Ecclesiastical Seminary

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Terminology

The wordseminary (Fr.séminaire, Ger.Seminar) is sometimes used, especially inGermany, to designate a group ofuniversity students devoted to a special line of work. The same word is often applied inEngland and theUnited States to young ladies' academies,Protestant orCatholic. When qualified by the wordecclesiastical, it is reserved toschools instituted, in accordance with adecree of theCouncil of Trent, for the training of theCatholicdiocesanclergy. It differs therefore from thenovitiate and the scholasticate where members ofreligious orders receive their spiritual andintellectual formation. In the ecclesiastical seminary both go together. Hence, a faculty oftheology in auniversity is not a seminary; neither is the word to be applied to the GermanKonvictus, whereecclesiastical students live together while attending lectures of the faculty oftheology in the Stateuniversities.

An ecclesiastical seminary isdiocesan, interdiocesan, provincial, or pontifical, according as it is under the control of thebishop of thediocese, of severalbishops who send there their students, of all thebishops of anecclesiastical province, or of theHoly See. A seminary which receives students from several provinces or fromdioceses in various parts of the country is called a central, or a national, seminary.

Atheological seminary (grand séminaire) provides courses inHoly Scripture,philosophy,theology etc., and gives young men immediate preparation forordination. A preparatory seminary (petit séminaire) gives only a collegiate course as a preparation for entrance into thetheological seminary. The word seminary when used alone designates either atheological seminary or a seminary including both the collegiate and thetheological courses.

In this connexion it should be noted that the name "college" is sometimes given to institutions which offer no collegiate courses in the usual sense of the term, but receive onlyecclesiastics who intend to studyphilosophy andtheology. Such are All Hallows College, Drumcondra,Ireland, theIrish colleges on the Continent, and the various national colleges inRome (see respective articles). These are in reality seminaries as regards both instruction and discipline. On the other hand there are seminaries which provide undergraduate courses as preparatory to philosophy andtheology, thus combining in one institution the work of thepetit séminaire and that of thegrand séminaire.

Purpose of seminary education

A seminary is aschool in whichpriests are trained. Apriest is the representative of Christ among men: his mission is to carry onChrist's work for thesalvation ofsouls; inChrist's name and by His power, he teaches men what they ought to believe and what they ought to do: he forgivessins, and offers in sacrifice the Body and Blood of Christ. He is another Christ (sacerdos alter Christus). His training, therefore, must be in harmony with this high office and consequently different in many ways from the preparation for secular professions. He must possess not only a liberaleducation, but also professionalknowledge, and moreover, like an army or navy officer, he needs to acquire the manners and personal habits becoming his calling. To teach candidates for thepriesthood what apriest ought toknow and to make them what apriest ought to be is the purpose of seminaryeducation; to this twofold end everything in the form of studies and discipline must be directed.

Life in the seminary

When a boy of intelligence andpiety shows an inclination to become apriest, he is sent after graduation from the grammar or high school to pursue a classical course, either in a preparatory seminary or in aCatholic mixed college where lay as well asecclesiastical students receive a classicaleducation. This course, successfully completed, prepares him for admission into thetheological seminary. The year opens with a retreat of eight or ten days, during which by meditations, conferences, visits to theBlessed Sacrament, recitation of the office, consultations with hisspiritual director, his mind and heart are brought under the influence of the greattruths of religion, so as to make him realize and feel the importance of his seminary training. Then begins the ordinary routine of the seminary, interrupted only by a short recess, usually at the end of the first term, and by the retreats which precede theChristmas and Trinity ordinations. The receptions ofHoly orders are the greatest and the most joyful events of the year, for they keep before the mind of the student the goal of all his efforts, thepriesthood. During the scholastic year, a day of each week is set apart for a holiday: the morning is devoted to recreation, or to some favourite study; in the afternoon there is usually a walk, and at times the students visithospitals or other institutions, where they acquire a foretaste and gain some experience of their future work among the sick and the poor. On Sunday they all assist at a solemn High Mass and atVespers, and in some places they also attend a conference onHoly Scripture. The summer vacation, lasting about three months, is spent either at the seminary villa, as is the general practice inItaly, or at home, as is commonly done in theUnited States and other countries.

The ordinary working day is divided betweenprayer, study, and recreation. Summer and winter, the student rises at 5 or 5.30 a. m., makes his meditation for a half-hour, hears Mass, and usually receives Communion. Breakfast is about two hours after rising. In the forenoon there are two classes of one hour each, while two hours also are devoted to private study. After dinner there is about an hour of recreation. In the afternoon four hours are divided between class and study, and as a rule another hour of study follows supper. A visit to theBlessed Sacrament, the recitation of theRosary, and spiritual reading take place in the afternoon or evening; and the day closes with nightprayer. Thus the student has devoted about three hours to exercises ofpiety and nine hours to work. After six years of thismental and moral training in retirement from the world, and in thesociety of fellow students animated by the same purpose and striving after the same ideals, he is deemed worthy of receiving thehonour and capable of bearing the burden of thepriesthood: he is aneducatedChristian gentleman, he possesses professionalknowledge, he is ready to live and to work among men as the ambassador of Christ.

History

Late origin

This system of seminaryeducation, which has now become an essential feature of theChurch's life, had its origin only in the sixteenth century in adecree of theCouncil of Trent. SinceChrist's work on earth is to be continued chiefly throughdiocesanpriests, the Apostles and the earlypopes andbishops always gave special care to the selection and training of theclergy.St. Paul warns Timothy not to impose hands lightly on any man (1 Timothy 5:22). In the scanty records of the earlyRoman pontiffs we invariably read the number ofdeacons,priests, andbishops whom theyordained. But although the training of theclergy was ever held to be a matter of vital importance, we should look in vain during the first centuries for an organized system ofclericaleducation, just as we should look in vain for the fully-developedtheology ofSt. Thomas.

