Siena

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(SENENSIS)

Archdiocese inTuscany (CentralItaly). The city is situated on three gently swelling hills. The Public Library was donated by Archdeacon Bandini (1663). The Academy of Fine Arts, the Museum of the Cathedral, and the different churches of the city, illustrate almost completely the history of art in Siena; in no other city had art, especiallypainting, a more local character, and nowhere else did it remain so conservative.Gothic architecture produced here its most excellent monuments, bothecclesiastical and in civic buildings; and the Sienese architects laboured beyond the confines of their state (e.g. thecathedral ofOrvieto). Sculpture received its first impulse from Nicolo and Giovanni Pisani, whose Sienese disciples carved the decorations of thefaçade ofOrvietocathedral. The most renownedsculptors of the fifteenth century were Jacopo della Quercia (1374-1438), one of the pioneers of theRenaissance; Lorenzo di Pietro; Antonio Federighi; Francesco di Giorgio (also an architect); Giacomo Cozzarelli; and Lorenzo Mariano. Sculpture in wood is represented by the brothers Antonio and Giovanni Barili, Bartolomeo Neroni, and others. Inpainting Siena possessed inDuccio an artist who greatly surpassed his contemporaryCimabue of Florence, both for grace and in accuracy of design. Nevertheless, art developed and was perfected in Florence more rapidly than in Siena.Simone Martini (1285-1344), immortalized byPetrarca, and a citizen of Siena, bears comparison withGiotto. Lippo Memmi (also a miniaturist),Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, imitated with facility the grandiose composition of theschool ofGiotto. But Bertolo di Fredi (1330-1410); Taddeo de Bartolo (1360-1422); and the fifteenth centurypainters, Domenico di Bartolo, Sano di Pietro,Vecchietta, Matteo, and Benvenuto di Giovanni, compared with the Florentines, seem almostmedieval. Siena therefore turned anew to Florentine, Lombard, orVenetianpainters, under whom the ancient fame of the city revived, especially in the works of Bernardino Fungai, Girolamo della Pacchia, and others. The most renowned representatives of theRenaissance in Siena areBaldassare Peruzzi, better known as the architect of the Basilica of San Pietro,Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, and Il Sodoma (1477-1549), a rival ofRaphael. With Domenico Beccafumi (1486-1551) begins the decadence. In the nineteenth century Paolo Franchi founded aschool ofpainters closely related to the "Nazarenes" (a group of Germanpainters of the early nineteenth century, who imitated theItalians of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries); thechapel of the Istituto di Santa Teresa gives a goodidea of their art.

Thecathedral of Siena is said to occupy the site of atemple of Minerva. The present building was begun in the early thirteenth century; thecupola was finished in 1464. But in 1339 it was decided to so enlarge thecathedral that the area then occupied by thenave should form thetransepts of the new building. In fact the construction of the longitudinalnave, now in part incorporated in the Opera del Duomo, was actually commenced. Though the pestilence of 1348 compelled the citizens to desist from this plan, they determined to complete in a worthy manner the original design. As it stands the building is about 292 ft. long and 80 ft. wide — 168 ft. in thetransepts. Thefaçade is decorated with bands of red, white, and black marble, tricuspidal, and richly adorned withsculptures (restored in 1869) and withmosaics (renewed in 1878). In the interior the pavement is of admirable marblemosaic — the work of masters of the fifteenth century, which has been for the most part renewed. Thepulpit, entirely in relief, is the work ofNicolo Pisano and his pupils; thehigh altar is by Petruzzi, the bronze tabernacle byVecchietta, and the carvings of the choir by the brothers Barili. Thechapel of San Giovanni contains astatue of thesaint byDonatello, besidesstatues by othersculptors, and frescoes byPinturicchio. Scattered through the interior of thecathedral arestatues of Sienesepopes and thetombs of thebishops of Siena. Thelibrary of thecathedral possesses ancient choir-books and othermanuscripts, and is adorned throughout with frescoes byPinturicchio representing scenes from the life ofPius II — the gift ofPius III. In the centre of thelibrary is the celebrated group of the Three Graces, presented byPius II. In the Opera dei Duomo are preserved the remains of the exteriorsculptures and of the pavement of thecathedral, as well aspaintings and sacred tapestries. In the Hospital of Sta Maria della Scala (thirteenth century) the church and the pellegrinaro (a large sick room) with frescoes by Domenico di Bartolo are noteworthy; San Agostino possesses pictures and frescoes byPerugino,Sodoma, Matteo di Giovanni, and others. Beneath the choir of thecathedral is the ancientbaptistery, now theparish Church of San Giovanni, with its remarkable font, ornamented withsculptures byQuercia,Donatello, andGhiberti. In Santa Maria del Carmine thecloisters and the Chapel of the Sacrament are particularly interesting. The Oratory of San Bernardino contains works of the principal Sienese artists, especially ofSodoma and Beccafumi. The house ofSt. Catherine of Siena (Benineasa) has been transformed into a number ofchapels, which centuries have vied in adorning. San Domenico (1293) possesses pictures bySodoma, Fungai, Vanni, and others, and a tabernacle byBenedetto da Maiano. The little church of Fonteguista has frescoes by Fungai, Petruzzi, and Lorenzo di Mariano. Scattered throughout the other churches are works of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Outside of the city is the Convento dell' Osservanza, with majolicas byAndrea della Robbia andpaintings bySodoma, Sano di Pietro, Taddeo Bartolo, and others; here also are shown the cell of St Bernardino of Siena, and thetomb of Pandolfo Petrucci. More distant from Siena are the Certosa di Pontignano, the Abbey of Sant' Eugenio (730), and themonastery of San Galgano (1201).

