecclesiastical pomp. He displayed hispiety by building an enormous pile, church, and palace in one, at Mafra, by providing the large sums required in connection with thecanonization of varioussaints, and by obtaining from thepope the elevation of the Archbishopric ofLisbon to the dignity of apatriarchate, together with the title, for himself and his successors, of "Most Faithful Magesty". Except in the case of theLisbon aqueduct, the country reaped small benefit from the vast sums expended by the artistic, pleasure-loving monarch; and if religion was outwardlyhonoured, the bad example set by John helped to lower the already impaired national standard ofmorals. The nobility had by this time ceased to visit their estates and degenerated into a race of mere courtiers. The interests of the common people were neglected by the Government, almost their only friends being thereligious orders. At thepope's bidding, John sent a fleet against theTurks which helped to win the battle of Matapan in 1717.

The reign of Joseph (1750-77) is made famous by the administration of theMarquess of Pombal, the real ruler of Portugal for over twenty years. The energy he displayed at the time of the great earthquaque of 1755 confirmed his hold over the king, and with royal support he was able to use the alleged "Tavora Conspiracy" tohumble the nobility and to continue the campaign he was directing against theJesuits, whom he was determined to master. His accusations against them of seditious conduct in the missions and of illicit trading were merely pretexts. He had already dismissed them from Court, delated them toRome and secured the appointment of a friend of his, Cardinal Saldanha, as their reformer, and when an attempt was made on the king's life he attributed it toJesuit machinations, confiscated theproperty of the company in the Portuguese dominions and expelled the PortugueseJesuits, retaining the foreigners inprison. Thepope refused to incriminate the whole company for the faults ofindividuals, andPombal's reply was to dismiss thenuncio and break off relations withRome. Henceforth the real head of theChurch in Portugal was the Minister. He heaped ignominy on theJesuits by securing the burning ofFather Malagrida by theInquisition, and his work was completed when, under pressure from theCatholic Powers,Clement XIVsuppressed the Society in 1773.Pombal's ruin of the Foreign Missions was perhaps his greatest crime and was by no means compensated for by his abolition of slavery and of the distinction between old and newChristians. He undoubtedly made great andnecessary reforms in internal administration and freed Portugal for the time from its subservience toEngland, but his commercial policy was a failure, and the harm he did far outweighed the good. Above all he forged those fetters for theChurch which still paralyse her action.

The death of Joseph brought about the fall of the minister, but the new sovereigns Pedro and Maria (1777-1816), while opening theprisons whichPombal had filled with his opponents, left much of his work untouched. The king died early, the queen lost her reason, and their son John, a sympathetic but weak man, was named regent.Frenchideas — those of theEncyclopedists and of theRevolution — were kept out of the country as long as possible, but theambition ofNapoleon gave little hope of security to a small kingdom which was regarded as the dependent ofEngland. The Treaty of Fontainebleau divided the country betweenFrance andSpain; the famous proclamation was issued, stating that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign, and Junot with a French army occupiedLisbon in 1807. The royal family fled toBrazil, and Portugal was governed from there until 1820. Queen Maria died at the close of the Peninsular War, which led to the overthrow ofNapoleonic power, and John VI (1816-26) came to the throne. The Revolution of 1820 forced him to return home, and he had to accept a constitution of a most radical character, for which the country was entirely unfitted. One calamity succeeded another. The opening of the ports ofBrazil to foreign ships ruined Portuguese commerce, the separation of the colony diminished the prestige of the mother country, which was reduced to a miserable plight by the longwar, and internal feuds were added to external troubles. On the death of John, his son Pedro IV gave a new constitution, called "the Charter", and then resigned the throne in favour of his infant daughter Maria II, naming his brother Miguel regent. The Conservatives, or Absolutist Party, however, whohated the Charter as the work ofLiberals andFreemasons, desired him as king, and he summoned a Cortes of the old type which placed him on the throne in 1828. The Radicals and Chartists at once organized resistance to what they called the usurpation and, after a long civilwar, were successful. By the Convention ofEvora Monte, Miguel had to abandon his claims and leave the country. The victoriousLiberals initiated an era ofpersecution androbbery of theChurch, the effects of which are still felt. Thereligious orders were the first to go. The orders of men were suppressed, and theirproperty confiscated, nominally to enrich the treasury, but privateindividuals reaped the benefit. The orders ofwomen were allowed to die out, further professions being prohibited. The people, deprived of themonks andfriars, who were their teachers, preachers, and confessors, gradually lost theirknowledge of religioustruths, because thesecular clergy were unprepared to take the place of the orders; besides which, thebishops andclergy were bound hand and foot to the State.