Individual training in early times

BeforeSt. Augustine no trace can be found of any special institutions for theeducation of theclergy. Professors and students in the famousChristianschools of Alexandria andEdessa suppliedpriests andbishops; but theseschools were intended for the teaching ofcatechumens, and for general instruction; they cannot, therefore, be considered as seminaries. The training ofpriests was personal and practical; boys and young men attached to the service of a church assisted thebishop and thepriests in the discharge of their functions, and thus, by the exercise of theduties of theminor orders, they gradually learned to look after the church, to read and explainHoly Scripture, to preparecatechumens forbaptism and to administer thesacraments. Some of the greatestbishops of the period had moreover received a liberaleducation inpaganschools, and beforeordination spent some time in retirement, penitential exercises, and meditation onHoly Scripture.

From St. Augustine to the foundation of the universities

St. Augustine established near thecathedral, in his own house (in domo ecclesiœ), amonasterium clericorum in which hisclergy lived together. He would raise toHoly orders only such as were willing to unite the community life with the exercise of the ministry. In a few years this institution gave tenbishops to various sees inAfrica. It was, however, rather aclergy house than a seminary.

The example ofSt. Augustine was soon followed atMilan,Nola, and elsewhere. A council held in 529 atVaison, in Southern Gaul, exhortedparishpriests to adopt a custom already obtaining inItaly, to have, youngclerics in their house, and to instruct them with fatherlyzeal so as to prepare for themselves worthy successors. Two years later the second Council of Toledo decreed thatclerics should be trained by a superior in the house of theChurch (in domo Ecclesiœ), under the eye of thebishop. Another Council of Toledo, held in 633, urges that this training be begun early, so that futurepriests may spend their youth not in unlawful pleasures but underecclesiastical discipline. Among thosecathedralschools, the best known is that established near theLateran Basilica, where manypopes andbishops wereeducatedab infantia. Besides, not a fewmonasteries, such as St. Victor inParis, Le Bec inNormandy,Oxford, andFulda,educated not only their own subjects, but also aspirants to thesecular clergy.

From the thirteenth century to the Council of Trent

Out of the local episcopalschools grew themedievaluniversities, when illustrious teachers attracted to a few cities, e.g.Paris, Bologna, Oxford etc., students from various provinces and even from all parts ofEurope. As in theseschoolstheology,philosophy, and canon law held the first rank, a large proportion of the students wereecclesiastics or members ofreligious orders; deprived of their ablest teachers and most gifted students, thecathedral andmonasticschools gradually declined. Still, only about one per cent of theclergy were able to attenduniversity courses. Theeducation of the vast majority, therefore, was more and more neglected, while the privileged few enjoyed indeed the highestintellectual advantages, but received little or no spiritual training. The colleges in which they lived maintained for a while good discipline; but in less than a century the life ofecclesiastical students at theuniversities was no better than that of the lay students. What was lacking was character-formation and the practical preparation for the ministry.

The decree of the Council of Trent

After theReformation the need of a well-trainedclergy was more keenly felt. In the work of the commission appointed by thepope to prepare questions to be discussed in theCouncil of Trent,ecclesiasticaleducation occupies an important place. When the council convened "to extirpate heresy and reform morals", it decreed in its Fifth Session (June, 1546) that provision should be made in everycathedral for the teaching of grammar andHoly Scripture toclerics and poor scholars. The council was interrupted before the question ofclerical training could be formally taken up. Meanwhile, St. Ignatius established atRome (1553) the Collegium Germanicum for theeducation of Germanecclesiastical students.Cardinal Pole, who had witnessed the foundation of the German College and had been a member of the commission to prepare for theCouncil of Trent, went toEngland after the death ofHenry VIII to re-establish theCatholic religion. In the regulations which he issued in 1556, the wordseminary seems to have been used for the first time in its modern sense, to designate aschool exclusively devoted to the training of theclergy. After the council reopened, the Fathers resumed the question ofclerical training; and after discussing it for about a month, they adopted thedecree on the foundation of ecclesiastical seminaries.

On 15 July, in the Twenty-third Session, it wassolemnly proclaimed in its present form, and has ever since remained the fundamental law of theChurch on theeducation ofpriests. In substance it is as follows:

So well did the Fathers ofTrent understand the importance of thedecree, so much did they expect from it, that they congratulated one another, and several declared that, had the council done nothing else, this would be more than sufficient reward of all their labours. An historian of the council,Cardinal Pallavicini, does not hesitate to call the institution of seminaries the most important reform enacted by the council.

Execution of the Decree of Trent in various countries

To provide for the carrying out of this importantdecree,Pius IV forthwith instituted a commission ofcardinals. The following year (April, 1564), he decreed the foundation of the Roman Seminary, which was opened in Feb., 1565, and which for more than three centuries has been a nursery ofpriests,bishops,cardinals, andpopes.St. Charles Borromeo,CardinalArchbishop ofMilan, who had taken a leading part in the work of theCouncil of Trent, was also mostzealous and successful in enforcing its decisions. For his large diocese he established three seminaries: one of them furnished a complete course ofecclesiastical studies; in another, a shorter course was provided, especially for those destined to countryparishes; the third was forpriests who needed to make up the deficiencies of previous training. For these institutionsSt. Charles drew up a set of regulations, which have been ever since an inspiration and a model for all founders of seminaries. In other parts ofItaly thedecree ofTrent was gradually put into effect, so that the smallest of the three hundreddioceses had its own complete seminary, including both collegiate andtheological departments.

