Syria

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Geography and political divisions, ancient and modern

A country in WesternAsia, which in modern times comprises all that region bounded on the north by the highlands of the Taurus, on the south byEgypt, on the east by Mesopotamia and the Arabia Desert, and on the west by the Mediterranean; thus including with its area the ancient and modern countries of Aram or North Syria, a portion of the Hittite and Mitanni kingdoms, Phœnicia, the land ofCanaan or Palestine, and even a section of the Sinaitic Peninsula. Strictly speaking, however, and especially from the point of view of Biblical and classical geography, which is the one followed in this article, Syria proper composes only that portion of the above-mentioned territories that is bounded on the north and northwest by the Taurus andAsia Minor, on the south by Palestine, on the east by the Euphrates, the Syro-Arabiandesert and Mesopotamia, and on the west by the Mediterranean. The northern portion is elevated, the eastern is level, extending to the Syro-Arabiandesert; the northwestern iscrowned by the Amanus and Taurus mountains, while the mountains ofLebanon and Anti-Lebanon are parallel ranges on the north of Palestine or south of Syria. Between these two ranges is the long narrow valley called Cæle-Syria (Hollow Syria). Its chief rivers are the Litâny (Leontes), the Orontes (Al-'Asi), and the Barad or Abana. Cæle-Syria varies in breadth from three or four miles to fifteen miles, and in some places broken by projecting spurs of the Lebanon ranges. At its northern end it curves round to the west and opens out to the Mediterranean. It has two slopes, a northerly and a southerly one, and both are fertile and beautiful. This valley was always an important route of travel between Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean coast,Arabia, andEgypt. The whole of Syria, however, is about 250 miles in length, and an average of 130 miles in breadth, having a total area of about 32,500 square miles. The most important towns of Syria in ancient times were Damascus, Karkamish, Hamath, Baalbec, Palmyra or Tadmur, Riblah,Antioch, Daphne,Seleucia,Abila, Chalcis, Lybo,Laodicea,Arethusa, and Apamæa, whereas the famous cities ofTyre,Sidon, Beritus Byblos, and Aradus belong properly speaking to Phœnicia. The most important towns of modern Syria are Alexandretta, Antakia,Beirut,Aleppo, Latakyah, Hamah, Homs, Tripoli,Damascus, Sayda, Akka andJaffa.

The name "Syria" was formerly believed to be either an abbreviation of "Assyria" or derived from Tsur (Tyre), hence Tsurya, and that it was of Greek origin. This, however, is untenable, as the name, in all probability, is derived from the oldBabylonian name Suri, applied originally to the north-eastern portion of the present Syria. Later on the name Syria was applied by the Greeks and the Romans to the whole of Syria, or the country lying between the Euphrates, the Mediterranean, the Taurus, andEgypt. By the Babylonians and theAssyrians it was called "Amurru" (the Land of the Amorites) and Martu (the West-Land). The extreme northern part of it was also known as "Khatti", or the Land of theHittites, whilst the most southern region was known as "Kena'nu" or "Kanaan" (Palestine). In Arabic it is called either "Suriyya" (Syria) or "Al-Sham" (the country situated to the "left"), in opposition to "El-Yemen", or South Arabia, which is situated to the "right". The political and geographic divisions of Syria have been numerous and constantly varying. In theOld Testament it is generally called "Aram", and its inhabitant "Arameans". But there were several Biblical "Arams", viz: "Aram-naharaim" or "Aram of the Two Rivers", i.e., Mesopotamia; "Paddon-Aram" (the region of Haran), in the extreme north of Mesopotamia; "Aram-Ma'rak" to the north of Palestine; "Aram-beth Rehob", "Aram-Sobah", etc. The Syrian Aram, however, which corresponds to the classical Syria is called generally in theOld Testament "Aram ofDamascus" from the principal city of the country. It is one of these Arameans, or Syrians, who occupied Central Syria, with Damascus as the capital city, that we hear most in theOld Testament.

During the Greek and Roman dominations the political divisions of Syria were indefinite and almost unintelligible. Strabo mentions five great provinces: (1) Commagene, a small territory in the extreme north, with Samosata for capital, situated on the Euphrates; (2) Seleucia, lying south of the former, and subdivided into four divisions, according to the number of its chief cities, viz: Antioch Epidaphne,Seleucia, in Pieria; Apamæa, and Laodicea; (3) Cæle-Syria, comprising Laodicea and Libanum, Chalcia, Abilene,Damascus, Ituræa, and others farther south, included in Palestine; (4) Phœnicia; (5) Judæa. Pliny's divisions are still more numerous than those of Strabo. It appears that each city on rising to importance gave its name to a surrounding territory, larger or smaller, and this in time assumed the rank of a province. Ptolemy mentions thirteen provinces: Cammagene, Pieria, Cyrrhestica,Seleucia, Casiotis, Chalibonitis, Chalcis, Apamene,Laodicea, Phœnicia, Cæle-Syria, Palmyrene, and Batanea, and he gives a long list of the cities contained in them. Under the Romans, Syria became a province of the empire. Some portions of it were permitted to remain for a time under the rule of petty princes, dependent on the imperial government. Gradually, however, all these were incorporated, and Antioch was the capital. UnderHadrian the province was divided into two parts: Syria-Major, on the north, and Syria-Phænice, on the south. Towards the close of the fourth century another partition of Syria was made, and formed the basis of itsecclesiastical government: (1) Syria Prima, with Antioch as its capital; (2) Syria Secunda, with Apamæa as its capital; (3) Phœnicia Prima, including the greater part of ancient Phœnicia, withTyre as its capital; (4) Phœnicia Secunda, also called Phœnicia ad Libanum, with Damascus as its capital. During the Arabian domination, i.e., from the seventh to the fifteenth century, Syria was generally divided into six large districts (Giunds), viz: (1) Filistîn (Palestine), consisting of Judæa,Samaria, and a portion of the territory east of theJordan, its capital was at Ramlah,Jerusalem ranking next; (2) Urdun (Jordan) of which the capital was Tabaria (Tiberias), roughly speaking it consisted of the rest of Palestine as far asTyre; (3) Damascus, a district which included Baalbeck, Tripoli,Beirut, and the Hauran; (4) Hams, including Hamah; (5) Qinnasrin, corresponding to northern Syria; the capital at first was Qinnasrin, to the south ofAleppo, by which it was afterwards superseded; (6) the sixth district was the military frontier ('awâsim) bordering upon the Byzantine dominions inAsia Minor. Under the presentTurkish rule, Syria is divided into the following six vilayets, or provinces: (1) the Vilayet ofAleppo, with the 3 liwas ofAleppo,Marash, and Urfa; (2) the independent Liwa of Zor (Deir es-Zor); (3) the Vilayet ofBeirut, including the south coast of the mouth of the Orontes, the mountain-district of the Nosairiyeh and Lebanon to the south of Tripoli, further the town ofBeirut and the country between the sea and theJordan from Saida to the north ofJaffa, and is divided into 5 liwas: Ladikiyeh, Tarabulus,Beirut, 'Akka (Acre), and Nabulus; (4) Lebanon, from the north of Tripoli to the north of Saida, exclusive of the town ofBeirut, forms an independent liwa, administered by a governor and with the rank of mushîr; (5) the Vilayet of Suriyya (Syria), comprises the country from Hamah to the Hijaz—the capital is Damascus — and is divided into the liwas of Hamah,Damascus, Hauran, and Kerak; (6) El-Quds, orJerusalem, is an independent liwa under a mutesarrif of the first class. At the head of each vilayet is a vali, or governor-general, whose province is divided into departments (sanjak, liwa), each presided over by a mutesarrif; each department again contains so many divisions (kaimmakamlik, kada), each under a kaimmakam; and these again are divided into districts (mudiriyeh, nahiya) under mudirs. The independent liwas of Ez-Zor and El-Quds stand in direct connexion with the central government at Constantinople.

