University of Paris

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See alsoARCHDIOCESE OF PARIS.

Origin and early organization

Threeschools were especially famous atParis, the palatine or palaceschool, theschool of Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Geneviève. The decline of royalty inevitably brought about the decline of the first. The other two, which were very old, like those of thecathedrals and theabbeys, are only faintly outlined during the early centuries of their existence. The glory of the palatineschool doubtless eclipsed theirs, until in the course oftime it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning. It is not until the tenth century, however, that we meet with a professor of renown in theschool of Ste-Geneviève. This was Hubold, who, not content with the courses atLiège, came to continue his studies atParis, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and by his teaching attracted many pupils. Recalled by hisbishop toBelgium, he soon profited by a second journey toParis to give lessons with no less success. As to theschool of Notre-Dame, while many of its masters are mentioned simply as having been professors atParis, in its later history we meet with a number of distinguished names: in the eleventh century, Lambert, disciple of Filbert ofChartres; Drogo ofParis; Manegold ofGermany;Anselm of Laon. These twoschools, attracting scholars from every country, produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus,Bishop ofCracow; Gebbard,Archbishop ofSalzburg; St. Stephen, thirdAbbot ofCîteaux;Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Thehonour of having formed similar pupils is indiscriminately ascribed to Notre-Dame and to Ste-Geneviève, as du Molinet has justly remarked (Bibl. Sainte-Geneviève,manuscriptH. fr. 21, in fol., p. 576). Humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, andastronomy (trivium andquadrivium). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic andmoral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Fathers, and which was completed by the study of canon law. Three men were to add a new splendour to theschools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève, namelyWilliam of Champeaux,Abelard, andPeter Lombard. A newschool arose which rivalled those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It owed its foundation to the sameWilliam of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of St-Victor and it took the name of thatabbey. Two men shed special radiance on thisschool, Hugh and Richard, who added to their own names that of theabbey at which they were religious and professors.

The plan of studies expanded in theschools ofParis as it did elsewhere. The great work of amonk of Bologna, known as the "Decretum Gratiani", brought about a division of thescience oftheology. Hitherto thediscipline of the Church had not been separate fromtheology properly so-called; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was naturally undertaken first at Bologna, whereRoman law was taught. InFrance, first Orléans and thenParis erected chairs of canon law, which except atParis were usually also chairs ofcivil law. The capital of the kingdom might thus boast of this new professorate, that of the "Decretum Gratiani", to which before the end of the twelfth century were added theDecretals of Gerard (or Girard) La Pucelle, Mathieu d'Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) ofParis, butcivil law was not included. In the course of the twelfth century also medicine began to be publicly taught atParis. A professor ofmedicine is mentioned in this city at this time, namely Hugo, "physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit", and it is to be assumed that thisscience was included in his teaching.

For theright to teach, two things werenecessary,knowledge and appointment. Knowledge wasproved by examination, the appointment came from the examiner himself, who was the head of theschool, and was known asscholasticus, capiscol, and eventually as "chancellor". This was called the licence or faculty to teach. Without this authorization there was danger of the chairs being occupied byignorantpersons, whomJohn of Salisbury depicts as "children yesterday, masters today; yesterday receiving strokes of the ferrule, today teaching in a long gown" (Metalogicus, I, xxvin init.). The licence had to be granted gratuitously. Without it no one could teach; on the other hand, it could not be refused when the applicant deserved it.

Theschool of St-Victor, which shared theobligations as well as theimmunities of theabbey, conferred the licence in its own right; theschool of Notre-Dame depended on thediocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on theabbey or chapter. It was the diocese and theabbey or chapter which through their chancellor gave professorial investiture in their respective territories, i.e. the diocese in the cityintra pontes and other places subject to the ordinary, theabbey or chapter on the left bank of the river as far as itsjurisdiction reached. Consequently, as du Molinet explains, it was incumbent on the chancellor of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève to examine "those who applied to teach in the schools", to "license after study those who sought to be masters and regents" (op. cit., 585). Besides these three centres of learning there were severalschools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had theright to teach might open aschool where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principalschool". Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam,Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" (Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272).