Of the civic buildings we mention the Palazzo Pubblico (1289), with the Torre del Mangia (102 metres), at the foot of which in the form of a graceful loggia is the Capella di Piazza (1376-1460), adorned with frescoes andsculptures. In the interior of the Palazzo Pubblico, the halls of the ground and first stories (Sala della Pace, del Mappamondo, di Balia) are decorated with frescoes bypainters named above and by others; the frescoes of the Sala Vittorio Emanuele are modern (Maccari and others). In front of the Palazzo Pubblico extends the greatPiazza del Campo, where on the second of July and the fifteenth of August of each year are held the celebrated races — Corse del Palio — which by reason of the gay medley of the riders and their historic costumes attract a great number of strangers each year. (Heywood, "Our Lady of August and the Palio", Siena, 1889). The Fonte Gaia (Joyful Fountain) in the public square is the work ofJacopo della Quercia. Among the private palaces the following are of note: Spannochi, Casino de' Nobili, Tolomei, Buonsignori, Piccolomini (the last named contains the public archives). The Monte dei Paschi is perhaps the oldest of all non-charitable houses of credit. It was founded in 1500, and was reorganized in 1654, when the pastures (paschi) of the Maremma, from which it derives its name, were assigned it in guise of securities.

In ancient times Saena, an Etruscan city, was of no great importance, hence remains of the Etruscan and Roman epochs are rare. It became a Roman colony underAugustus. Under the Lombards it was the seat of twogastaldi (magistrates), one a judge, the other a minister of finance. Under the Carlovingians it was made a country, which in 868 became hereditary in thefamily of Vinigiso Ranieri, which soon in its various branches divided the territory. The power of thebishop increased in consequence, so that in the eleventh and twelfth centuries he was the sole ruler of the city and the surrounding territory, though he recognized the over-lordship of the margraves ofTuscany. At the death of Matilda (the last Countess ofTuscany, 1115) a municipal government already existed, and in 1125 consuls are first mentioned. Thenceforth the form of government changed continuously. In the beginning there were three consuls, later there were twelve, the office being restricted to members of noblefamilies. At other times a dictator was named. Through donations, purchases, and conquests, particularly from various petty lords of the Maremma ever plotting against Siena, the territory of the republic increased. In its expansion Siena naturally conflicted with Florence. Thus in the struggle for Poggibonzi (1141) the Sienese won, but were conquered by the Florentines in 1445. The rivalry with Florence consequently determined the politics of Siena, which adhered to the imperial (Ghibelline) party. Nevertheless in 1194 the Sienese repulsed the army ofHenry VI, who failed to recognize the privileges accorded the city by hisfather. This victory increased the prestige of the republic, which now enlarged the circuit of its walls. In 1197 it joined the League of San Genesio. In 1199 the common people, wishing to participate in the government, secured thenomination of apodestà (chief magistrate) forjustice andwar, although the administration remained in the hands of the consuls of the guilds. A new change occurred in 1212, in which the administration passed to theProvveditori (purveyors)della Biccherna, while the consuls were reduced in rank to simple councillors. In consequence the heads of government changed in rapid succession: the Twenty-seven, Twenty-four, Seventy, Thirty-seven. Meanwhile at the battle of Montaperto (1260) Siena, at the head of theGhibellines ofTuscany, had humiliated thehated Florence. But in Siena itself theGuelphs, aided by Charles of Anjou, acquired the sovereignty in 1277.