Ethnography of modern Syria

Ethnographically, the modern inhabitants of Syria consist ofArabs,Turks,Jews, andFranks orEuropeans. (1) The Syrians are direct descendants of the ancient Arameans who inhabited the country from about the first millennium B.C. and who spoke Aramaic. Most of these embracedChristianity and spoke Aramaic until about the seventh century, whenArab invasion forced the Arabic language to become the vernacular tongue of the country. Aramaic, however, held its ground for a considerable time and traces of it are still to be found in the liturgy of the so-called Syrian, Chaldean, andMaronite Churches, as well as in three villages of the anti-Libanus. (2) The Arabian population consists of hadari, or settles, and bedawi (p. bedu) or nomadic tribes. The settled population is of very mixed origin, but the Bedouins are mostly of mixedArab blood. They are the direct descendants of the half-savage nomads who have inhabited Arabia from time immemorial. Their dwellings consist of portable tents made of black goats' hair. There are two main branches. One of these consist of the 'Ænezch who migrate in winter towards Central Arabia, while the other embraces those tribes which remain permanently in Syria. (3) TheTurks are not a numerous class in the community of Syria. They are intellectually inferior to theArabs, but the lower classes are generally characterized by patriarchal simplicity of manner. There are two parties ofTurks, the Old, and the Young, or Liberal Party. In Northern Syria, as well as on theGreat Hermon, are still several nomadicTurkish tribes, or Turcomans, whose mode of life is the same as that of the BedouinArabs. (4) TheJews who remained in the country are but few in number; most of those who now reside in Palestine are comparatively recent settlers fromEurope. (5) TheFranks (Europeans) form a very small proportion of the population. Distinct from them are the so-called "Levantines", who are eitherEuropeans or descendants ofEuropeans, who have entirely adopted the manners of the country.

Religions of modern Syria

In regard to religion, the modern inhabitants of Syria consist ofMohammedans,Christians, andJews. The first are divided into Sunnites, ororthodoxMohammedans, Metawileh, Nusairiyyeh, or Ansairiyyeh, and Ismaliyyeh. To these may be added theDruzes. TheChristians includeRoman Catholics of theLatin Rite;Roman Catholic Greeks orMelchites;Maronites (allRoman Catholic);Roman Catholic Syrians,Roman Catholic Chaldeans,Roman CatholicArmenians, Schismatic Syrians, i.e.,Monophysites, commonly calledJacobites; SchismaticArmenians,CatholicArmenians, andProtestants.

The Mohammedans or Moslems

TheMoslems are and have been for the last twelve centuries the lords of the land and still constitute the great majority of its inhabitants. They are generallyignorant and fanatical, although of lateeducation has spread among the better class in the larger towns. Till a few years ago they were inclined to look with contempt on all other peoples andreligions. This, however, is gradually disappearing owing to the wonderful strides theChristians of Syria have been making of late in the matter ofschools,universities,hospitals,seminaries, andeducational and commercial institutions. The SyrianMuslims are generally noble in bearing, polite in address, and profuse in hospitality; but they are regardless oftruth, dishonest in their dealings, and immoral in their conduct. In large towns the greater proportion of the upper classes are both physically and morally feeble, owing to the effects ofpolygamy, earlymarriages, and degrading vices; but the peasantry are robust and vigorous, and much might be hoped from them if they were brought under the influence of liberal institutions, and if they had examples around them of the industry and the enterprise of WesternEurope. Experience, indeed, has already shown that they are not slow to adopt the improvement of other lands. In religion, theMohammedans of Syria are Sunnites, or traditionalists—that is, in addition to the written word of theKoran, they recognize the Sunna, a collection of tradition sayings of the Prophet, which is a kind of supplement to theKoran directing the right observance of many things omitted in that book. They are in general exact in observance of the outward rites of their religion.

The Metawileh

The Metawileh (sing. Metaly) are the followers of 'Aly, the son-in-law ofMohammed. His predecessors, Abu Bekr, 'Omar, and Othman, they do not acknowledge astrue khalifs. 'Aly they maintain is the lawful Imam; and they hold that the supreme authority, both spiritual and temporal, belongs of right to his descendants alone. They reject the Sunna, and are therefore regarded asheretics by theorthodox. They are allied infaith to the Shi'ites ofPersia. They are almost as scrupulous in their ceremonial observance as theHindus. The districts in which they chiefly reside are Ba'albek, where their chiefs are the notedfamily of Harfush; Belad Besharah, on the southern part of the Lebanon range; and a district on the west bank of the Orontes, around the village of Hurmul. They also occupy several scattered villages in Lebanon.

The Nusairiyyeh

It is not easy to tell whether these people areMohammedans or not. Their religion still remains a secret, notwithstanding all attempts lately made to dive into their mysteries. They are represented as holding afaith halfChristian and halfMohammedan. Theybelieve in the transmigration ofsouls, and observe in a singular, perhapsidolatrous, manner a few of the ceremonies common in theEastern Church. They inhabit a range of mountains extending from the great valley north ofLebanon to the gorge of the Orontes at Antioch.

The Ismailiyyeh

The Ismailiyyeh, who inhabit a few villages on the eastern slopes of the Ansairiyeh mountains, resemble the Nusairiyyeh in this, that their religion is a mystery. There were originally a religious-political subdivision of the Shi'ites, and are the feeble remains of a people too well known in the time of theCrusades as the Assassins. They have still their chief seat in the castle of Masyad, on the mountains west of Hamah.