The number of students in theschool of the capital grew constantly, so that eventually the lodgings were insufficient. Among the French students there were princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and the most distinguished youths of the kingdom. The courses atParis were considered sonecessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them.Popes Celestine II andAdrian IV had studied atParis,Alexander III sent his nephews there, and, under the name of Lothaire, a scion of the noblefamily of Seigny, who was later to rule theChurch asInnocent III, belonged to the student body.Otto of Freisingen, Cardinal Conrad,Archbishop ofMainz,St. Thomas of Canterbury, andJohn of Salisbury were among the most illustrious sons ofGermany andEngland in theschools ofParis; while Ste-Geneviève became practically theseminary forDenmark. The chroniclers of the time callParis the city of letterspar excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria,Rome, and other cities: "At that time", we read in the "Chroniques de St-Denis", "there flourished atParis philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were atAthens,Egypt,Rome, or elsewhere in the world" ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets said the same thing in their verses, and they compared it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world.

To maintain order among the students and define the relations of the professors, organization wasnecessary. It had its beginnings, and it developed as circumstances permitted or required. Three features in this organization may be noted: first, the professors formed an association, for according toMatthew Paris, John of Celles, twenty-firstAbbot ofSt. Albans,England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps ofParis after he had followed the courses (Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban). Again, the masters as well as the students were divided according to provinces, for as the same historian states, Henry II, King ofEngland, in his difficulties withSt. Thomas of Canterbury, wished to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors ofParis, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was probably the germ of that division according to "nations" which was later to play an important part in theuniversity. Lastly, mention must be made of the privileges then enjoyed by the professors and students. In virtue of a decision ofCelestine III, they were amenable only to theecclesiastical courts. Other decisions dispensed them from residence in case they possessedbenefices and permitted them to receive their revenues.

These threeschools of Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and St-Victor may be regarded as the triple cradle of theUniversitas scholarium, which included masters and students; hence the name University. Such is the common and more probable opinion.Denifle and some others hold that thishonour must be reserved to theschool of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes St-Victor because, at the request of theabbot and the religious of St-Victor,Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching oftheology. But theuniversity was in large part founded about 1208, as is shown by aBull ofInnocent III. Consequently theschools of St-Victor might well have furnished their contingent towards its formation. Secondly,Denifle excludes theschools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. Now this is far fromproved, and moreover, it seems incontestable thattheology also had never ceased to be taught, which is sufficient for our point. Besides, the rôle of the chancellor of Ste-Geneviève in theuniversity cannot be explained by the new opinion; he continued to give degrees in arts, a function which would have ceased for him when theuniversity was organized if hisabbey had no share in its organization. And while the nameUniversitas scholarium is quite intelligible on the basis of the common opinion, it is incompatible with the recent (Denifle's) view, according to which there would have beenschools outside theuniversity.

Organization in the thirteenth century

As completing the work of organization the diploma ofPhilip Augustus and thestatutes of Robert de Courçon are worthy of note. The king's diploma was given "for the security of the scholars ofParis", and in virtue of it from the year 1200 the students were subject only toecclesiastical jurisdiction. Hence theprovost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, and if in exceptional cases this was done it was only to hand over the culprit toecclesiastical authority, for in the event of grave crime royaljustice was limited to taking cognizance of the procedure and the verdict. In no case could the king's officers lay hands on the head of theschools or even on a simple regent, this being allowed only in virtue of a mandate proceeding fromecclesiastical authority. Thestatutes of theApostolic legate are later by some years, bearing the date 1215. They had for their object the moral orintellectual part of the instruction. They dealt with three principal points, the conditions of the professorate, the matter to be treated, and the granting of the licence. To teach the arts it wasnecessary to have reached the age of twenty-one, after having studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair intheology the candidate had to be thirty years of age with eight years oftheological studies, of which the last three years were at the same time devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the localschools and under the direction of a master, for atParis one was not regarded as a scholar unless he had a particular master. Lastly, purity ofmorals was not less requisite than learning. Priscian's "Grammar",Aristotle's "Dialectics", mathematics,astronomy, music, certain books of rhetoric and philosophy were the subjects taught in the arts course; to these might be added the Ethics of theStagyrite and the fourth book of the Topics. But it was forbidden to read the books ofAristotle on Metaphysics and Physics, or abbreviations of them. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, withoutoath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even byoath, in defence of theirrights, when they could not otherwise obtainjustice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because thesesciences were less prominent.