The offices were all bestowed uponGuelphs, who for the most part were required to be merchants. Meanwhile the pettyGhibelline lords of the Maremma laid waste the territory of the republic, despite the mediation ofPope Nicholas III. TheGuelph Government of the "Fifteen", instituted in 1282, lasted for seventy years. During this period occurred thewar against theBishop ofArezzo, head of theGhibellines, who was conquered at Pieve al Toppo. Internal discords among the principalfamilies, the recurrence in Siena of the conflicts between theBianchi (whites) andNeri (blacks), for which the city wasexcommunicated byClement V, the seditions of the butchers,doctors, and notaries, fomented by the nobles excluded from the government, failed to displace theGuelph merchants. It required the Great Pestilence of 1348, with its 30,000 victims in the city, and the advent of Emperor Charles IV to effect a change in the government. In 1355 the nobles and the common people rose in revolt, and instituted a mixed government of twelve plebeians and twelve nobles with four hundred councillors. But this lasted only a short time; in 1368 three changes were effected, and the whole year of 1369 was saddened by revolts and slaughter. The arbitration of Florence was of little avail. To these tumults and constitutional conspiracies within the city was added (1387) the rebellion ofMontepulciano, fomented by Florence. Awar with Florence arose in consequence, in which the Sienese had as an ally Gian Galeazzo Visconti, proclaimed in 1399 lord of Siena. But in 1404 they deserted Visconti, made peace with Florence, to whomMontepulciano was abandoned, and constituted a new government. From 1407-13 Siena was repeatedly assaulted by King Ladislaus of Naples, on account of its adhesion to the "Conciliabulum" ofPisa. In 1480, on the accession of new tumults over theright to participate in the government, Pandolfo Petrucci acquired the upper hand, and in 1487 instituted a new and absolute government. Caesar Borgia secured the expulsion of Petrucci from Siena; but in 1503 the latter returned, assumed the title of Magnifico (Maecenas of the Arts), and was more powerful than ever. His son Borghese Petrucci, who succeeded him in thesignoria, was in 1516 expelled by order ofLeo X, who intended to subject Siena to theMedici, hence the enmity that Cardinal Alfonso Petrucci bore him.Clement VII was on the point of proclaiming theMedici as rulers when the victory of Pavia (1525) and succeeding events destroyed his hopes. The Spanish protectorateproved even more severe.Charles V wished to compel the Sienese (1550) to construct a fortress for the Spanish garrison, whereupon they sought the aid ofFrance, which sent a garrison of its own, so that the Spanish and Florentine troops abandoned the city. But Cosimo de' Medici was unwilling to relinquish his prey. Indignant because the command of the garrison had been given to Pietro Strozzi, a Florentine rebel, he invaded the territory of the Republic in 1554, and after several successful encounters, laid siege to the city, which surrendered, 17 April, 1555. Montacino, Chiusi, andGrosseto maintained themselves for a few years longer, but in 1559, under the terms of the Peace ofCambrai, the French troops departed. Thus theMedici acquired finally the large territory now divided between the Provinces of Siena andGrosseto. Orbetello alone was given toSpain. The Sienese soon accommodated themselves to the new regime, which left them much autonomy.