The Druzes

(The generic name in Arabic is ed-Deruz, sing. Derzy). The peculiar doctrines of theDruzes was first propagated inEgypt by thenotorious Hakim, third of the Fatimite dynasty. This khalif, who gave himself out as aprophet, though he acted more like a madman, taught a system of half-materialism, asserting that the Deity resided in 'Aly. In A.D. 1017 aPersian of thesect of Batanism called Mohammed Ben-Ismail ed-Dorazy, settled inEgypt, and became a devoted follower and stimulator of Hakim. He not only affected tobelieve in and propagate the pretensions of the newEgyptianprophet, but he added to his doctrines that of the transmigration ofsouls, which he had brought from his native country, and he carried his fanaticism to such an extent that the people at last drove him out ofEgypt. He took refuge in Wady el-Teim, at the western base ofHermon; and being secretly supplied with money by theEgyptian monarch, propagated hisdogmas, and became the founder of theDruzes. His system was enlarged, and to some degree modified, by other disciples of Hakim, especially by the Persian Hamzeh, whom theDruze still venerate as the founder of theirsect and the author of their law. Hamzeh tried to gain over theChristians by representing himself as theMessiah whose advent they expected. For further details seeDRUZES.

The Jews

TheJews of Syria are of several different classes. The Sephardim are the Spanish-PortugueseJews, who immigrated after the expulsion of theJews fromSpain under Isabella I; most of them now speak Arabic, though some still speak a Spanish patois. The Ashkenazim are fromRussia, Galicia,Hungary,Bohemia,Moravia,Germany, andHolland, and speak the dialect known as Yiddish. These again are well divided into the Perushim and the Chasadim. TheJews of the East have retained their character to a considerable extent, and are generally tall and slender in stature. They live in the towns, generally in a quarter of their own.

History of Christianity in Syria

The history ofChristianity in Syria proper during the first three centuries and down to theCouncil of Nicea (A.D. 325), centres chiefly about Antioch, while from the time of theCouncil of Nicea to theArab invasion it is absorbed into that of the Antiochine Patriarchate (seeTHE CHURCH OF ANTIOCH), just as theChristianity of Palestine is practically that ofJerusalem, ofEgypt, that or Alexandria, of the West that ofRome, of Mesopotamia andPersia that ofSeleucia Ctesiphon, and of the ByzantineGreek Church that of Constantinople. As JewishChristianity originated atJerusalem, soGentileChristianity started atAntioch, then the leading center of the Hellenistic East, with Peter and Paul as its apostles. From Antioch it spread to the various cities and provinces of Syria, among the Hellenistic Syrians as well as among the HellenisticJews who, as a result of the great rebellions against the Romans in A.D. 70 and 130, were driven out fromJerusalem and Palestine into Syria. The spread of the new religion was so rapid and successful that at the time of Constantine Syria was honeycombed withChristian churches. The history of theChristian Church in Syria during the second and third centuries is rather obscure, yet sufficient data to furnish a fairidea of the rapid spread ofChristianity in Syria have been collected by Harnack in his well-known work "The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries" (Eng. Tr., 2nd ed.,London 1908, vol. II, pp. 120 sqq.).

Outside the city of Antioch, that "fair city of the Greeks" (see Isaac of Antioch's "Carmen", 15, ed.Bickell, i, 294), Syriac was the language of the people; in fact it was spoken by the lower classes in Antioch itself and only among the upper classes of the Greek towns was it displaced by Greek. The Syriac spirit was wedded to Greek, however, even here, and remained the predominant factor in religious and social life, although at first and indeed for long it did not look as if it would. Yet, in thisChristian world,Christianity seems to have operated fromEdessa, rather than from Antioch. The wide territory lying between these cities was consequently evangelized from two centres during the third century: from Antioch in the West by means ofGreek Christian propaganda, and fromEdessa in the East by means of one which wasSyro-Christian. The inference is that the larger towns practically adopted the former while the country towns and villages went over to the latter. At the same time there was also a Western Syrian movement ofChristianity, thought it did not amount to much, both in and after the days ofPaul of Samosata and Zenobia. The work of conversion, so it would appear, made greater headway in Cæle-Syria, however, than in Phœnicia. No fewer than twenty-twobishops from Cæle-Syria attended Nicea (twochorepiscopi), including several who had Hellenic names. Hence we may infer the existence of no inconsiderable number of nationalSyrian Christians. By about 325 the district round Antioch seems to have contained a very large number ofChristians, and one dated (331) inscription runs as follows: "Christ, have mercy; there is but oneGod."

In Chysostom's day these Syria villages appear to have been practicallyChristian. Lucian, thepriest of Antioch, declares in his speech before the magistrate in Nicomedia (311) that "almost the greater part of the world now adheres to this Truth, yea whole cities; even if any of this evidence seems suspect, there is nodoubt regarding multitudes of country-folk, who are innocent of guile" (pars paene mundi eam maior huic veritate adstipulatur, urbes integræ, aut si in his alquid suspectum videtur, contestatur de his etiam agrestis manus, ignara figmenti); and although this may reflect impressions he had just received in Bythynia, there was substantial ground for the statement in the local circumstances of Syria. The number ofclergy in 303 throughout Syria is evident from Eusebius,Church History VIII.6: "An enormous number were put inprison at every place. Theprisons, hitherto reserved for murderers and riflers of graves, were now packed everywhere withbishops,priests,deacons,lectors, andexorcists". Further data at our command are as follows: (1)Acts 15 already mentions churches in Syria besides Antioch. (2) Ignatius, apropos of Antioch (Philadelphians 10) mentions "Churches in the neighbourhood" which had alreadybishops of their own. These certainly included Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch, mentioned inActs 8:4. (3) Apamæa was a centre ofElkesaites. (4) Dionys. Alex. (in Eusebius,Church History VIII.5) observes that the Roman church frequently sent contributions to the Syrian Churches. (5) The document of the Antiochene Synod of 268 (Eusebius, VII, xxx), mentions, in connexion with Antioch, "bishops of the neighbouring country and cities".