A denial ofjustice by the queen brought about in 1229 a suspension of the courses. Appeal was taken to thepope who intervened in the same year by aBull which began with a eulogy of theuniversity. "Paris", saidGregory IX, "mother of thesciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He compared it to a laboratory in which wisdom tested the metals which she found there, gold and silver to adorn the Spouse of Jesus Christ, iron to fashion the spiritual sword which should smite the inimical powers. He commissioned the Bishops ofLe Mans and Senlis and theArchdeacon ofChâlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of theuniversity. The year 1230 came to an end without any result, andGregory IX took the matter directly in hand by aBull of 1231 addressed to the masters and scholars ofParis. Not content with settling the dispute and giving guarantees for the future, he sanctioned and developed the concessions of Robert de Cour on by empowering theuniversity to framestatutes concerning the discipline of theschools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students. What was chiefly important was that thepope recognized in theuniversity or granted it the right, in casejustice were denied it, to suspend its courses until it should receive full satisfaction. It must be borne in mind that in theschools ofParis not only was the granting of licence gratuitous but instruction also was free. This was the general rule; however, it was oftennecessary to depart from it. Thus Pierre Le Mangeur was authorized by thepope to levy a moderate fee for the conferring of the licence. Similar fees were exacted for the first degree in arts and letters, and the scholars were taxed twosous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.

Theuniversity was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was arector. The office was elective and of short duration. At first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion,legate of theHoly See inFrance, rightly judging that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations. The "Nations" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century; they were mentioned in theBull ofHonorius III in 1222 and in another ofGregory IX in 1231; later they formed a distinct body. In 1249 the four nations existed with their procurators, theirrights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries; and in 1254, in the heat of the controversy between theuniversity and themendicant orders, a letter was addressed to thepope bearing the seals of the four nations. These were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War the English nation was replaced by the Germanic or German. The four nations constituted thefaculty of arts or letters. The expression faculty, though of ancient usage, did not have in the beginning its present meaning; it then indicated a branch of instruction. It is especially in aBull ofGregory IX that it is used to designate the professional body, and it may have had the same meaning in auniversity Act of 1221 (cf. "Hist. Universitatis Parisiensis", III, 106).

If the natural division of theschools ofParis into nations arose from the native countries of the students, the classification ofknowledge must quite as naturally have introduced the division into faculties. Professors of the samescience were brought into closer contact; community ofrights and interests cemented the union and made of them distinct groups, which at the same time remained integral parts of the teaching body. Thus the faculties gradually arose and consequently no precise account of their origin can be given. The faculty of medicine would seem to be the last in point of time. But the four faculties were already formally designated in a letter addressed in Feb., 1254, by theuniversity to theprelates ofChristendom, wherein mention is made of "theology,jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". In the celebratedBull "Quasi Lignum" (April, 1255),Alexander IV speaks of "the faculties oftheology" of other "faculties", namely those of canonists, physicians, and artists. If the masters intheology set the example in this special organization, those indecretals and medicine hastened to follow it. This isproved by the seals which the last-named adopted some years later, as the masters in arts had already done.

The faculties oftheology, or canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of "dean" as designating the head of a faculty, was not in use until the second half of the thirteenth century. In this matter the faculties ofdecretals and medicine seem to have taken the lead, which the faculty oftheology followed, for in authentic acts of 1268 we read of the deans ofdecretals and medicine, while the dean oftheology is not mentioned until 1296. It would seem that at first the deans were the oldest masters. Thefaculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was therector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared fortheology,decretals and medicine, while it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties were to include onlydoctors, leaving the bachelors to the nations. At this period, therefore, theuniversity had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate, while retaining its early character, became an intermediate degree: Besides, theuniversity numbered among its members beadles and messengers, who also performed theduties of clerks.

