Pope Julius II

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(GIULIANO DELLA ROVERE).

Born on 5 December, 1443, at Albissola near Savona;crowned on 28 November, 1503; died atRome, in the night of 20-21 February, 1513. He was born of a probably noble but impoverishedfamily, hisfather being Raffaelo della Rovere and his mother Theodora Manerola, a lady of Greek extraction. He followed his uncle Francesco della Rovere into theFranciscan Order, and waseducated under his tutelage atPerugia. With the elevation of his uncle to thepapacy asSixtus IV on 9 August, 1471, begins the public career of Giuliano. On 15 December, 1471, he was createdCardinal Priest of San Pietro in Vincoli, and thereafter literally overwhelmed withbenefices, although during the lifetime ofSixtus IV he never took a prominent part inecclesiastical diplomacy. He held theepiscopal sees of Carpentras (1471-2), Lausanne (1472-6),Catania (1473-4), Coutances (1476-7), Mende (1478-83), Viviers (1477-9), Sabina (1479-83), Bologna (1483-1502),Ostia (1483-1503), Lodève (1488-9), Savona (1499-1502),Vercelli (1502-3), and theArchiepiscopal See of Avignon (1474-1503). In addition he was commendatoryAbbot of Nonantola, Grottaferrata, and Gorze, and drew the revenues of various otherecclesiastical benefices. These large incomes, however, he did not spend in vain pomp and dissipation, as was the custom of manyecclesiastics of those times. Giuliano was a patron of thefine arts, and spent most of his superfluous money in the erection of magnificent palaces and fortresses. Still his early private life was far from stainless, as is sufficiently testified by the fact that before he becamepope he was the father of three daughters, the best known of whom, Felice, he gave in marriage toGiovanni Giordano Orsini in 1506.

In June, 1474, Giuliano was sent at the head of an army to restore thepapal authority in Umbria. He succeeded in reducing Todi andSpoleto, but for the subjugation ofCittà di Castello he needed the assistance of Duke Federigo ofUrbino. In February, 1476, he was sent aslegate toFrance to regulate the affairs of hisArchdiocese of Avignon, and probably to oppose the council which Louis XI intended to convene atLyons. In 1480 he was sent aslegate to theNetherlands andFrance to accomplish three things, viz. to settle the quarrel concerning theBurgundian inheritance between Louis XI and Maximilian ofAustria, to obtain the help ofFrance against theTurks, and to effect the liberation ofCardinal Balue whom Louis XI had held in strict custody since 1469 on account of treasonable acts. After successfully completing his mission he returned toRome in the beginning of 1482, accompanied by the liberatedCardinal Balue. At that time awar was just breaking out between thepope andVenice on one side andFerrara on the other. Giuliano made various attempts to restore peace, and was probably instrumental in the dissolution of theVeneto-Papal alliance on 12 December, 1482. He also protected the Colonnafamily against the cruel persecutions of Cardinal Girolamo Riario in 1484. After the death ofSixtus IV on 12 August, 1484, Giuliano played a disreputable role in the election ofInnocent VIII. Seeing that his own chances for thepapacy were extremely meagre, he turned all his efforts to securing the election of a pope who was likely to be a puppet in his hands. Such aperson he saw in the weak and irresolute Cardinal Cibo, who owed hiscardinalate to Giuliano. To effect the election of his candidate he did not scruple to resort to bribery. Cibo ascended thepapal throne asInnocent VIII on 29 August, 1484, and was greatly influenced during the eight years of his pontificate by the strong and energetic Giuliano. Thewar that broke out between thepope and King Ferrante ofNaples must be attributed chiefly to Giuliano, and it was also due to him that it did not come to an earlier conclusion.

After the death ofInnocent VIII on 25 July, 1492, Giuliano again aspired to thepapacy, but his great influence duringInnocent's pontificate and his pronounced sympathy forFrance had made himhateful to thecardinals. He was shrewd enough to understand the situation. He was, however, loath to see thetiara go to Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, not because the latter was an unworthy candidate, but on account of his personal aversion towards the Borgia. Despite Giuliano's efforts to the contrary, Rodrigo Borgia was the successful candidate, and ascended thepapal throne asAlexander VI on 11 August, 1492. Fearing for his safety inRome, Giuliano withdrew to his strongly fortified castle atOstia towards the end of 1492. An apparent reconciliation betweenAlexander VI and Giuliano was effected in July, 1493, but Giuliano did not trust in the sincerity of thepope and fled by way ofGenoa to the court of Charles VIII ofFrance, whom he induced to make an expedition intoItaly with the purpose of dethroningAlexander VI. Giuliano accompanied the king on his expedition, but by liberal concessions Alexander gained Charles to his side. In the treaty effected between them, it was stipulated that Giuliano should remain in possession of all his dignities andbenefices, and should be guaranteed secure and undisturbed residence inRome. Giuliano, however, still feared the secret machinations of Alexander and returned toFrance. Another apparent reconciliation took place in June, 1497, when Giuliano assisted thepope in the matrimonial affairs of Cesare Borgia. But Giuliano's distrust of Alexander remained. He evadedRome, spending most of his time inFrance and NorthernItaly.