The towns in the vicinity of Antioch, both far and near, must already have hadbishops, in all or nearly all cases, if countrybishops were in existence. From Eus. VI, vii, we learn that by about A.D. 200 there was aChristian community as Rhossus which was gravitating towards Antioch. (6) Twochorepiscopi from Cæle-Syria attended theCouncil of Nicea. In Martyrol Hieron. (Achelis, "Mart. Hieron," p. 168) amartyrdom is noted as having occurred "in Syria provencia regione Apamæ vico Aprovavicta" but both of these places are unknown. (7) Bishops from the following places in Cæle-Syria were present at Nicea: Antioch,Seleucia,Laodicea, Apameæ, Raphaneæ, Hieropolis (=Maybug, Bambyce),Germanicia,Samosata,Doliche, Balaneæ Gabula,Zeugma,Larissa,Epiphania,Arethusa, Neocæsarea,Cyrrhus, Gindron, Arbokadama, andGabala. These towns lay in the most diverse districts of this wide country, on the seaboard, in the valley of the Orantes, in the Euphrates Valley, between the Orontes and the Euphrates, and in the north. Their distribution shows thatChristianity was fairly uniform and fairly strong in Syria about 325, as is strikingly shown by therescript of Daza to Sabinus (Eusebius,Church History IX.9), for we must understand the experiences undergone by the churches of Syrian Antioch andAsia Minor, when we read the emperor's words about almost all men abandoning the worship of the gods and attaching themselves to theChristian people. This remark is not one to be taken simply as a rhetorical flourish. For later speaking in one place about the first edict ofDiocletian,Eusebius proceeds as follows: "Not long afterwards, as some people in the district calledMelitene and other districts throughout Syria attempted to usurp the kingdom, a royal decree went forth to the effect that the head officials of the churches everywhere should be put inprison and chains" (VIII, vi, 8).Eusebius does not say it in so many words, but the context makes it quite clear that the emperor held theChristians responsible for both of these outbreaks (that ofMelitene being unknown to history). This means that theChristians inMelitene and Syria must have been extremely numerous, otherwise the emperor would never have met revolutionary outbreaks (which, in Syria, and, one may conjecture, inMelitene also, originated with the army) with edicts against theChristian clergy. TheBishop of Rhossus was not at Nicea (Rhossus, however, may also be assigned to Cilicia). But as we alreadyknow, Rhossus did possess aChristian Church about A.D. 200, which came under the supervision of the church at Antioch. There was a JewishChristian church at Beræa (Aleppo) in the fourth century. The localgentileChristian church cannot have been important; cf. The experience ofJulian there (Ep. xvii, p. 516, ed. Hertlein).

As to Phœnicia, one of the most important provinces of Syria, the history ofChristianity there is also obscure. Here again we learn from theActs of the Apostles thatChristianity reached Phœnician cities at a very early period. When Paul was converted there were alreadyChristians atDamascus (Acts 9:2, 10 sqq.,19; forChristians inTyre see22:4; for Ptolemais see21:7; for Sidon,27:3; and in general,11:19). Themetropolitan position ofTyre, which was the leading city of the East for manufactures and trade, made it theecclesiastical capital of the province; but it is questionable ifTyre enjoyed this pre-eminence as early as the second century, for at the Palestinian Synod on the Eastern controversy, Cassius, theBishop ofTyre, and Clarus, theBishop of Ptolemais, took counsel with theBishop of Ælia and of Cæsarea (Eusebius,Church History V.25), to whom they seem to have been subordinate. On the other hand, Marinus ofTyre is mentioned in a letter ofDionysius of Alexandria (ibid, VII, v, 1) in such a way as to make hismetropolitan dignity extremely probable. Martyrs in or fromTyre, during the greatpersecution, are noted byEusebius, VIII, vii, 1 (VIII, viii) VIII, xiii, 3.Origen died atTyre and was buried there. It is curious also to note that the learned Antiochinepriest, Dorotheus, the teacher ofEusebius, was appointed by the emperor (Diocletian, or one of his immediate predecessors) to be the director of the purple-dyeing trade inTyre (Eusebius,Church History VII.32). A particularly libelous edict issued by the Emperor Daza against theChristians is preserved byEusebius (IX, vii) who copied it from the pillar inTyre on which it was cut, and the historian's work reaches its climax in the great speech upon the reconstruction of the church atTyre, "by far the most beautiful in all Phœnicia" (X, iv). This speech is dedicated to Paulinus,Bishop ofTyre, in whosehonour indeed the whole of the tenth book of its history is written. Unfortunately we get no information whatever, in this long address, upon theChristian community atTyre. We can only infer the size of the community from the size of the church building, which may have stood where the ruins of the largecrusading church now astonish the traveller (cf. Baedecker's "Palestine", pp. 300 sq).Tyre as aChristian city was to Phœnicia what Cæsarea was to Palestine. It seems to have blossomed out as a manufacturing and trading centre during the imperial age, especially in the third century. A number of passages inJerome give characteristic estimates of its size and importance. In Sidon,Origen stayed for some time (Hom, xiv, 2 in Josuam), while it was there that thepresbyter Zenobius (Eusebius,Church History VIII.13.3) died in the greatpersecution, as did someChristians atDamascus (IX, v). Elevenbishops, but no chorepsicopi, were present at theCouncil of Nicea from Phœnicia; namely thebishops ofTyre, Ptolemais,Damascus,Sidon,Tripolis, Paneas, Berytus,Palmyra, Alassus, Emessa, and Antaradus. FromEusebius we also learn that many JewishChristians resided in Paneas (Eusebius,Church History VII.17.18). Tripolis is mentioned even before theCouncil of Nicea (in "Mart. Pal., " III, where aChristian named Dionysius comes fromTripolis); the Apostolic Constitutions (vii, 46) declare that Marthones wasbishop of this town as early as theApostolic age; while, previous to theCouncil of Nicea, Hellenicus, the localbishop, opposed Arius (Thedoret,Church History I.4), though Gregory,Bishop of Berytus, sided with him (loc. cit.; for Berytus, see also "Mart. Pal.", iv). The local church was burnt underJulian (cf.Theodoret,Church History IV.20).Eusebius (VIII, xiii) calls Silvanus, at the period of the greatpersecution,bishop, not ofEmesa, but of "the churches round Emesa". Emesa thus resembled Gaza; owing to the fanaticism of the inhabitants,Christians were unable to reside within the town itself, they had to quarter themselves in the adjoining villages. Anatolius, the successor of Silvanus, was the first to take up his abode within the town. Theodoret (Church History III.7), writing at the age ofJulian, says that the church there was xxx (newly built). With regard to Heliopolis, we have this definite information, that the town acquired its first church andbishop, thanks to Constantine, after 325 (cf. "Vita Constant.", III, lviii, andSocrates, I, xviii). The "Mart. Syriacum" mentions onemartyr, Lucius, at Heliopolis.Christians were also deported ("Mart. Pal.", XIII, ii) by Daza to Lebanon for penal servitude. Onemartyrdom makes it plain that there wereChristians at Byblus. At Choda (Kabun), north ofDamascus, there were also numerous JewishChristians in the days ofEusebius.

