Chalice

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History

The chalice occupies the first place amongsacred vessels, and by a figure of speech the material cup is often used as if it were synonymous with the Precious Blood itself. "The chalice of benediction, which we bless", writesSt. Paul, "is it not the communion of the blood of Christ?" (1 Corinthians 10:16). No reliable tradition has been preserved to us regarding the vessel used by Christ at theLast Supper. In the sixth and seventh centuriespilgrims to Jerusalem were led to believe that the actual chalice was stillvenerated in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, having within it the sponge which was presented toOur Saviour on Calvary. Curiously enough, while Antoninus ofPiacenza refers to it as made of onyx,Adamnan, less than a century later, describes it as a "silver cup holding the measure of a Gallic sextarius and with two opposite handles" (see Geyer, Itinera, Hierosolimitana, pp. 154, 173, 234, 305). At a much later period two other vessels have beenvenerated as the chalice of theLast Supper. One, thesacro catino ofGenoa, is rather a dish than a cup and is made of green glass, though long supposed to be an emerald, fourteen and a half inches in diameter and of priceless value. The other, at Valencia inSpain, is a cup of agate. The fact is that the whole tradition is untrustworthy and of late date. It will be referred to further under the articleGRAIL, and meanwhile we may be content to quote the words ofSt. Chrysostom (Hom. l in Matt.): "The table was not of silver, the chalice was not of gold in which Christ gave His blood to His disciples to drink, and yet everything there was precious and truly fit to inspire awe." So far as it is possible to collect any scraps of information regarding the chalices in use among earlyChristians, the evidence seems to favour the prevalence of glass, though cups of the precious and of baser metals, ofivory, wood, and even clay were also in use. (See Hefele, Beiträge, II, 323-5.) A passage ofSt. Irenæus (Hær., I, c. xiii) describing a pretendedmiracle wrought by Mark theGnostic who poured white wine into his chalice and then afterprayer showed the contents to be red, almost necessarily supposes a vessel of glass, and the glasspatens (patenas vitreas) mentioned in the"Liber Pontificalis" underZephyrinus (202-19) as well as certain passages inTertullian andSt. Jerome, entirely favour the same conclusion. But the tendency to use by preference the precious metals developed early.St. Augustine speaks of two golden and six silver chalices dug up atCirta inAfrica, (Contra Crescon., III, c. xxix), andSt. Chrysostom of a golden chalice set with gems (Hom. 1 in Matt.). As regards shape, our principal information at this early period is derived from certain representations, said to be meant for Eucharistic chalices, which are found in earlymosaics, sarcophagi, and other monuments ofChristian art. The general prevalence of an almost stemless, vase-shaped type with two handles, inclines us to believe that a glass vessel of this nature discovered in the Ostriancatacomb on the Via Nomentana, and now preserved in the Lateran Museum, may really have been a chalice. At an earlydate it became common to inscribe the donor's name upon costly vessels presented tochurches. Thus it is known that Galla Placidia (d. 450) offered a chalice with such an inscription to the church of Zacharias atRavenna, and theEmperor Valentinian III sent another to the church at Brive. Such goblets were sometimes known ascalices literati. The earliest specimen of a chalice of whose original purpose we can feel reasonably confident is the chalice of Chelles, preserved until theFrench Revolution and believed to have been wrought by, or at least to date from the time of, the famous artificerSt. Eligius of Noyon, who died in 659. The material was gold, richly decorated with enamels and precious stones. In shape it was without handles and like a celery glass, with a very deep cup and no stem, but the cup was joined to the base by a knop, which under the name ofnodus orpomellum became a very characteristic feature in the chalices of theMiddle Ages. In many of the specimens described or preserved from the Merovingian,Carlovingian, and Romanesque periods, it is possible to make a distinction between the ordinary sacrificial chalice used bybishops andpriests in the Mass and thecalices ministeriales intended for the Communion of the faithful atEaster and other seasons when many received. These latter chalices are of considerable size, and they are often, though not always, fitted with handles, which, it is easy to understand, would have afforded additional security against accidents when thesacred vessel was put to the lips of each communicant in turn. In a rude and barbarous age the practical difficulties of Communion under species of wine must have been considerable, and it is not wonderful that from the Carolingian period onwards the device was frequently adopted of using a pipe or reed (known by a variety of names,fistula, tuellus, canna, arundo, pipa, calamus, siphon, etc.) for the Communion of bothclergy and people. To this day at the solemnpapal high Mass, the chalice is brought from the altar to thepope at his throne, and the pontiff absorbs its contents through a golden pipe. This practice also lasted down to the reformation among theCistercians.