After the death of Alexander on 18 August, 1503, he returned toRome on 3 September to take part in the election of the newpope. He was again a strong candidate for thepapacy, but his greatambition was not yet to be realized. The sick and aged Francesco Piccolomini ascended thepapal throne asPius III, but died on 18 October, 1503, after a reign of only twenty-six days. Giuliano's chance of being elected was now better than at any previous election. To ensure his success he made great promises to thecardinals, and did not hesitate to employ bribery. Theconclave began on 31 October, and after a few hours thecardinals united their votes on Giuliano, who aspope took the name of Julius II. It was the shortestconclave in the history of thepapacy. In the capitulation preceding the election, the following terms were secured by thecardinals: (1) the continuation of thewar against theTurks; (2) the restoration ofecclesiastical discipline and the convocation of ageneral council for that purpose within two years; (3) that nowar was to be undertaken with another nation without the consent of two-thirds of thecardinals, who were to be consulted on all important matters, especially concerning the creation of new members for theSacred College; (4) that thepope with two-thirds of thecardinals were to determine upon the place of the next general council. Such an unlawful restriction ofpapalrights nopope could tolerate, much less the impatient, irascible, ambitious, and warlike Julius II, whose fearless and awe-inspiring presence gained for him the epithet ofpontefice terribile. The chief task of his pontificate he saw in the firm establishment and the extension of the temporal power. For the accomplishment of this task nopope was ever better suited than Julius, whom nature and circumstances had hewn out for a soldier.

Venice was the first to feel the strong hand of Julius II. Under pretence of humiliating Cesare Borgia, whomAlexander VI had made Duke of the Romagna, theVenetians had reduced various places in the Romagna under their own authority. The Romagna wasecclesiastical territory, and every one of its cities added to theVenetian republic was lost to thepapacy. Julius, therefore, ordered Cesare Borgia to surrender the fortified places of the Romagna into his own hands. Cesare Borgia refused and was arrested by thepope's order.Venice, however, stubbornly refused to give back the cities which it had previously taken. A temporary settlement was reached in March, 1505, whenVenice restored most of its conquests in the Romagna. Meanwhile trouble was brewing atPerugia and Bologna, two cities that belonged to thePapal States. AtPerugia the Baglioni and at Bologna theBentivogli were acting as independent despots. The warlike Julius II personally directed the campaign against both, setting out at the head of his army on 26 August, 1506.Perugia surrendered without any bloodshed on 13 September, and thepope proceeded towards Bologna. On 7 October he issued aBull deposing andexcommunicating Giovanni Bentivoglio and placing the city underinterdict. Bentivoglio fled, and Julius II entered Bologna triumphantly on 10 November. He did not leave the city until 22 February, 1507, arriving again atRome on 27 March.

TheVenetians meanwhile continued to holdRimini andFaenza, two important places in the Romagna: they moreover encroached upon thepapalrights by filling the vacantepiscopal sees in their territory independently of thepope, and they subjected theclergy to the secular tribunal and in many other ways disrespected theecclesiastical jurisdiction of Julius II. Unable to cope alone with the powerfulRepublic of Venice, he reluctantly joined the League ofCambrai on 23 March, 1509. This League had been formed by Emperor Maximilian I and Louis XII ofFrance chiefly with the purpose of forcingVenice to restore its recent continental conquests to their original owners. On 27 April, 1509, Julius II placedVenice underinterdict and dispatched his troops into the Romagna.Venice was too weak to contend against the combined forces of the League, and suffered a complete defeat at the battle of Agnadello on 14 May, 1509. TheVenetians were now ready to enter negotiations with Julius II, who withdrew from the League and freed theVenetians from the ban on 24 February, 1510, after they agreed upon the following terms. (1) to restore the disputed towns in the Romagna; (2) to renounce their claims to fill vacantbenefices; (3) to acknowledge theecclesiastical tribunal forecclesiastics and exempt them from taxes; (4) to revoke all treaties made withpapal cities; (5) to permitpapal subjects free navigation on the Adriatic.