We have no information in detail upon the diffusion and density of theChristian population throughout Phœnicia. Rather general and satisfactory information is available for Syria, a province with which Phœnicia was at that time very closely bound up; even the Phœnicia tongue had long been dislodged by Syriac. From the letters of Chysostum and the state of matters which still obtained in the second half of the sixth century, however, it is quite clear thatChristianity got a firm footing only on the seaboard, while the inland districts of Phœnicia remainedpagan for the most part. Yet it was but recently, not earlier than the third century, that these Phœnician-Hellenic cults had experienced a powerful revival. The situation is quite clear: whereverChristianity went, it implied Hellenizing, and vice versa.Christianity, in the first instance, only secured a firm footing where there were Greeks. The majority of the Phœnicia towns whereChristian bishops can be traced lay on the coast; i.e., there were towns with a strong Greek population. In the largepagan cities,Emesa and Heliopolis,Christians were not tolerated. Once we leave out inland locations where "heretics", viz.,Marcionites and JewishChristians resided, the only place in the interior whereChristians can be found areDamascus, Paneas, andPalmyra. Damascus, the great trading city, was Greek (cf. Mommsen, "Rom. Gesch.", V., p. 473; Eng. Trans, II, 146); so was Paneas. In Palmyra, the headquarters of thedesert trade, a strong Greek element also existed (Mommsen, p. 425 sq.; Eng. Trans, II, 96 sq.). The national royal house atPalmyra, with its Greek infusion, was well-disposed not towards the Greek but towards the scanty indigenousChristians of Syria, as may be inferred from the relations betweenPaul of Samosata and Zenobia, no less than from the policy adopted byRome against him.

The Edict ofMilan (A.D. 313) marks the beginning of a better-known period in the history of SyrianChristianity, during which the See of Antioch was filled by a succession ofbishops illustrious throughout the church, and theChurch in Syria was involved in the most troublesome period ofchurch history andtheology, which marks the beginning of those fatalschisms,heresies, andChristological controversies which led to the final separation of the Syrian Church and the Churches of the East from theChurch ofRome (seeARIANISM; NESTORIANISM;MONOPHYSITISM). The death of Severus (542), the deposedMonophysitePatriarch ofAntioch, may be taken to mark the beginning of a new period in the history of the Syrian Church; for from this date the double succession in the See of Antioch has been maintained to the present day. The death of Emperor Maurice (A.D. 602), and the succession of his murderer, Phocas, gave the signal for thePersians to ravage the Roman dominions. Hitherto Mesopotamia had been the arena ofwar between the rival powers, and Dara,Amida, and Nisibis the keys of possession. But Heraclius came to the throne in 602 to find all Syria in the hands of Chosroes. First Damascus, then the holy city itself fell before the Persian general Shahrbarz (614), and the Patriarch Zecharius was carried off with theTrue Cross itself, to grace the infidel's triumph. Never since Constantinople was built had there been such a disaster; and at Chalcedon itself, almost opposite the very walls of the capital, thePersians were encamped, stretching out their hands to theSlavs and the Avars, who threatened the city on the north side of the isthmus, and inviting them to join in its destruction. An insulting and blasphemous letter from the Persian king aroused the emperor and allChristendom; while from Constantinople to Arabia theChurch poured forth her treasures of plate and money to help in thecrusade. Constantinople was fortified, and with a gigantic effort, worthy of the great conquerors of the world's history, Heraclius drove back thePersians, cutting them off in Celicia, and forcing them finally to make an abject appeal for mercy in the very royal palace of Dastagerd itself. Chosroes had been alreadymurdered by his son, who submitted to Heraclius (A.D. 628). The emperor returned, leaving the East in peace, to restore the cross to its place inJerusalem.

Meanwhile in an obscure corner of the empireMohammed had been born, and in this very year sent round a letter demanding for a new creed the submission of the kings of the earth. "The year of flight" (622) had passed, andMohammed was at the head of a devoted band of followers ready to conquer Arabia and perhaps the world. It was an epoch of the world's history, and twice thepatriarchs ofJerusalem saw theabomination of desolation standing in the holy place, and thought the end of all things at hand. Ten years after Sharzbarz (637), when the glories of Heraclius paled before the storm ofArab conquest, Sophronius the Patriarch and Omar theArab stood side by side at the altar of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre inJerusalem. East of the Mediterranean the Roman Empire had given way forever, and theArab arms now ruled the Churches which the councils of two centuries before had cut off from theorthodox communion. For the future it was not theMelchite or Imperialist to whom theEastern Churches were to acknowledge an unwilling homage, but the sword ofIslam. Byzantine history now affected them little, for the successors of Heraclius had enough to do to keep theSaracen fleets away from the capital. The famousIconoclastic controversy begun by Leo the Isaurian, was continued for nearly a hundred years (720-802) by his successors. How little the second great controversy of the times affected the Syrians may be judged by their own language in regard to the "Procession of the Holy Ghost." The words inserted in the Creed by theWestern Church were the occasion of the rupture, for which the rival claims of Gregory ofRome and John Scholasticus of Constantinople had paved the way; and the ninth century witnessed the unseemly recriminations and the final break between the two great communions.

In the seventh century the SyrianChristians fade from the generalhistory of the Church. TheArabs were inclined to favour them as rivals of the Greeks and early in the eighth century Wâlid secured the entry of their patriarch into Antioch, whence they had been driven by the Greeks since the death of Jacobus Baradæus. But he remained there only a short time, nor where his people free from the persecutions which Abdelmalik and Yazid ordered against theChristians; while in 771 the Khalif Abdullah took a census throughout Syria and Mesopotamia, ordering allJews andChristians, especially atJerusalem, to be branded on the neck and forehead. A short-lived union between the Syrians and theArmenians (726) was followed bypersecution at the hands of the Greeks (750), who took away many Syrians andArmenian slaves from Mesopotamia to the West. Two centuries later, Nicephorus Phocas, anxious to uniteChristendom against theArabs, caused John Sarighta, thePatriarch of the Syrians, to be brought to Constantinople, there to discuss with Polyeuctus, patriarch of that city, the differences that divided them. In the letter written by John to Mennas of Alexandria we perceive how much the controversy had become a mere matter of verbal expression, and how the Syrians clung to the words which Greek tyranny had made the badge of a rival party. Theimprisonment of John, added to other acts of tyranny, confirmed theirhatred of the Greeks, and made them prefer even the domination of theMoslem. From the eighth and ninth century down to our own times the history ofChristianity in Syria is the history ofNestorianism and of theNestorian Church, ofEutychianism and theMonophysite or Jacobite Syrian Church, of theMonophysiteArmenian Church of Syria, of the Greek Schism, and of the Byzantine, Russian, and Greek, or the so-called OrthodoxEastern Church; the Schismatic andMelchite (Catholic) Greek Patriarchates of Antioch, the Latin Patriarchate of Antioch, and theMaronite Church, for all which see respective articles.