InGermany,war and the progress ofheresy were serious obstacles to the carrying out of thedecree ofTrent; still seminaries were founded at Eichstadt (1564), Münster (1610), and Prague (1631).

InPortugal theVenerable Bartholomew of the Martyrs,Archbishop ofBraga, established a seminary a few months after the close of theCouncil of Trent.

Various attempts byFrenchbishops ended in failure, untilSt. Vincent de Paul and FatherOlier opened seminaries inParis (1642), and helped to establish them elsewhere inFrance. A feature of these seminaries and, it is claimed, one of the causes of their success was the separation oftheological students from those who were studying the classics, of thetheological from the preparatory seminary. InParis the students of St-Sulpice usually followed lectures at theSorbonne; some courses given at the seminary completed theirintellectual training, while meditation, spiritual conferences, etc. provided for their moral and religious formation. In other places, especially when there was nouniversity, a complete course of instruction was organized in the seminary itself. As there was no Church law requiring students to spend a fixed time in the seminary beforeordination, and as the powers of thebishops were hampered by existing customs, some of theclergy, previous to theFrench Revolution, were not trained in these institutions.

InEngland andIrelandpersecution prevented the foundation of seminaries; before theFrench Revolutionpriests for the English mission were trained at the English College ofDouai.Irish aspirants to thepriesthood, leavingIreland at the peril of their lives, went to the colleges founded for them inParis,Louvain, and Salamanca byIrish exiles and other generous benefactors, to prepare for a life of self-sacrifice often ending inmartyrdom.

Attempts at secularization

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, theEmperor Joseph II attempted to bring theeducation of theclergy inAustria, NorthernItaly, and theNetherlands under the control of the State. Students were forbidden by law to frequent the German College inRome; episcopal seminaries were suppressed, and in their place central seminaries were founded atVienna, Budapest,Pavia,Freiburg, andLouvain, in which allclerical students were forced to receive theireducation under the control not of thebishops but of the state. Professors and text books were chosen by state officials, who also regulated the discipline. Against this usurpation, protests came not only from theHoly See and thebishops, but also from the people; atLouvain the central seminary was burned to the ground. The scheme had to be abandoned, and the successor ofJoseph II allowed thebishops to possess and rule their own seminaries.

The tendency to interference, however, remained, and has since shown itself in various German states. In the early years of the nineteenth century the policy of secularization was adopted by theBavarian Government.Protestants orFree-thinkers were appointed teachers in the faculty oftheology and the seminaries; regulations were drawn up for the choice of superiors, discipline, plan of studies, examinations, admission, and dismissal of students. After a long conflict a concordat was signed in 1817, by which therights ofbishops to erect and control seminaries were recognized. The same struggle occurred in other German states. The conflict became specially acute in 1873, when thePrussian Government in the famous May Laws issued a scheme which prescribed a regular course in a gymnasium, three yearstheology at a stateuniversity, and then examination before state inspectors, as essential conditions of appointment to anyecclesiastical position. Education in seminaries might be accepted as equivalent if thebishops submitted the rules to the State for approval. As they refused to comply, the seminaries of Treves,Gnesen-Posen,Strasburg, and others were closed. Negotiations between the Government and theHoly See were opened after the election ofLeo XIII. Among the points on which theChurch could never yield, thepope laid stress upon therights ofbishops to have seminaries and to control theeducation of theclergy. The more vexatious measures were abolished, and harmony was restored betweenChurch and State.

Present conditions in Germany

At present nearly allecclesiastical students make their college course in a public gymnasium, together with lay students. For the teaching oftheology and spiritual formation there are two systems. The first consists of a course of three years in one of the faculties oftheology, in the Stateuniversities of Bonn,Breslau,Freiburg,Munich,Münster, Tübingen, orWürzburg. The appointment of professors in these faculties is made by the Government but with the approval of thebishops, who can moreover forbid their students to attend the lectures of objectionable teachers. While at theuniversity the students usually live together in aKonvictus under one or twopriests, but they enjoy about as much liberty as lay students. After completing their course they spend a year or eighteen months in a practical seminary (priesterseminar), to learn ceremonies, ascetic and pastoral theology, and thus prepare immediately forordination. For this system, which has many strong advocates, the following advantages are pointed out: it developsintellectual and moral initiative, accustoms the students to live in the world, and gives them the prestige of auniversityeducation. Its opponents insist: That it is not in harmony with thedecree of Trent and the subsequent instructions of theHoly See, urgingbishops to establish seminariesad mentem concilii Tridentini, where candidates for thepriesthood may receive the specialeducation proper to their calling; that, theuniversity professors being irremovable, thebishops have not sufficient control over theorthodoxy of their teaching; that instruction obtained in those faculties lacks unity and co-ordination, some essential points being overlooked, while undue importance is at times attached to matters of little practical utility for the majority of theclergy; that the spiritual training, neglected in theuniversities, cannot be obtained in the few months spent at the practical seminary.

There are regularTridentine seminaries atEichstädt,Fulda,Mainz,Metz, andTrier, in which professional instruction and spiritual formation go together. Recently a compromise between theuniversity and the seminary systems ofclerical training has been effected in Strasburg.

Recent developments and present conditions in other countries

France

TheRevolution swept away the seminaries and the faculty oftheology of the Sorbonne where the leaders of the Frenchclergy had been trained. As soon as liberty was restored, one of the first cares of thebishops was to re-establish their seminaries. On account of the lack of thoroughly competent teachers in many places and the urgent need ofpriests everywhere, only a minimum ofknowledge could be exacted. Nor had the short-lived faculty oftheology established by the State at theSorbonne much influence in raising the general standard ofclerical studies. During the last thirty years, however, theCatholic institutes ofParis,Lyons,Toulouse,Lille, and Angers have done much to train teachers fortheological seminaries, as well as for thepetits séminaires. The latter are usually open to all who seek a liberaleducation, whether they intend to becomepriests or not; hence, they do not realize theTridentine ideal. As a result of the Separation Law, the seminaries, even those built by private contributions ofCatholics, have been confiscated by the State. In spite of financial difficulties and the falling-off in the number of students,diocesan seminaries are maintained, some with less than a score of students. As to preparatory seminaries, whereas formerly there were several in mostdioceses, their number is considerably reduced.