The chalices of the Middle Ages

Of chalices earlier than the time ofCharlemagne the existing specimens are so few and sodoubtful that generalization of any kind is almost impossible. Besides the already mentioned chalice of Chelles, now destroyed, only two of those still preserved can be referred confidently to a date earlier than the year 800. The most remarkable of these is that ofTassilo, which bears the inscription TASSILO DUX FORTIS + LUITPIRG VIRGA (sic) REGALIS. This beautiful piece of metal work exhibits an egg-shaped cup joined to a small conical base by a knop. The character of the ornamentation shows clearly the predominance ofIrish influences, even if it be not actually the work of anIrish craftsman. Plainer in design, but very similar in form, is the chalice said to have belonged to St. Ledger. Its Eucharistic character isproved beyonddoubt by the inscription which it bears: HIC CALIX SANGVINIS DNI IHV XTI. If, as is possible, these words are intended to form a chronogram, they yield the date 788. Of the succeeding period, by far the most remarkable example preserved is the magnificent relic ofIrish art known as the Chalice ofArdagh (see picture), from the place near which it was accidentally discovered in 1868. This is a "ministerial" chalice and it has two handles. It is seven inches in height but as much as nine and a half inches in diameter, and the bowl is capable of containing nearly three pints of liquid. The material is silver alloyed with copper, but gold and other metals have been used in its wonderful ornamentation, consisting largely of interlacing patterns and rich enamels. An inscription in very interesting ancient characters gives simply the names of theTwelve Apostles, a list of course highly suggestive of theLast Supper. The date conjecturally assigned to this masterpiece from the letters of the inscription is the ninth or tenth century. But in any case the broadening of the cup and the firm and wide base indicate a development which is noticeable in nearly all the chalices of the Romanesque period. The chalice known as that of St. Gozlin,Bishop of Toul (922-962), is still preserved in thecathedral ofNancy. In its broad, low, circular form it much resembles the last-named chalice. Another very beautiful ministerial chalice with handles, but of later date (twelfth century?), is that of the Abbey of Wilten in the Tyrol. It may be added that although these double-handled cups of precious metal were nodoubt primarily intended for the Communion of the people, they were also on great occasions used by the celebrant in theHoly Sacrifice. The fresco in theunder-church of San Clemente inRome (eleventh century?), representing the Mass of St. Clement, shows a two-handled chalice upon the altar, and the same may be seen in the famousliturgicalivory panel of the Spitza collection (Kraus, Christliche Kunst, II, 18)