Statistics of the various Christian sects and Churches

TheChristians of modern Syria,schismatic as well asCatholic, are divided into the followingsects andchurches:

Greek Orthodox, i. e., the Syrian Greek Schismatic Church

The Greek Orthodox of Syria are under thejurisdiction of thePatriarch of the Greek Orthodox of Antioch, whose residence is atDamascus and who has under hisjurisdiction two suffragan orauxiliary bishops attached to him personally, and 13 eparchies, orarchdioceses, 50,000families, or about 250,000 subjects, most of whom dwell in Syria proper. Of these thirteen eparchies, eleven are in Syria, one in Northern Mesopotamia, one inArmenia andAsia Minor. The Greek Orthodox of Syria have 5schools with 810 pupils in Beirut; 24 inDamascus and surrounding villages, with 2215 pupils and 60 teachers; and 12 in northern Syria with 2400 pupils and 65 teachers. The liturgy of the Syrian Greek Orthodox is that of theGreek Church, and theliturgical language, Greek with a great deal of Arabic, which is the vernacular of all theChristians of Syria.

Greek Melchites, i.e. the Catholic Syrians of the Greek Rite

These are under thejurisdiction of the Greek-MelchitePatriarch ofAntioch, whose residence is atDamascus, and who has under his patriarchaljurisdiction 4archdioceses, 8dioceses, 2 patriarchal vicariates (atJerusalem and Alexandria), with a total of about 125,000 thousandsouls, divided as follows: (1)Archdiocese of Aleppo, 6churches andchapels, 10,000souls, 86colleges superintended byFranciscan,Capuchin, andJesuit missionaries; (2) Archdiocese ofBostra and Hauran with 12,000souls, 4 churches and 8chapels, 15priests and 4schools; (3) Archdiocese of Homs and Hamah, with 8000souls, 20churches andchapels, 20priests and 18schools, residence at Homs; (4)Archdiocese of Tyre, with 6200souls, 11churches andchapels, 20priests, of which 15 areBasilianmonks, and 13schools, residence at Sur (Tyre); (5)Diocese of Beirut and Djebail, with 15,000souls, oneseminary at Ain-Traz, 150parishes, 195churches andchapels, and 19schools, residence atBeirut; (6) Diocese at Cæsarea-Philipi, or Baneas, with 4500souls, 15parishes, 9churches andchapels, 17priests, and 19schools, residence at Gemaidat-Marjoun; (7)Diocese of Damascus, of which the patriarch himself is the ordinary, with one suffraganbishop, with 12,000souls, 9parishes, and 9churches; (8) Diocese of Heliopolis or Ba'albeck, with 5000souls, 9parishes, 10churches, 15priests and 8schools, residence at Ba'albeck; (9) Diocese of Ptolemais or Saint John of Acre, with 9000souls, 24 stations, 25churches, 34priests, and 8schools, residence at Akka; (10)Diocese of Sidon, with 18,000souls, 38churches andchapels, 41priests, 34schools, residence at Sayda; (11) Diocese of Tripoli, erected in 1897; (12) Diocese of Zahle and Furzoul, with 17,000souls, 30churches andchapels, 35priests, 12schools, residence at Zahle.

The two patriarchal vicariates atJerusalem and Alexandria have a dozenparishes in the latter and four or fiveparishes in the former. The Greek-Melchites have also aparish with a church inMarseilles, another inParis (since 1889), and several in theUnited States. InJerusalem they have theseminary of St. Anne, founded in 1882 byCardinal Lavigerie, under the direction of theWhite Fathers. The number of these average between 125 and 150. They have also aseminary inRome founded for them in 1577 byGregory XIII, under the name of College of St. Athanasius; also a smallseminary inBeirut, and a larger one at Ain-Traz. Three indigenousreligious orders, for men andwomen alike, are still in existence in Syria, viz: The Aleppine, with 40monks and 18nuns; the Baladites of the Order of St. John, with 96monks and 42nuns; and the Mokhallakites, or Salvatorians, with 200monks and 25nuns. The rules followed by these three orders are either those ofSt. Basil orSt. George. From the time ofGregory XIV (1831-46) the patriarch of the Greek-Melchites is allowed to assume the title of "Patriarch ofAntioch, Alexandria, andJerusalem".

The Syrian Jacobites, i.e. Monophysites

They are under thejurisdiction of the Syrian JacobitePatriarch ofAntioch, whose residence is at Der-el-Zafaran near Mardan in Northern Mesopotamia. The SyrianJacobites were formerly very numerous and scattered all over WesternAsia,Egypt, andIndia, having had in the twelfth and thirteen centuries as many as 20metropolitans and 100bishops ordioceses. At present they have but eightarchbishops and 3bishops with a total of about 80,000souls, not including those ofMalabar, inIndia, who are not under the directjurisdiction of the Syrian JacobitePatriarch ofAntioch. Theepiscopal sees of this church, with the exception of that ofJerusalem, whosetitularbishop resides at Za'faran near Mardan, are all situated in Mesopotamia, and in the extreme northeastern section of Syria. Theirliturgical language is Syriac (seeMONOPHYSITES).

Catholic Syrians

These consist mainly of those SyrianJacobites who in the last five or six centuries have gradually given up theMonophysiteheresy, and embraced theCatholicfaith, though retaining their Syrian rite, customs, and liturgy. In course oftime they have become numerous enough to have a patriarch of their own with several diocese andbishops. They are to be found mainly in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, andBabylonia. Their patriarch, whose official residence is atMardin, but who lives sometimes in Mosul, and sometimes in Aleppo or Beirut, in Syria, is officially entitled the "Syrian Patriarch ofAntioch", having under hisjurisdiction nine diocese with a total of about 40,000souls, divided as follows: (1)Diocese of Bagdad, with 2000souls, 3churches, 6priests, and 1school, residence Bagdad; (2)Diocese of Damascus with 4000souls, 6parishes, 6churches, 12priests, and 6schools, residence Damascus; (3) Archdiocese of Homs and Hanah, with 3000souls, 5parishes and 5churches, residence Homs; (4)Diocese of Aleppo, with 4000souls, 3parishes, 3churches, and 15priests, residence atAleppo; (5)Diocese of Beirut, with 700souls, 1 church and 3 priests; (6) Diocese of Diarbekir, with 1000souls, 3parishes, 3churches, and 7 priests; (7) Diocese of Djezire, with 2000souls, 7churches, 10priests, and 6schools, residence at Djezire; (8)Diocese of Mardin with 5000souls, 7 stations, 9churches, 25priests, and 7schools; (9) Diocese of Mosul, with 10,000souls, 8parishes, 12churches, and 25priests, residence Mosul. Theliturgical language of this church is Syriac.