The last half-century of the Portuguese Monarchy, embracing the reigns of Pedro V (1853-61), Louis I (1861-89), and Charles I (1889-1908), was one of internal peace and increasing material prosperity. But only in the last few years have PortugueseCatholics begun to emerge from a state of lethargy. Modern Portuguese statesmen, usuallyCatholic only in name, have interested themselves inecclesiastical affairs to preserve old privileges, such as the Padroado in the East, but hardly ever assist theChurch in the performance of her Divine mission. The concordat of 1886 regulated many of the questions in dispute with the State and Hintze Ribeiro'sdecree of 1896 authorized the existence ofreligious orders under certain conditions. The prospect of better conditions for theChurch vanished, however, with the coming of the Revolution in 1910, which drove the Braganza dynasty from the throne, and delivered Portugal into the hands of the Radicals, whose hostility to theCatholic religion was made evident by the adverse course of the Provisional Government set up by the Revolutionists. On 1 February, 1908, King Charles and the Crown Prince were assassinated in the streets ofLisbon. Themurder was perpetrated by a man named Buica and several associates, and was applauded by the Republican press. The succession devolved on the second son, who ascended the throne as Emanuel II. His reign was, however, brief. On 3 October, 1910, a revolution, which had been arranged for 10 October, broke out prematurely, and Emanuel fled the capital to Gilbratar, where he shortly afterwards embarked forEngland. A provisional government, republican in form, was proclaimed, with Theophilus Braga, a native of theAzores, as President. He immediately set to work to carry out the radical measures of the republican programme, the first of which was the summary and violent expulsion of the religious congregations, the seizure of theirproperty by the State, the abolition of the Senate and all hereditary privileges and titles. The separation of theChurch and State was also arbitrarily decreed by the provisional government.

On 20 April, 1911, a seconddecree, in 196 articles, waspromulgated, regulating in detail the previously sweeping enactments. Article 38 of thisdecree prohibits any minister of religion, under the penalties of article 137 of the Criminal Code and the loss of the material benefits (pensions) of the State, from criticizing "in the exercise of his ministry and on the occasion of any act of worship, in sermons or in public writings, thepublic authority or any of its acts, or the form of the government or thelaws of the Republic, or denying or calling into question therights of the State embodied in thisdecree or in other legislation relative to the Churches". Chapter iv devotes twenty-seven articles to the ownership and administration of church buildings andproperty. Churches,chapels, lands, and chattels, hitherto applied to the public worship of theCatholic religion are declaredproperty of the State, unlessbona fide ownership by some private individual or corporation can beproved. Chapter v, in twenty-four articles, provides for boards oflaymen (after the manner of the French Law of Associations) to take charge of and administer the temporalities needed forCatholic worship. This arrangement is, however, revocable at the pleasure of the grantor (the State). Buildings intended for religious purposes, but not yet utilized, whether in course of construction or completed; buildings which for a year have not been used for religious purposes and such as by 31 December, 1912, shall have no board oflaymen to administer them, shall be taken by the State for some social purpose. Only Portuguese citizens who have made theirtheological studies in Portugal may officiate. Chapter vi deals with the question of pensions for theministers of theCatholic religion, and permits them to marry. Articles 175, chapter vii, stipulates that "ministers of religion enjoy no privileges and are authorized to correspond officially by mail with the public authorities only, and not with one another.

A Constituent Assembly, elected early in the summer of 1911, on 19 June of that year formally decreed the abolition of the Portuguese monarchy.

Actual conditions

Ecclesiastical organization

By the Constitutional Charter Catholiscism was, prior to the Republic, the religion of the State, but all otherreligions were tolerated, so long as they were not practised in a building having the exterior form of a church. Continental Portugal is divided ecclesiastically into threemetropolitan provinces, containing twelvedioceses (nine suffragan). The Patriarchate ofLisbon has for suffragansees Guarda and Portalegre; the Archbishopric ofBraga has those of Braganca,Lamego,Coimbra,Oporto, and Viseu; the Archbishopric ofEvora, those ofBeja andFaro. ThePatriarch ofLisbon is considered to be entitled to acardinal's hat, and thearchbishop ofBraga bears the title of "Primate of the Spains", anhonour which, however, is disputed by Toledo. TheAzores and Madeira each contain anepiscopal see and the colonial sees include those of Cape Verde,Angola,Goa (apatriarchate),Damão,Cochin, Mylapur, Macão,Mozambique, and St. Thomas (S. Thomé).