It iscertain, however, that the chalices commonly used for the private Masses ofparishpriests andmonks were of a simpler character, and in the eighth, ninth and following centuries much legislation was devoted to securing that chalices should be made of becoming material. From are mark attributed toSt. Boniface (c. 740) that in the early ages of theChurch thepriests were of gold and the chalices of wood, but that now the chalices were of gold and thepriests of wood, it might be inferred that he would have favoured simplicity in the furniture of the altar, but the synodal decrees of this period only aimed at promoting suitable reverence for the Mass.England seems to have taken the lead in this matter, and in any case the English canons may be quoted as typical of those which soon afterwards were enforced everywhere. Thus the Council of Celchyth (Chelsea) forbade the use of chalices orpatens of hornquod de sanguine sunt, and the canons passed in the reign of Edgar, underSt. Dunstan, enjoined that all chalices in which the "housel is hallowed" should be of molten work (calic gegoten) and that none should be hallowed in a wooden vessel. Thelaws of the Northumbrianpriests imposed a fine upon all who should "hallow housel" in a wooden chalice and the so-called canons ofÆlfric repeated the injunction that chalices of molten material, gold, silver, glass (glaesen) or tin should be used, not horn, and especially not wood. Horn was rejected because blood had entered into its composition. Probably, however, the most famousdecree was that included in the "Corpus Juris" (cap. xlv, dist. i, de consecratione) "that the chalice of the Lord, together with thepaten, if not gold, must be entirely made of silver. If, however, anyone is so poor, let him at least have a chalice of pewter. The chalice must not be made of brass or copper, because it generates rust (i.e. verdigris) which causes nausea. And let no one presume to sayMass with a chalice of wood or glass. Thisdecree is traditionally attributed to a certain council ofReims, but Hefele is unable to identify it.

From the eleventh century onwards sufficient chalices and representations of chalices survive to enable us to draw conclusions regarding their evolution of form. A round knop, short stem, broad firm base, and wide, rather shallow cup are characteristic of the earlier period. One of the richest surviving examples is the chalice known as that of St. Remi. It is remarkable for themaledictory inscription engraved on its base: QUICUNQUE HUNC CALICEM INVADIAVERIT VEL AB HAC ECCLESIA REMENSI ALIQUO MODO ALIENAVERIT ANATHEMA SIT. FIAT AMEN. In the thirteenth century, while the cup of the ordinary chalice still remains broad and rather low, and base and knop are circular, we find a certain development of the stem. On the other hand the cup, in a large number of examples of the fourteenth century, tends to assume a conical or funnel shape, while the stem and knop become angular, or prismatic in section, generally hexagonal. The base is often divided into six lobes to match the stem, and the knop itself is sometimes resolved into a group of studs or bosses, which in certain fifteenth-century specimens give place to a mass of areading andarchitectural ornament set with figures. The stem is at the same time elongated and becomes much taller. UnderRenaissance influences, on the other hand, the ornamentation in the more sumptuous specimens of chalices is often excessive, spending itself in the form of figured repoussé work upon the base and stem. The cup almost invariably assumes a tulip shape, which continues during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, while the chalice greatly increases in height. With this, in the seventeenth century, often went a very thin stem, or again a quite inadequate base, so that many chalices of this period leave the well-founded impression of bring either fragile or top heavy. The question of the restriction of Communion under both kinds and the consequent withdrawal of the chalice from thelaity is a matter of some obscurity and does not belong to the present article. In many places where the Precious Blood was no longer given to the people, it seems that to reconcile them more easily to the change, a cup containing simple wine was presented to each communicant as he left the sanctuary after receiving the Sacred Host. Parishpriests were enjoined to explain very carefully to the people that this was only ordinary wine intended to enable them to swallow the Host more readily. This practice, calledpurificatio, is still prescribed as part of the rite of the General Communion onEaster Day in the "Cæremonial Episcoporum" (II, cap. xxix). Probably a special chalice of large capacity was reserved for this purpose. As it was very probably a chalice of large capacity, with handles, it seems impossible to distinguish such a goblet from thecalix ministerialis of earlier times. Another kind of chalice referred to by archæologists is that said to have been used afterbaptism to give milk and honey to theneophytes, but no definite surviving example of such a vessel seems to beknown.

Present legislation

According to the existing law of theChurch the chalice, or at least the cup of it, must be made either of gold or of silver, and in the latter case the bowl must be gilt on the inside. In circumstances of great poverty or in time ofpersecution acalix stanneus (pewter) may be permitted, but the bowl of this also, like the upper surface of thepaten, must be gilt. Before the chalice andpaten are used in theSacrifice of the Mass they requireconsecration. This rite is carried out according to a form specially provided in the "Pontificale" and involving the use ofholy chrism. Theconsecration must be performed by abishop (or in the case of chalices intended for monastic use, by anabbot possessing the privilege), and abishop cannot in an ordinary way delegate anypriest to perform this function in his place. Further, if the chalice lose itsconsecration — which happens for example if it be broken or the cup perforated, or even if it has had to be sent to have the bowl regilded—it isnecessary that it should be reconsecrated by thebishop before it can again be used. Strictly speaking, onlypriests anddeacons are permitted to touch the chalice orpaten, but leave is usually granted tosacristans and those officially appointed to take charge of the vestments andsacred vessels.