Catholics of the Latin Rite

TheCatholics of theLatin Rite in Syria are not very numerous, and are under thejurisdiction of theApostolic Delegate of Syria, whose residence is atBeirut (formerly atAleppo). They number about 7000, scattered all over the large towns of Syria, and are either of Italian or French descent, having settled in Syria mainly for commercial oreducational purposes. The so-called Latin Patriarchate of Antioch owes its origins to the times of theCrusades of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, in connection with the Latin Patriarchate ofJerusalem, both of which nowadays are simply titular, without anyjurisdiction, and their titulars reside inRome. The LatinPatriarch ofAntioch has under his titularjurisdiction the following titular archbishoprics: Apamea,Adana,Tarsus, Anazarbe,Seleucia,Irenopolis, Cyr,Hierapolis,Edessa,Amida,Nisibis,Emesa, Heliopolis,Palmyra,Damascus, Philadelphia,Bostra, Almire,Derbe,Epiphania,Gabala, andRosea. For Armenians (Catholic orschismatic), seeARMENIA; for Chaldeans (Catholic) seeCHALDEAN CHRISTIANS. The last group ofChristians in Syria, and perhaps the most important one, consists of theMaronites of Mt. Lebanon. They form by far the largestChristian community of Syria and are all in union with theCatholicChurch. (SeeMARONITES)

The latest approximate statistics of the population and variousdenominations of Syria are—total population, 3,226,160;Mohammedans, 2,209,450;CatholicChristians, 555,949; non-CatholicChristians, 435,389; Nusairiyyeh, about 150,000; Ismailiyyeh, about 120,000;Druzes, about 70,000;Jews, 65,246.

Catholic missions in Syria

The beginnings ofCatholic missions in Syria may be appropriately traced back to the age of theCrusaders and the establishment of the Latin Patriarchate of Antioch in 1100, and that of the Vicariate Apostolic ofAleppo in 1762. The first LatinPatriarch ofAntioch was appointed in either 1100 (according toLe Quien) or 1098 (according to Mas Latrie) byPope Urban II. The first appointee was Bernard,Bishop of Artesia, near Antioch. He died in 1132 and was succeeded by Raoul, from Dumfront inNormandy, who, owing to flagrant acts of impertinence and insubordination to theHoly See, was forced to resign in 1142. He was succeeded by Aimeric or Amaury, ofLimoges, who, having incurred the displeasure of Renaud de Chatillion, Prince of Antioch, waspersecuted, tortured, and finally compelled to flee to Jerusalem. In 1160, however, he was restored to hissee by Baudouin II, Prince ofAleppo. Soon, however, Behemond III, Prince of Antioch, drove Amaury out of hissee and offered it, instead, in 1611, to the Greek patriarch,Athanasius. On the death of the latter in 1170, caused by a terrific earthquake, in which most of the Greekclergy also lost their lives, the Greeks lost their influence and power with the people. In 1196 Amaury himself died, and was succeeded by Pierre d'Angouléme,Bishop of Tripoli. In 1204 Pierre ofCapua, known as Pierre d'Amalfi, was chosenPatriarch ofAntioch. Bohemond IV, however, soon began to intrigue to replace him with the Greek Patriarch, Simeon III; but he wasexcommunicated by the Patriarch and by thepope himself,Innocent III, which caused the whole Latinclergy to rebel against the king. Pietro d'Amalfi, nevertheless, wasimprisoned by Bohemond and died in 1208, and was succeeded by theLatinBishop ofJerusalem, Pietro d'Capoa, nephew of the deceased patriarch. Bohemond IV, however refused to acknowledge him. In the meanwhile, after many quarrels and vicissitudes, King Bohemond and the Latinclergy agreed to the election of Ranier, in 1219, asPatriarch ofAntioch, after having succeeded in inducing thepope to create the Greek occupant of thesee, the Patriarch Peter, acardinal. Ranier died in 1226 and was succeeded in 1228 by Albert Rezato, who was present at the Council of Lyon in 1245 and who died a short time afterwards.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries several Latinpatriarchs occupied thesee of Antioch, but were constantly harassed and molested by the Greekclergy and by theFrankish princes themselves, who for political purposes were ever ready to sacrifice religious interests in order to secure the good will of the native Greek Syrians. In the year 1348, however, the Latin Patriarchate of Antioch came to an end, as far as effectivejurisdiction was concerned, although it continued to exist till our own time simply as a titular dignity. The present LatinPatriarch ofAntioch resides inRome. In the thirteenth century, however, when it was at its height, the Latin Patriarchate of Antioch had under itsjurisdiction Laodicea,Gabala, Antaradus or Tortosa, Tripoli, Biblos,Seleucia,Tarsus, Corycos, Mamistra,Edessa,Apamea, Balanea, Artesia, Albaria,Larissa, Mariames,Hierapolis, Cyr,Nicosia,Paphos,Famagusta, and Limasol (seeLe Quien, "Oriens Christianus", III, 1165-1232). During these two centuries, the presence of so manyCatholicbishops,clergy, and lay people in Palestine and Syria was productive of goodCatholic missionary results, as, owing precisely to the contact of the Latins with the various Oriental Schismatic Churches of the Near East, a large number of Greeks,Nestorians,Jacobite Syrians, andMonophysiteArmenians, not infrequently led by their ownbishops andclergy, embraced theCatholicFaith.

The second centre ofCatholic propaganda in Syria was the Latin Vicariate Apostolic ofAleppo. This vicariate was first established in 1762, extending itsjurisdiction and its beneficial missionary influence all over Syria,Cyprus,Egypt, and Arabia, all of which provinces were then, by a specialdecree of theCongregation of the Propaganda, detached from the Vicariate Apostolic of Constantinople. Its first occupant was theLazarist Bassu. After his death, and, in fact, several decades later, in 1817, he was succeeded by Mgr. Gandolfi, of theCongregation of the Mission, who was replaced in 1827 by Mgr. Losanna,titularbishop of Abydos. From 1827 down to 1896, owing to the specialrights and privileges enjoyed by theFranciscans as the custodians of the Holy Land, all the Latin Vicars Apostolic ofAleppo were selected from theFranciscan order as follows: A. Fazio (1836-38); Father Fillardell (1839-52) who died amartyr in Constantinople in 1852; P. Brunoni (1853); S. Milani (1874-76); L. Piavi in 1877, who in 1899 was made LatinPatriarch ofJerusalem; and G. Bonfigli in 1890, who in 1896 was transferred to the Latin Vicariate Apostolic ofEgypt. In the meanwhile the residence was transferred fromAleppo toBeirut, which was gradually becoming the most influential and progressive town of the Near East. In 1896 a FrenchDominican, Mgr Charles Duval, for nearly thirty years missionary at Mosul, succeeded Bonfigli. Duval died in 1904 and was succeeded on January 17 of the following year (1905) by Mgr. Frediano Giannini, titularArchbishop of Serra.