According to the Concordat of 1886,bishops were nominated by the Government, appointed by thepope, and paid by the State. Parishpriests were appointed by the minister of justice, after information as to their fitness supplied by thebishops, so that they were State functionaries, and often owed their positions to political influence. To qualify for anyecclesiastical post, they had to obtain a government licence before taking orders. In the Islands theparishpriests were paid by the State, but on the Continent their income was derived partly from a fund calledCongrua, which consisted of contributions levied on the parishioners, and partly from stole fees. There were twelveseminaries for theeducation of theclergy on the Continent, two in the Islands, and four in other colonies. There is also a Portuguese College inRome and one for Foreign Missionaries in Portugal. Theseminaries were supported partly by their own funds and partly by the Junta Geral da Bulla da Cruzada, an ancient institution which derived its income from offerings made fordispensations. Theclergy were exempt from military and jury service, and were ineligible for any administrative position, except the Parish Council (Junta da Parochia), of which theparishpriest is the president. These councils administered theproperty of theparish church and taxed the parishioners for the construction and repair of church and presbytery, the expenses of worship, church ornaments and vestments, etc. Theconfrarias andirmandades, which numbered about 9000, were independent bodies, ruled by their ownstatutes.

Religious orders

How theJesuits were expelled byPombal, and how, in 1834, thereligious orders of men were suppressed and theirproperty seized by the State, has been told above. At the same time the orders ofwomen were prohibited from takingnovices and were allowed to die out, after which theirconvents passed to the State, but by theDecree of 18 April, 1901, religious congregations were permitted to exist when they were dedicated exclusively to instruction orgoodworks, or to spreadChristianity and civilization in the colonies. Long before thisdecree, theJesuits had returned and opened colleges for theeducation of youth, and a number of orders and religious institutions were eventually established in Portugal. These included Missionaries of the Holy Ghost,Benedictines,Franciscans,IrishDominicans,Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of the ThirdOrder of St. Dominic,Franciscan Sisters,Servite Sisters, Dorotheans, Sisters of the Missions,Salesians, Sisters ofSt. John of God,Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, Marist Sisters, Sisters of St. Vicent de Paul, and Portuguese Sisters of Charity (Trinas).

Statistics of population

The population of Portugal, according to the census of 1900, was 5,423,123, the greater portion (68 per cent) being rural. The North is more thickly populated than the South, the maximum of density being reached between the rivers Douro and Ave. Emigration is increasing. In 1907, 45,000individuals left their homes, 24,000 of those forBrazil and 6000 for North America.

Education

The first modern law providing for the general instruction of the people was that of theMarquess of Pombal,dated 6 November, 1772. But thislaw remained a dead letter, and, though the Constitutional Charter guaranteed free primary instruction to all citizens, and a multitude ofstatutes dealing with the question have been subsequently passed, at least 70 per cent of the population can neither read nor write. The direction of primaryeducation was formerly exercised by theUniversity of Coimbra, but it now belongs to the Home Office, the cost being borne partly by the Concelhos, partly by the State. At the end of 1904 there were 4968 primaryschools on the Continent and the adjacent islands, 2953 being for boys, 1549 for girls and 466 mixed, but some of these only exist on paper, and some hundreds ofparishes have noschool. Moreover, the conditions of large proportion of theschools are not good, while the teachers are ill-prepared and ill-paid. The backward condition of Portugal is largely attributable to its lack of instruction, and in view of the want of interest shown by the Government in non-political questions, privatesocieties are endeavoring to apply the remedy. Among these are the Moveable Schools which teach according to the methods of the poet João de Deus, the recently formed National League of Instruction and other bodies, most of which areFreethinking in character. Before the Revolution the Republicans had identified themselves with a movement for lay-teaching, and their various centres had freeschools attached, for the instruction of the children of their members.