England

The English College atDouai, suppressed by theFrench Revolution, was replaced inEngland bySt. Edmund's, Ushaw, and Oscott. These provided a complete course ofclericaleducation, including collegiate andtheological studies; none, however, was a seminary in the strict sense of theCouncil of Trent, for they received lay as well asecclesiastical students. In the provincial councils of Westminster, thebishops advocated the separation ofclerical from lay students as the only remedy against worldliness; they decreed that the foundation of seminaries for the exclusiveeducation of theclergy would contribute powerfully to the increase of religion, and finally they pledged themselves to establish such seminaries.Cardinal Manning founded a separate seminary for thetheological students of theArchdiocese of Westminster, and regarded this as the great work of his life. Otherbishops followed this example. A seminary in full harmony with theCouncil of Trent, i.e. exclusively forecclesiastical students, and destined to provide a complete course of preparation for thepriesthood was opened for theDiocese of Southwark.

Cardinal Vaughan, who succeededCardinal Manning in 1893, had long been of opinion that separatediocesan seminaries were not opportune inEngland. He advocated a central seminary for the southerndioceses, in which by combining their resources in men and money thebishops could provide excellent teachers, a goodlibrary, the emulation which comes with increased number of students, and the stability which would be secured, if the control of onebishop were replaced by that of a board of all thebishops interested. These views being freely expressed in "The Tablet" (London), Dr. Bourne, the future successor ofCardinal Vaughan atWestminster, thenrector of the Southwark Seminary, set forth in the same periodical the reasons for separatediocesan seminaries, i.e. the authority of theCouncil of Trent and of the provincial councils of Westminster, the possibility of giving in mostdioceses the elementary yet solid instruction needed for the ministry, and of sending some of the most gifted students to some foreignCatholicuniversity where they would receive higher instruction than could be provided in a central seminary inEngland.Cardinal Vaughan having secured theapprobation and encouragement ofLeo XIII for his project determined, together with four otherbishops, to send histheological students to Oscott, which thus, from being thediocesan seminary ofBirmingham, became in 1897 a central seminary for sixdioceses. No change, however, was made in the faculty, and the administration continued in the main to bediocesan. Shortly after thecardinal's death, atheological seminary for theArchdiocese of Westminster was opened in connexion with St. Edmund's College.

Ireland

Irish colleges on the Continent, which harboured about five hundred students, having been closed by theRevolution, it becamenecessary to provide inIreland for the training of theclergy. A college opened at Carlow in 1793 was soon closed through fear of Government prosecution. Re-established later, it now gives a complete course ofecclesiastical training. The foundation of aCatholic college being made legal by an Act of Parliament, Maynooth was opened in 1795 with forty students. It has rapidly developed, especially during the last years of the nineteenth century. The missionary college of All Hallows was founded in 1842, and placed in 1892 under the direction of theVincentians; it has sent hundreds ofpriests toAustralia,New Zealand, South Africa, and theUnited States. Besides these and other institutions, most of thedioceses have their preparatory seminaries. There are also someIrish students at Salamanca and atRome. TheIrish College inParis has been closed in consequence of the Separation Laws inFrance.

Canada

TheJesuits established acollege at Quebec in 1637. Bishop Laval founded atheological seminary in 1663 and in 1668 a preparatory seminary, the students of which followed the classes of theJesuitCollege. When the latter was suppressed after the English conquest, the preparatory seminary became a mixed college. In 1852 the seminary and college of Quebec were raised to the rank of auniversity, with the title of Laval inhonour of the founder. AtMontreal acollege was founded by theSulpicians in 1767, a separatetheological department was established in 1840, and the seminary ofphilosophy in 1847. More recentlytheological seminaries have been opened at Ottawa by the Oblates and atHalifax by theEudists, and one is being erected atToronto. Until recently, in severaldioceses ofCanada, candidates for thepriesthood received their training not in seminaries, but in mixed colleges where, after finishing their classical course, they readtheology, whilst discharging theduties of prefect or teacher. Upon the advice of theCongregation of the Propaganda, theProvincial Council ofMontreal (1895) decreed thatecclesiastics studying for thepriesthood in colleges can only be prefects and not teachers; it also decreed that beforeordination they must spend three years in a regular seminary.

United States

In colonial days,SpanishJesuits andFranciscans laboured inFlorida,Louisiana,New Mexico, andCalifornia; missionaries fromFrance andCanada were the pioneers inMaine, New York, and the Mississippi Valley; theMaryland missions, under thejurisdiction of theVicar Apostolic ofLondon, were in charge ofEnglishJesuits. When John Carroll was appointedBishop ofBaltimore, one of his first cares was to provide the means for the training of a nativeclergy. InEngland, where he went to receive episcopalconsecration, he obtained from a friend a generous gift for his future seminary, and he accepted an offer made to him inLondon, in the name of Father Emery, superior of St-Sulpice, to send some members of hissociety to establish a seminary atBaltimore. In his first address to hisclergy and people on his return to America, Bishop Carroll mentioned among theduties of his pastoral office the institution of a seminary "for training upministers for the sanctuary and the services of religion that we may no longer depend on foreign and uncertain coadjutors".