Adjuncts of the chalice

These are thecorporal, the purificator, thepall, theburse, and the chalice veil.

The corporal will be considered separately.

The purificator (purificatorium or more ancientlyemunctorium) now consists of a rectangular piece of linen usually folded twice lengthwise and laid across the top of the chalice. It is used for wiping and drying the chalice, or thepaten, or thepriest's lips, e.g. after the ablutions. Unlike the corporal and the pall, it requires no special blessing. In the Middles Age it was not customary, as it is nowadays, for eachpriest to have a purificator of his own, frequently renewed, but it seems that a cloth of this kind was kept at the altar which was used in common by all.

The pall is a small square of stiffened linen ornamented with a cross, which is laid upon the orifice of the chalice to protect its contents from flies or dust. The wordpallium, orpalla, was originally used of all kinds of coverings, notably of what we now call the altar-cloths, and also of the corporal. Even inSt. Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc., VII, xxii) we read of the sacred gifts being veiled by a pallium, which was probably some sort of corporal. But about the time ofSt. Anselm (c. 1100) the custom seems to have grown up in some places of using two corporals at the altar. One was spread out, and upon it the chalice and host were laid. The other, folded into smaller compass, served only to cover the chalice (sce Giorgi, Liturgia Rom. Pont., II, 220, III, 79-81). This folded corporal is now represented by the little disk of linen which we call the pall. At one time it was forbidden to cover the pall with silk or richembroidery; now the upper surface may be of silk andembroidered, but the under-side, which is in contact with the chalice, must still be linen. The original identity of the pall and the corporal is further illustrated by the fact that both alike require to be specially blessed before use.

The chalice veil and theburse are of comparatively recent introduction. Even Burchard, the compiler of the "Ordo Missae" (1502), now represented by therubricae generales of the RomanMissal, supposes that the chalice andpaten were brought by thepriest to the altar in a sacculum or lintheum, which seems to have been the ancestor of the present veil. Theburse, which is simply a cover used to keep the corporal from being soiled, and which for that reason was known in Old English as a "corporas-case", is somewhat older. Severalmedieval burses are still preserved in the collection at Danzig. Nowadays bothburse and veil are usually made of the same material as that of the set of vestments to which they belong, and they are similarly ornamented.

The chalice in art

From what has already been said it will be clear that the chalice, as the most important of all the vessels in church use, must have exercised an incalculable influence upon the early developments of the goldsmith's craft. Such monuments as theArdagh chalice and theTassilo chalice, both ofIrish origin, stand almost alone in the information they afford of an otherwise unsuspected mechanical skill and richness of ornament, particularly in the matter of enamels, in a remote and barbarous age. The earliest, documents connected with the life ofSt. Patrick reveal the fact that the artificers of chalices and bells had a certain status which in that rude age won respect for the arts of peace. The chalice in a particular way was identified with thepriesthood. Thissacred vessel, which now stands upon thepriest's coffin during his obsequies, recalls the time when a small chalice of metal or of wax was buried with him in histomb; and the chalice which is the recognized emblem of so manysaints — e.g.,St. John the Evangelist — suggests in many instances the promise made byChrist to His followers, "if ye shall drink any deadly thing it shall not hurt you". To attempt to illustrate the characteristics of the artistic silver work in the different countries ofEurope would take us too far. But it is much to be desired that by the favour shown to good material, skilful workmanship, and a pure type of art, the chalices constructed for theliturgical use of theChurch may still serve as an encouragement of all that is best in the craft of the worker in precious metals.

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