Secondary instruction is given inlyceos, which are found in all the principal towns, and in technicalschools; but the boys of the better classes, prior to the Republic, were largely confided to the care of theJesuits, and the girls to one of the manyeducationalconvents which then existed. There are also many privateschools, some conducted by foreigners, where an ordinary businesseducation can be had. The religious instruction of the people was far from satisfactory, and since the advent of the Republic is less so. Catechism used to be included in the curriculum of the government primaryschools, but under the Republican regime is altogether excluded. There is no religious teaching in thelyceos, which are dayschools, without proper discipline or any attempt at the formation of character. Highereducation is given in theUniversity of Coimbra (with about 1450 students) and in various establishments of a special character, such as the Curso Superior das Letras, the Medical, Army, Navy, and Polytechnic Schools, inLisbon andOporto. Theuniversity has atheological faculty, with but very few students, owing to its unorthodox character. Ignorance of religion and ofchurch history, and the reading of bad literature go far to explain the anti-clerical feeling which prevails among the people generally in the towns, and especially in the capital. The Press is intellectually of little account, and its moral tone is low, especially in the case of the Republican organs, some of the most circulated of which are not fit for perusal bywomen. TheCatholic organs, "Portugal" ofLisbon and "Palavra" ofOporto, before they were suppressed by the Republic, enjoyed an increasing circulation, but an avowedly religious is suspected by the great majority ofeducatedCatholics, who fear to be dubbed reactionary. It is the commonestambition to be considered Liberal, though the word is a misnomer in Portugal, where it stands for manyideas and aspirations essentially illiberal. The Republicans, though many of them professCatholicism have always been an anti-clerical party. They aim to defend the nativesecular clergy againstreligious orders who are mostly composed of foreigners, and especially against theJesuits. They generally favourcivil marriage, adivorce law, the abolition of religious processions in the streets etc. The Socialists go further and are frankly godless.

Laws affecting religion

Previous to the Revolution of 1910, a testator might only dispose freely of a third part of hisproperty by will; this is called theterça. The remaining two-thirds go to form thelegitima of his heirs in the ascending and descending line. A testator may not bequeath more than a third of his terça to be spent inprayers and masses for hissoul, andecclesiastical corporations may not benefit under his will to an amount exceeding the third of his terça. The testamentary dispositions of a sickperson in favour of his confessor, except such as are merely remunerative, are void if he dies of the illness during which he made them. Professed religiouswomen cannot make wills until they become secularized or their communities are suppressed, nor can they acquire anything by will, except by way of aliment, or money legacy, or other moveables. The Civil Code makes no mention of men bound by religiousvows, because thelaw does notknow them.

There was, under the Monarchy, nodivorce law in Portugal, but a marriage could be declared null for reasons allowed by theChurch. The canonical impediments were recognized by the Code. Civil marriage and interment were permitted, but made small headway, and theparish registers continued to be almost universally used, though there was a civil register of births,marriages, and deaths. The courts coulddecree separation ofpersons and goods (1) in case ofadultery by the wife, (2) in case ofadultery and desertion by the husband, orpublic scandal; (3) when one of the parties had been guilty of outrageous cruelty to the other. Children born out of wedlock were legitimated by the subsequent marriage of theirparents, when the latter formally recognized them, or when the children themselves obtained a judicial sentence in their favour.

Cemeteries were provided and controlled by the municipalities in the chief places of each district. Outside of these, they were established at the expense of the parishioners by theparish council, to which they belonged. Thedeath penalty has long been abolished in Portugal, which may account in part for the large number ofmurders. Criminals sentenced to long terms ofimprisonment were sent to the Penitenciaria inLisbon and there arecasas de correcção, or reformatories, for small boys and girls. Good Shepherd homes for fallenwomen existed atLisbon and Oporto, but were suppressed by the Provisional Government at the time of the Revolution. Charitable institutions abounded, and Portugal had, under the Monarchy, some 370Misericordias andhospitals. In the various districts ofLisbon, thecozinhas economicas, an institution founded and largely supported by the late Duchess of Palmella, provided cheap meals for thepoor, and Queen Amelia's crusade against tuberculosis led to the establishment of free consultinghospitals and sanatoria in different parts of the country.

As a result of the encyclicals ofLeo XIII onChristian democracy, the movement for the establishment ofCatholic circles for workingmen was inaugurated in Portugal, and these mutual-aidsocieties existed in the principal centres of population, furnishededucation to the workmen and their children, and kept them together by conferences, concerts, and excursions. The associations ofCatholic youth inLisbon and Oporto also deserve mention. But the sweeping measures inaugurated by the Republican Government effected a complete rupture of the former relations betweenChurch and State, and the status of the variousCatholic organizations, aside from the religious congregations (which were immediately dissolved), has become very uncertain.

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