The following year (1791) Father Nagot, with three otherSulpicians and four students, reached Baltimore and opened St. Mary's Seminary in the place where it stands today. In this first American seminary Bishop Carrollordained, 25 May, 1793, his firstpriest,Rev. S. Badin, who for over half a century laboured on the missions ofKentucky. The lack of a sufficient number ofecclesiastical students forced theSulpicians to receive lay students also, evenProtestants, so that St. Mary's became a mixed college and, until the classical department was closed in 1852, had but few seminarians. In order to foster and preserveecclesiastical vocations, Father Nagot opened (1807) at Pigeon Hill,Pennsylvania, a preparatory seminary which was the following year transferred to Mount St. Mary's, but this institution soon became (like St. Mary's atBaltimore), and has remained to this day (1911), a mixed college with atheological seminary, the students of which help in carrying on the work of the collegiate department. A more successful attempt to have a purely preparatory seminary was made by theSulpicians in the foundation of St. Charles's College; opened in 1848, it has always been destined exclusively for aspirants to thepriesthood.

As newdioceses were created, the first care of thebishops was to provide aclergy. Shortly after theirconsecration, thebishops usually went toEurope to recruitpriests, while at home they spared no pains to train a nativeclergy. Bishop Flaget went to Bardstown in 1811 with three students, the nucleus of St. Thomas's Seminary which for half a century was the nursery of many pioneerpriests andbishops of the West. It was closed in 1869. Seminaries were likewise established by:Bishop England atCharleston (1822); Bishop Dubourg at St. Louis (1818); Bishop Fenwick atCincinnati (1829); Bishop Fenwick atBoston (1829);Bishop Kenrick at Philadelphia (1832); Bishop Dubois at New York (1832); Bishop Blanc atNew Orleans (1838); Bishop O'Connor atPittsburg (1844); Bishop Whelan atRichmond (1842) and Wheeling (1850); Bishop Henni atMilwaukee (1846); Bishop Lefebre atDetroit (1846); Bishop Timon atBuffalo (1847); Bishop Rappe atCleveland (1849); Bishop Loras atDubuque (1849). As a rule these seminaries were begun in or near thebishop's house, and often with thebishop as the chief instructor. The more advanced students helped to instruct the others, and all took part in the services of thecathedral. Theireducation, like that given topriests in the Early Church, was individual and practical; theirintellectual training may have been somewhat deficient, but theirpriestly character was moulded by daily intercourse with the self-sacrificing pioneerbishops andpriests.

Most of those imperfectly organized seminaries, after doing good service in their day, have long ceased to exist, while a few have been transformed into modern institutions. Thediocesan seminary of New York was transferred (1836) from Nyack to Lafargeville, in the Thousand Islands, and later on toFordham (1840). In 1864 a seminary was opened at Troy for the provinces of New York andBoston; the latter established its own seminary in 1884, and in 1897 the New York seminary was transferred to its present location at Dunwoodie. Thetheological seminary at Philadelphia, which commenced with five students in the upper rooms ofBishop Kenrick's residence, was after various vicissitudes transferred in 1865 to its actual site at Overbrook, where the preparatory seminary opened at Glen Riddle in 1859 was also located in 1871. The Seminary of St. Francis,Milwaukee, started in 1846 with seven students in a wooden building attached to Bishop Henni's house, was through the efforts ofDr. Salzmann removed to the present building, which was dedicated in 1856. In San Francisco, after several unsuccessful attempts underBishop Amat andArchbishop Alemany, a preparatory seminary was opened by Archbishop Riordan in 1896; to this was soon added atheological department. The St. Paul Seminary, opened by Archbishop Ireland in 1894-95, has done excellent service ineducatingpriests for many of the westerndioceses.

Among the leaders in the development ofecclesiasticaleducation in America the late Bishop MacQuaid deserves a prominent place. He was the first president of Seton Hall College (1856), and later on asBishop of Rochester he established the preparatory Seminary of St. Andrew, 1871, and thetheological Seminary of St. Bernard. The latter, which opened in 1893 with thirty-nine students, numbers now over two hundred from variousdioceses. The Josephinum, founded atColumbus (1875) and placed under the immediate direction ofPropaganda (1892), provides a free and complete course forpriests destined for the American missions, especially in German-speaking congregations. The Polish college and seminary atDetroit has been established to meet the special needs of PolishCatholics in theUnited States.

Religious orders had their full share in this growth of seminaries. TheVincentians, who have always considered the training of theclergy as an essential part of their work, opened the seminary at St. Louis (1816) which has been under their care ever since. They also conducted the seminary ofNew Orleans from 1838 until its suppression. They founded Niagara (1867), which has been raised to the rank of auniversity and maintains an importanttheological department. For ten years they were in charge of the seminary at Philadelphia. They have directed thediocesan seminary atBrooklyn from the beginning, and they have recently opened atheological seminary atDenver. TheSulpicians, asociety ofsecular priests founded especially for training theclergy, besides their owntheological and preparatory seminary in theArchdiocese of Baltimore, also opened and directed for some years thediocesan seminaries ofBoston and New York (Dunwoodie). They have also been in charge of the seminary ofSan Francisco since its inception. TheBenedictines, in keeping with the tradition of their earlymonasticschools, have trained students for thediocesanpriesthood along with the members of their order at St. Vincent's,Pennsylvania (1846), St. Meinrad's,Indiana (1857), and Belmont, North Carolina (1878). TheFranciscans have atheological seminary connected with their college at Allegany, New York (1859). The Oblates have recently (1903) opened atheological seminary atSan Antonio,Texas. In their colleges all over the country theJesuit Fathers have given to a large proportion of the Americanpriests their classical training; their Holy Cross College atWorcester has been since 1835 a nursery of the New Englandclergy. Moreover, not a few Americanpriests have received theirtheological training from theJesuits of Innsbruck.