Julius II was now again supreme temporal master over the entirePontifical States, but his nationalpride extended beyond thePatrimony of St. Peter. Hisambition was to free the whole ofItaly from its subjection to foreign powers, and especially to deliver it from the galling yoke ofFrance. His efforts to gain the assistance of Emperor Maximilian,Henry VIII of England, and Ferdinand ofSpain,proved futile for the moment, but theSwiss and theVenetians were ready to take the field against the French. Julius II inaugurated the hostilities by deposing andexcommunicating his vassal, Duke Alfonso ofFerrara, who supportedFrance. Louis XII retaliated by convoking a synod ofFrenchbishops atTours in September, 1510, where it was decreed that thepope had noright to makewar upon a foreign prince, and, in case he should undertake such awar, the foreign prince had theright to invade the Ecclesiastical States and to withdraw his subjects from their obedience to thepope. The synod also threatened thepope with ageneral council. Taking no notice of this synod, Julius again assumed personal command of his army and set out for NorthernItaly. At Bologna he fell severely sick, and would probably have been captured by the French had it not been for the timely appearance of theVenetians. He had scarcely recovered, when, braving the inclemency of the weather, he marched against Mirandola which he took on 20 January, 1511. On 23 May, 1511, the French made a descent upon Bologna which Julius II had left nine days previously, drove out thepapal troops and reinstated theBentivogli.

Some of thecardinals were displeased with thepope's anti-French policy, and five of them went so far as to convoke aschismatic council atPisa on 1 September. They were supported in theirschism by the King ofFrance and for some time also by Emperor Maximilian. Thepope now looked for aid toSpain,Venice, andEngland, but before completing negotiations with these powers he fell dangerously sick. From 25 to 27 August, 1511, his life was despaired of. It was during this sickness of Julius II that Emperor Maximilian conceived the fantastic plan of uniting thetiara with the imperial crown on his own head (see Schulte, "Kaiser Maximilian als Kandidat für den papstlichen Stuhl", Leipzig, 1906; and Naegle, "Hat Kaiser Maximilian I in Jahre 1507 Papst werden wollen" in "Historisches Jahrbuch", XXVIII,Munich, 1907, pp. 44-60, 278-305). But Julius II recovered on 28 August, and on 4 October the so-called Holy League was formed for the purpose of deliveringItaly from French rule. In the beginning the League included only thepope, theVenetians, andSpain, butEngland joined it on 17 November, and was soon followed by the emperor and bySwitzerland. Under the leadership of the brilliant Gaston de Foix the French were at first successful, but after his death they had to yield to the superior forces of the League, and, being defeated in the bloody battle ofRavenna on 11 April, 1512, they were driven beyond the Alps. Bologna again submitted to Julius II and the cities ofParma,Reggio, andPiacenza were added to the Ecclesiastical States.

Julius II was chiefly a soldier, and the fame attached to his name is greatly due to his re-establishment of thePontifical States and the deliverance ofItaly from its subjection toFrance. Still he did not forget hisduties as the spiritual head of theChurch. He was free from nepotism; heard Mass almost daily and often celebrated it himself; issued a strictBull againstsimony at papal elections and another againstduels; erecteddioceses in the recently discovered American colonies ofHaiti (Espanola),San Domingo, and Porto Rico; condemned theheresy of Piero de Lucca concerning the Incarnation on 7 September, 1511; made various ordinances for monastic reforms; instituted the still existing Capella Julia, aschool forecclesiastical chant which was to serve as a feeder for the Capella Palatina; and finally convoked theFifth Lateran Council to eradicate abuses from theChurch and especially from theRoman Curia, and to frustrate the designs of theschismaticcardinals who had convened their unsuccessful council first atPisa, then atMilan (seeLATERAN COUNCILS). Julius II has also gained an enviable reputation as a patron of arts.Bramante,Raphael, andMichelangelo gave to the world some of their greatest masterpieces while in his service. He laid the cornerstone of the giganticBasilica of St. Peter on 18 April, 1506, and conceived theidea of uniting the Vatican with the Belvedere, engagingBramante to accomplish the project. The famous frescoes ofMichelangelo in the Sistine Chapel and ofRaphael in the Stanze, the Court of St. Damasus with its loggias, the Via Giulia and Via della Lungara, the colossalstatue of Moses whichgraces the mausoleum of Julius II in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli, and many other magnificent works in and out ofRome are lasting witnesses of his greatlove of art.

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