The scattered condition of the scholars inParis often made the question of lodging difficult. Recourse was had to the townsfolk, who exacted high rates while the students demanded lower. Hence arose friction and quarrels, which, as the scholars were very numerous, would have developed into a sort of civilwar if a remedy had not been found. The remedy sought was taxation. This right of taxation, included in the regulation of Robert de Courçon, had passed on to theuniversity. It was upheld in theBull ofGregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification, for its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. These circumstances had long shown the need of new arrangements. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. The result was the foundation of the colleges (colligere, to assemble). This measure also furthered the progress of studies by a better employment of time, under the guidance sometimes of resident masters and out of the way of dissipation. These colleges were not usually centres of instruction, but simple boarding-houses for the students, who went from them to theschools. Each had a special object, being established for students of the same nationality or the samescience. Four colleges appear in the twelfth century; they became more numerous in the thirteenth, and among them may be mentioned Harcourt and the Sorbonne. Thus the University of Paris, which in general was the type of the otheruniversities, had already assumed the form which it afterwards retained. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of thefaculty of arts, and the three superior faculties oftheology,law, and medicine. Ecclesiastical dignities, even abroad, seemed reserved for the masters and students ofParis. This preference became a general rule, and eventually a right, that of eligibility tobenefices. Such was the origin and early organization of the University of Paris which might even then, in virtue of their protection, call itself the daughter of kings, but which was in reality the daughter of theChurch. St. Louis, in the diploma which he granted to theCarthusians for their establishment nearParis, speaks of this city, where "flow the most abundant waters of wholesomedoctrine, so that they become a great river which after refreshing the city itself irrigates the Universal Church".Clement IV uses a no less charming comparison: "the noble and renowned city, the city which is the source of learning and sheds over the world a light which seems an image of the celestial splendour; those who are taught there shine brilliantly, and those who teach there will shine with the stars for alleternity" (cf.du Boulay, "Hist. Univers. Paris", III, 360-71).

Later history

Abuses crept in; to correct these and to introduce various needed modifications in the work of theuniversity was the purpose of the reform carried out in the fifteenth century by Cardinal d'Estouteville,Apostolic legate inFrance. As a whole it was less an innovation than a recall to the better observance of the ancientstatutes. The reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government, was of the same character with regard to the three superior faculties. As to thefaculty of arts, the study of Greek was added to that of Latin, only the best classical authors were recommended; the French poets and orators were used along with Hesiod,Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust. The prohibition to teachcivil law was never well observed atParis. But in 1679Louis XIV authorized the teaching ofcivil law in the faculty ofdecretals. As alogical consequence the name "faculty oflaw" replaced that of "faculty ofdecretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but theuniversity set about remedying the injury.

Remarkable for its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part: in theChurch, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing withheresies and deplorable divisions; in the State, during national crises; and if under the domination ofEngland it dishonoured itself in the trial ofJoan of Arc, it rehabilitated itself by rehabilitating the heroine herself. Proud of itsrights and privileges, it fought energetically to maintain them. Hence the long struggle against themendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the conflict, shorter but also memorable, against theJesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made liberal use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty oftheology and in its own name pronounced condemnation, as in the case of theFlagellants.

Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, whenParis was given over to factions, theuniversity sought energetically to restore peace; and underLouis XIV, when theSpaniards had crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, "Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVII^e et XVIII^e siècle", 132-34; "Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique").

The ancientuniversity was to disappear with ancientFrance under theRevolution. On 15 Sept., 1793, petitioned by the Department ofParis and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primaryschools, already the objects of its solicitude, "there should be established in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for theknowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for furtherknowledgenecessary to those intending to embrace the other professions ofsociety; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality ofParis are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties oftheology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of theuniversity. It was not to be restored after theRevolution had subsided, any more than those of the provinces. All were replaced by a single centre, viz., the University ofFrance. The lapse of a century brought the recognition that the new system was less favourable to study, and it was sought to restore the old system, but without the faculty oftheology.

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