Among the renowned natives of Siena wereAlexander III,Pius II,Pius III,Alexander VII; thehermits St. Galgano (1181) and St. Giacomo (eleventh century); St. Catarina Benincasa, St. Bernardino Albizzeschi, and St. Ambrogio Sansedoni. ThehereticsSocinus and Ochino were born at Siena. As first apostle of theChristian faith, Siena venerates St. Ansanus who sufferedmartyrdom underDiocletian. Bishop "Florianus a Sinna", present at the Council ofRome (313) is claimed by Siena as its firstbishop, also by other cities ofItaly. The firstbishop of certain date was Eusebius (465). The Lombard invasion interrupted the episcopal succession in Siena; it was restored in 635 with Bishop Maurus, when Rotharis rebuilt the city. In 713 commenced the controversy concerningjurisdiction over certain lands between thebishops of Siena and Arezzo, which lasted for three centuries (712-1029). Thebishops of Siena (Adeodatus in 713, Ausifredus (752), Cantius (853), Lupis (881), Leo (1029) claimedecclesiastical authority over all territory within political limits of the republic. The struggle was decided in favour ofArezzo. Other Sienesebishops were Giovanni (1058), founder of themonastery of Monte Cellese, St. Rodolfo (1068), Gualfredus (1083), author and poet; Buonfiglio (1215) who opposed theheretical Patarini and reformed theclergy; Bernardo (1273) brother of B. Andrea Gallerani, founder of thehospital and brotherhood of the Misericordia (d. 1251); Ruggero di Casale, O.P. (1307), a learnedtheologian active against the Fraticelli, who in 1314excommunicated the entireconvent ofFranciscans at Siena; Azzolino Malavolti (1357), who obtained from Charles IV privileges for the University. In 1384 the canons exercised for the last time their right to elect thebishop, the election not being confirmed. In 1407Gregory XII residing atRome named asbishop his nephew Gabriele Condulmer, afterwardsEugene IV.Pius II, a formerBishop of Siena (1449), made thesee anarchbishopric in 1459. The firstarchbishop was Cardinal Francesco Nanni Todeschini Piccolomini (afterwardsPius III), succeeded in 1503 by his nephew Cardinal Giovanni Todeschini. Francesco Brandini held thesee from 1529 to 1588; Francesco M. Targui (1597), reformer and friend ofSt. Philip Neri, wasbishop in 1597; Metello Bichi founded theseminary in 1613. Alessandro Petrucci (1615), emulatingSt. Charles Borromeo, was active in reforming theconvents ofwomen. Leonardo Marsili (1684) was much opposed by thecomune and by the Grand Duke ofTuscany. Cardinal Felice Zondadari (1795-1823) suffered exile inFrance in 1809; Enrico Bindi (1871) was a man of letters. The suffragans of Siena are Chiusi and Pienza,Grosseto,Massa Marittima,Sovana, and Pitigliano. Thearchdiocese has one hundred and fourteenparishes, two hundred and twenty secular and seventyregularclergy, with 85,000souls; 9monasteries for men; 8convents forwomen; 4 houses ofeducation for boys and 5 for girls. There are fourCatholic periodicals.

Council of Siena (1423)

It was decreed in theCouncil of Constance that five years later another council should be called. In factMartin V summoned it for Pavia, where it was inaugurated on 23 April, 1423. The general session had not yet begun when the pestilence broke out atPavia, for which reason the transfer of the Council to Siena was decreed. The procedure of the Council was almost identical with that atConstance. Certain formalities of safe conduct issued by the city for the members of the Council were the cause of friction with thepope. On the eighth of November four decrees were published: against theHussites and theWyclifites; against those who continued theschism ofBenedict XIII; on the postponement of the negotiation with theGreek schismatics, and on greater vigilance againstheresy. Gallican proposals of reform were productive of discord with the French. On 19 February, 1424, Basle was selected as the place of the next Council. On 20 February the dissolution of the Council was decreed, but theDecree was not published until 7 March. The French would have preferred to continue the Council until the "reform" of the church"in capite et in membris" (in its head and its members) had been accomplished, but whether to avoid a newschism, or on account of fear of thepope (since Siena was too near thePapal States), they departed. The magistrates of Siena took care not to let anyone depart until he had paid hisdebts.

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