The growth of seminaries in America did not until recently keep pace with the need of priests; many have come fromIreland,Germany,France and other countries ofEurope, while American students have sought theireducation in the American colleges founded atLouvain in 1857 andRome in 1859, or in other institutions on the Continent. About two thousand Americanpriests, moreover, have beeneducated in the Sulpician Seminary atMontreal. Of late years the need of preparatory seminaries has been more keenly felt, and we find them established in Rochester,Hartford,Chicago, New York, and otherdioceses. Some of these are merely dayschools and, whilst having certain advantages, fail to effect the separation of aspirants to thepriesthood from the world, as contemplated by theCouncil of Trent. Since 1904 the annual meetings of the seminary department of theCatholic Educational Association have been found to be of great value in raising the standard ofecclesiasticaleducation. Carefully prepared papers have been read and discussed on the various topics of seminary training, such as entrance requirements, discipline, spiritual formation, and the method of teaching the various branches of the seminary curriculum:Holy Scripture, dogmatic andmoral theology, naturalsciences, and social problems.

Ecclesiastical legislation on seminaries

Sources

The generallaws of theChurch on the subject of seminaries are found in thedecree of theCouncil of Trent, and in various documents issued by theHoly See. At no time has the question ofclerical training been the object of so much attention or brought forth so many decrees as underLeo XIII andPius X. Some of their acts refer only toItalian seminaries, others to the whole Church. They will, doubtless, be embodied in the Code of Canon Law now in preparation. Meanwhile, the most important issued before 1908 may be found arranged inlogical order in M. Bargilliat's handy little volume "De Institutione Clericorum". InApostolic letters to thebishops ofPrussia (6 Jan., 1886), ofHungary (22 Aug., 1886), ofBavaria (22 Dec., 1887), ofPoland (19 March, 1894) ofBrazil (18 Sept., 1899),Leo XIII insists on theright andduty ofbishops to establish seminaries where futurepriests may be trained inscience andholiness. The Various branches of study in the seminary were the object of special instructions. Thus he prescribed the study of St. Thomas's philosophy ("Æterni Patris", 4 Aug., 1879), encouraged historical research (18 Aug., 1883), gave directions for Biblical studies ("Providentissimus Deus", 18 Nov., 1893), and instituted a special commission to foster them (30 Oct., 1902). Towards the end of his long pontificate he wrote two letters: one to theFrenchbishops, the other to theItalianbishops (8 Sept., 1899 and 8 Dec., 1902), in which the training of theclergy is treated at length.

Pius X even more than his predecessor has taken a lively interest in theeducation ofpriests. Convinced that the restoration of all things in Christ requires first of all the good training of theclergy, he urged thebishops in his firstEncyclical (4 Oct., 1903) to consider the care of their seminary as their firstduty. He himself has brought about various reforms inItaly. Ecclesiastical students inRome must live in acollege and beforeordination undergo an examination. As manydioceses inItaly cannot support well-equipped seminaries, the Holy Father has suppressed some and united others. A central seminary has been opened atCapua and placed under the direction of theJesuits; others have been entrusted to theVincentians. In order to raise the standard of studies a detailed programme has been issued for allItalian seminaries: it prescribes a course of five years in the gymnasium, three years in the lyceum (philosophy), a year of preparation, and four years of study oftheology. To this has been added a set of regulations for the discipline and moral training of the students, in which no detail is omitted (10 May, 1907; 18 Jan., 1908). Other acts ofPius X extend not only to Italian but to all seminaries: they relate to the admission of students, to various branches of studies, etc.; they all tend to protect thefaith of the students againstModernistic tendencies and to train a more learned and morepiousclergy. On the occasion of the golden jubilee of hispriesthood the Holy Father addressed to theclergy of the world (4 Aug., 1908) an exhortation which will remain the vade-mecum of seminarians andpriests, for it sets forth the idealpriestly life with the means by which it can be attained and preserved.

Special regulations for theUnited States were enacted in the second and thirdPlenary Council of Baltimore in 1866 and 1884. Theselaws of theChurch leave undetermined many details of seminary discipline, which are left to the discretion of thebishop. Several methods, all based on the famous "Institutiones" ofSt. Charles and varying only in non-essential points, have been and are still in force. Among them are those framed bySt. Vincent de Paul, Blessed John Eudes, FatherOlier, andSt. Alphonsus. None of these is imposed by theChurch or generally adopted in all its details.

Foundation of seminaries

Thedecree of theCouncil of Trent imposes on everybishop theduty of having a seminary, that is, aschool exclusively destined to prepare candidates for thepriesthood. It should provide a thorough course ofecclesiastical training, and therefore, according to present discipline, include academic, collegiate, andtheological courses. The idealTridentine seminary is an institution like Overbrook (Philadelphia) or Menlo Park (San Francisco), where the futurepriests of thediocese are received from the grammarschool and kept untilordination. TheChurch, however, does not condemn, andLeo XIII has expressly approved the separation of the preparatory from thetheological seminary; even in this case they are considered by law as forming but onediocesan institution, under thebishop with the same advisory board. For the foundation and support of the seminary the tax onbenefices, authorized by theCouncil of Trent, is not practicable in America; thebishop has to depend on the generosity of the faithful; he may prescribe an annual collection or fix the amount to be contributed by eachparish. Poordioceses may combine their resources to found an interdiocesan seminary, to be controlled by the severalbishops interested.