During the course of the nineteenth century the Vicariate Apostolic of Syria suffered several losses. In 1838,Egypt and Arabia were taken away; and in 1848Jerusalem was elevated to the rank of Latinpatriarchate withjurisdiction over Palestine, Southern Phœnicia, and the islands ofCyprus. But on the other hand the Vicariate Apostolic of Syria obtained fulljurisdiction over all the Latins of this vicariate, this prerogative being definitely withdrawn from the supervision of the Holy Land. The Vicariate Apostolic of Syria embraces at present the following territory: on the north its boundary line starts from the Gulf of Adalia, and touching the southern limits of Taurus, stretches toward the Euphrates, making a bend at Hamah. On the east it is thedesert ofPalmyra; on the south, Palestine; on the west the Mediterranean Sea. Since their institution the vicars of Syria have held the titlevicars Apostolic of theHoly See for the non-LatinCatholics who live within the limits of their province. Their power as delegates, however, has not undergone the same restrictions as their authority of Vicars Apostolic; andCatholics of the Oriental Rite in the Latin Patriarchate ofJerusalem are subject to Syria by way of delegation.

The Latin communities, especially the French, have developed very extensively, particularly in this century, under the Vicariate Apostolic of Syria. They afford at the present time the strongest bulwark against the increasing encroachments of bothProtestant andorthodox missions which are seducing with money and promises the hard-working but poor people of Syria. TheCapuchins, stationed in Syria since 1627, care for theparishes of Antioch, Baabdath,Beirut andMersina; they have besides houses atAleppo, Abey, Ghazir Koderbeck, and Salima. Their religious however are but few in number. TheFranciscans have twelveconvents in the following places: Aintab,Aleppo,Beirut,Damascus, Harissa, Ienige-Kale, Kenaye, Latakie,Marash, Sayda, Sour, and Tripoli. They also have tenparishes and number about 56 religious. Their college atAleppo is in a flourishingcondition and numbers 140 pupils. TheTrappists have a house at Sheikle by Akbes, near Alexandretta. TheLazarists, established at Syria since 1784, have five houses withparishes and missions at Antoura,Beirut,Damascus, and Tripoli. They number about 37 religious and possess in the villages ofLebanon a large number of primaryschools which they themselves visit and maintain. TheCarmelites, stationed in Syria since 1650, have five residences: at Alexandretta, which forms aparish, in Beylan, Biscerri, Kobbayat, and Tripoli. Their religious are about 8 in number. TheBrothers of the Christian Schools have four primaryschools inBeirut, Latakie, Tripoli, and Tripoli-by-the-Sea.

TheJesuits were established for the first time in 1595, and later returned to Syria at the invitation of Mgr. Mazloum and in obedience to the order ofGregory XVI. Their mission numbers 174 members, of whom 66 arepriests, 47 scholastics, and 61 brother assistants. After being stationed at Zeilah, and later in Mesopotamia, theJesuits founded at Ghazir in 1846 the oriental Seminary which was transferred to Beirut in 1875 and has an enrollment of 50 students. Thisseminary has already sent forth over 130priests. The younger religious of the Antonines, of theMaronite Rite, or theBasilian and of theGreek Rite, follow their courses ofphilosophy andtheology with the seminarists, all being related by similarity of rite. In 1848 theJesuits established another college at Ghazir; this, too, was transferred to Beirut and has become the celebrated College of St. Joseph. At 1883 the medicalschool was added, which today is attended by 130 students; the college has 500 students enrolled. Eight religious professors and six Frenchdoctors take part in the instruction of the students and direct the most complete printing establishment in the Orient, publishing a bi-weekly newspaper in Arabic, the "Beshîr", and the bi-monthly Arabic review, "Al-Mashrik". In 1896 P. Barnier founded at Sayda in the region of Akkar a normalschool which is attended by 40 pupils; also anorphanage at Tanail.

During the last three centuries theCatholic missionaries of Syria have had to contend against heavy odds and difficulties occasioned by theMohammedans, theDruzes, and the various Oriental Schismatic Churches, and, in the last century, also against many obstacles and antagonisms offered by the Syrian Protestant Missions. But notwithstanding opposition they have forged ahead and are regenerating theChristians of Syria into a new life, mainly through the channels of religious instruction, conversion, andeducational and philanthropic enterprise. TheJesuits, theLazarists, and of late theChristian Brothers have achieved such progress in the line of religious andeducational work that they have under their care, at the present, nearly 300schools, with 400 teachers and some 14,000 pupils. TheJesuits alone have under their care 155 elementaryschools scattered all over Syria; 5 in Beirut with 16 teachers and 900 pupils; 5 in Damascus with 6 teachers and 250 pupils; 19 in Bikfaya with 29 teachers and 1300 pupils; 29 in Ghazir with 27 teachers and nearly 2000 pupils; 21 at Homs with 30 teachers and 1000 students; 27 at Sayda with 55 teachers and 1500 pupils; 18 at Tanail with 22 teachers and 900 students; and 21 at Zahle with 30 teachers and nearly 1300 students. TheLazarists, established in Syria in 1784, have under their care 110 elementaryschools and nearly 6000 pupils. Their high school and college at Antours and Damascus have 300 and 200 students respectively. The Sisters of St. Vincent De Paul have charge of some 80femaleschools and 4000 girls. The Sisters of Nazareth ofLyons, established in 1871, haveschools and pensionnats atBeirut, St. John of Acre, Shefamar, Haifa, andNazareth, with about 2000 pupils. TheSisters of St. Joseph ofMarseilles, established in Syria in 1846, have severalschools atBeirut, Sayda,Nazareth,Tyre, and Deir-el-Qamar, with about 1500 pupils. The Sisters of the Holy Family have a largeschool atBeirut, with over 250 pupils. The Sisters of the Good Shepard of Angers have anorphanage at Hammana, with 150 inmates. Finally, the Miriamettes, an order of nativenuns, established in 1860, have under their care not less than 41schools, 85 teachers, and some 3500 pupils, scattered all over Syria; 1 atBeirut, 2 at Celip, 9 at Bikfaya, 1 inDamascus, 6 at Ghazir, 2 at Homs, 6 at Sayda, 6 at Tanail, and 8 at Zahle.

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