The controversy on the question of central versusdiocesan seminaries has never been raised in this country. It belongs only to theHoly See and to thebishop to decide whether it is practicable for a given diocese to have its separate seminary. In theUnited States the majority ofdioceses are now, and many will long remain, incapable of supporting a seminary. Interdiocesan seminaries, such as theCouncil of Trent recognizes and such as are now being established inItaly, are practically unknown. In their place there are seminaries such as St. Paul, Rochester, New York, founded and controlled by onebishop, but receiving students from otherdioceses; and likewise seminaries in charge ofreligious orders orsocieties ofsecular priests, the students of which belong to variousdioceses: such are St. Mary's and Mount St. Mary's (Baltimore), St. Vincent's (Pittsburg), Our Lady of Angels (Buffalo), etc. Though such institutions were not contemplated by theCouncil of Trent, they have the earnest approval of thebishops and of theHoly See.

Obligation of seminary training

A student could obtain all theknowledgenecessary for apriest by following classes in acollege and lectures in auniversity, without living in the seminary; but since theCouncil of Trent, thesovereign pontiffs and thebishops have constantly endeavoured to have candidates for thepriesthood spend some time in a seminary so as to acquire, along withknowledge, habits ofpiety and self-discipline. They have felt that the purpose of theTridentineDecree would be defeated if residence in the seminary were left to the option of the students. It is the desire of theHoly See, based on theCouncil of Trent and repeatedly expressed, especially byLeo XIII andPius X, that futurepriests be trained from early years apart from lay students. The sameidea is enforced by the thirdPlenary Council of Baltimore, when it declares that the custom which obtains in some parts of the country of having aspirants to thepriesthood take their classical course in a mixed college is not in perfect harmony with the mind of theChurch, and when it urges the foundation of a preparatory seminary in everydiocese or at least in every province (nos. 139, 153). Where thisdecree cannot be carried out, colleges receiving young men who study for thepriesthood must strictly observe the regulations prescribed for preparatory seminaries, relating to discipline, religious instruction, and the programme of studies (ibid., no. 153). With still greater insistence does theChurch demand residence in a seminary from the students oftheology, even if they follow the lectures of aCatholicuniversity. ThusPius X has ordered allecclesiastical students inRome to live in one of the colleges established for them; a similar instruction has been issued for theecclesiastical students atFribourg. The Council ofBaltimore required all aspirants to thepriesthood to go through the six years of training prescribed for all American seminaries (no. 155). Thebishop can dispense in rare cases, and for grave reasons.

External government of seminaries

All matters referring to seminaries are under the supreme direction of the Consistorial Congregation inRome. Diocesan seminaries are controlled by thebishop, who appoints and removes professors, determines in detail the regulations to be followed, and watches over the temporal administration, studies, discipline, andpiety. Nothing of importance can be done without his advice and consent; to him belongs the final decision on the admission and dismissal of students, as well as on their call to orders. In provincial or interdiocesan seminaries this power is vested in the board of interestedbishops. Fordiocesan seminaries, thebishop is bound by thecommon law of theChurch to seek, though not bound to follow, in matters of temporal administration the advice of a commission composed of two canons of thecathedral (one chosen by himself, the other by the chapter) and of two otherpriests of the episcopal city, one chosen also by thebishop, the other by theclergy. For spiritual matters the advice of two canons chosen by thebishop is likewisenecessary. In theUnited States thebishop must have in the management of his seminary at least one adviser for spiritual matters, and another for temporal matters; both are chosen by himself with the advice of thediocesan consultors (Council of Baltimore, no. 180).

Although no text of ecclesiastical law forbids thebishop to entrust the direction of his seminary to areligions order or congregation, this cannot be done without the approval of theHoly See; for thebishop has no power to give up for himself and his successors theright to appoint therector and teachers; neither can he set aside thelaw of theCouncil of Trent, requiring the advice of consultors in the management of the seminaries, while religious congregations in taking charge of a seminary assume the appointment of the faculty, and in governing it do not admit the interference of adiocesan commission. Severalreligious orders orsocieties, however (Eudists,Lazarists,Marists,Oratorians,Sulpicians), have a general permission from theHoly See to accept the seminaries entrusted to them. A contract between thebishop and thesociety determines the conditions under which the seminary is accepted and must be governed (Council of Baltimore, no. 180).

Internal administration of seminaries

Two systems prevail. In one the management of the seminary is in the hands of therector, who alone under thebishop governs the seminary, calls to orders, admits and dismisses the students; a treasurer has full charge of temporal matters, while to aspiritual director is entrusted the formation of the students inpiety. The professors are merely teachers.

In the other system, all the professors have a share in the administration of the seminary; and all important matters are decided by a vote of the faculty. The professors are spiritual directors and confessors of the students. Of course, they have no voice in the faculty meetings when one of their penitents is concerned. ADecree of the Holy Office (5 July, 1899) forbids superiors of seminaries and colleges inRome to hear the confessions of their students. With the special organization of those colleges, such a practice could easily interfere with the liberty which theChurch assures to all in the sacred tribunal. Although thisdecree has not been officially extended beyond those colleges, its spirit should be observed in others similarly organized.

Admission and dismissal of students

"Let those be received", says theCouncil of Trent, "who having been born in lawful wedlock, have at least attained their twelfth year, are able to read and write passably, and whose naturally good disposition gives token that they will always continue in the service of theChurch." It is the wish of the council that the children of the poor should be preferred. Today an ordinary grammarschool instruction is required for admission into the preparatory seminaries. As regards vocation, all that can be expected is not indeedcertainty, but probability. Still, preparatory seminaries must be maintained in their proper spirit, and receive only candidates for thepriesthood. Parents andparishpriests are urged to encourage and to help boys who by their intelligence andpiety give hope that they are called to thepriesthood (Council of Baltimore, no. 136). No one should be admitted to atheological seminary unless he has completed a six-year collegiate course, and passed a successful examination (ibid., nos. 145, 152). A student from another diocese cannot be received without first obtaining information from hisbishop. If it appears that he was dismissed from the seminary (as unfit for thepriesthood) he should not be admitted at all (Congregation of the Council, 22 Dec., 1905). Dismissal from the seminary means no more than that the student is not considered fit for thepriesthood; it does not necessarily reflect on his character as aChristian layman.

Intellectual training

In the preparatory seminary the aspirant to thepriesthood follows the ordinary academic and collegiate course for six years; he studiesChristian doctrine, Latin and Greek, English and at least one other modern language, rhetoric and elocution, history and geography, mathematics and naturalsciences,Gregorian Chant and bookkeeping (Council of Baltimore, nos. 145, 151).Catholic colleges with a course of eight years, four years academic and four years collegiate, teachphilosophy andscience in the junior and senior years; but as a rule this is not accepted by seminaries as the equivalent of two years ofphilosophy. The Council ofBaltimore requiresecclesiastical students to spend six years in thetheological seminary. There they receive a special moral training which cannot be given in a mixed college, and they are taughtphilosophy with a view to the study oftheology. In thetheological seminary two years are devoted to the study ofphilosophy, Scripture,Church history, and naturalsciences in their relation to religion. During the last four years the course of study includesHoly Scripture, with Greek and Hebrew,apologetics, dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology,Church history, and, in some institutions, liturgy and canon law. The courses given in these various branches have a twofold purpose: to equip every student with theknowledgenecessary for the discharge of the ordinary functions of the ministry; and to give brighter students the foundation of more scientific work, to be pursued in auniversity. The seminary trains general practitioners, theuniversity forms specialists; the seminary gives the elements of allecclesiasticalscience, theuniversity provides a thorough treatment of some special questions. InRomeecclesiastical students from various colleges follow a course of lectures at the Gregorian University, theDominican College, thePropaganda, or the Roman Seminary; these are supplemented by repetitions in the colleges (seeROMAN COLLEGES). There are likewiseecclesiastical students preparing for thepriesthood who follow the courses oftheology in the Universities ofLouvain and Fribourg, and in thetheological faculties of the Germanuniversities. In the Catholic University at Washington there is only a post-graduate course ofsacred sciences.

The vast majority of theclergy in nearly all countries receive theireducation in seminaries, and only at the end of the regular course are some of the best gifted sent to aCatholicuniversity to pursue higher studies, which lead to the degrees of licentiate and doctor.Leo XIII andPius X, in their letters tobishops in various parts of the world and in their Decrees regarding seminaries, insist thatecclesiastical studies be in harmony with the needs of our times, but free from all dangerous novelties, especially from theerrors condemned under the name ofModernism. Various means have been taken to secure the perfectorthodoxy of both the professors and the students.

Moral and spiritual training

Unlike most of the professionalschools (law, medicine etc.) which give onlyknowledge, the seminary aims at training the will. Like West Point and the Naval Academy it subjects the student to a system of discipline by which he may gradually acquire habits becoming his profession. In apriest,holiness of life is not less essential than professionalscience. In order to discharge with success the functions of his ministry, he must be a gentleman, atrueChristian, and moreover capable of bearing the specialobligations of thepriesthood. "In order to restore in the world the reign of Jesus Christ", writesPius X (5 May, 1904), "nothing is asnecessary as theholiness of theclergy." Hence, in his firstEncyclical he warns thebishops that their first care, to which every other must yield, ought to be "to form Christ in those who are to form Christ in others" (3 Oct., 1903).

Seminarians are to learn thesacerdotal virtues first of all by the example of their teachers. Hence thesovereign pontiffs and various councils frequently insist on the qualifications of those who are chosen to trainpriests. They should be "conspicuous for ability, learning,piety, seriousness of life. They should devote their life to study, bear cheerfully the burden of seminary rule and of a busy life; by word and example teach the students the observance of seminary discipline,humility, unworldliness,love of work and retirement, and fidelity toprayer" (Council of Baltimore, no. 159). Another powerful means of training seminarians inChristian virtue is the seminary discipline. The student is separated from the world and subjected to a rule of life which, leaving nothing to caprice, determines what he has to do at every moment of the day. Classes, studies, exercises ofpiety follow one another at regular intervals, and punctual attendance is expected of all. Fidelity to seminary rules, extending over several years, prompted by a sense ofduty, and inspired by thelove ofGod, cannot fail to produce habits of regularity, self-control, and self-sacrifice.

Instructions onChristian perfection, on the dignity andduties of thepriesthood are daily given in spiritual conferences and readings. These are supplemented by retreats, which take place in the beginning of the year and before ordinations, and by private consultations of each student with hisspiritual director. Even more efficacious than instruction and discipline is the direct intercourse of thesoul withGod inprayer, meditation, and the reception of thesacraments. Nowhere, perhaps, has theDecree ofPius X onfrequent communion produced more abundant fruit than in seminaries. The students gladly avail themselves of the special encouragement given to them to receiveOur Lord daily. By this close communion with our greatHigh Priest, even more than by their willing acceptance of all the restraints of seminary life, they gradually become worthy of the mission conferred upon them byordination. Thus the seminary becomes a nursery of faithful representatives ofOur Lord for thesalvation of men; they go forth, the light of the world and the salt of the earth.

History fully bears out the words of the learned historian and greatbishop, Hefele: "If theCatholic world has had for the last three hundred years a more learned, a more moral, a morepiousclergy than that which existed in almost every country at the time of the so-calledReformation, and whose tepidity and faithlessness contributed largely to the growth of theschism, it is wholly due to thisdecree of theCouncil of Trent, and to it we in this age owe our thanks" ("Tübinger Quartalschrift", no. 1, p. 24).

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