Schools

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In the Church

The Christian Church

By virtue of her Divine charter, "Going, teach ye all nations", theChurch is essentially a teaching organization. Teaching is included in her task of savingsouls. Primarily she was instituted to dispense the means ofsalvation, and to teach thetruths which are necessary tosalvation. Thesetruths are spiritual and moral, and her catechumenal schools were instituted for the purpose of teaching them. Truths which are not of their nature spiritual,truths ofscience, of history, matters of culture — in a word, profane learning — these do not belong intrinsically to the programme of theChurch's teaching. Nevertheless, they enter into her work by force of circumstance, when, namely, theChristian youth cannot attain aknowledge of them without incurring grave danger tofaith ormorals. They enter also into theChurch's task by reason of a pedagogical principle which she has always recognized in practice. Religion being the supreme co-ordinating principle ineducation, as it is in life, if the so-called secular branches ofknowledge are taught without reference to religion, theChurch feels that aneducational mistake is being made, that the "one thing necessary" is being excluded, to the detriment ofeducation itself. Therefore she assumes the task of teaching the secular branches in such a way that religion is the centralizing, unifying, and vitalizing force in theeducational process. Whenever there is positive and immediate danger of loss offaith, theChurch cannot allow her children to run the risk of perversion; whenever religion is left out of the curriculum, she tries to supply the defect. In both cases she establishes under her own control schools which are calledCatholic and which, in the vicissitudes of historical development or from the particular circumstances of their foundation, scope, or maintenance, are specifically known ascatechetical schools, monastic schools,cathedral schools,chantry schools, guild schools,parochial schools, etc.

Catechetical schools

These flourished about the middle of the second century of the Christian era. They were brought into existence by the conflict ofChristianity withpagan philosophy. They were, consequently, academies of higher learning. Out of them grew the first great schools oftheological controversy and also the schools for the special training of theclergy, although there were, almost from the beginning, schools attached to the household of thebishops (episcopal schools) whereclerics were trained, We have reason to believe that in some instances, as in thecatechetical school of Protogenes atEdessa (about 180), not only the higher branches but also the elementary branches were taught in thecatechetical schools. Schools of this type became more numerous as time went on. In the Council ofVaison (529) thepriests of Gaul are commanded to take boys into their household and teach them to read "thePsalms, and theHoly Scripture and to instruct them in theLaw of God". From these sprang theparochial schools ofmedieval and modern times.

As the conflict betweenChristianity andpagan philosophy gave rise to thecatechetical schools, so the more general struggle betweenChristian andpagan standards of life gave rise to other provisions on the part of theChurch for safeguarding thefaith ofChristian children. In the first centuries great stress was laid on the importance of homeeducation, and this task was committed in a special manner toChristian mothers. It is sufficient to mention theChristian matronsMacrina, Emmelia, Nonna, Anthusa,Monica, and Paula, mothers ofsaints and scholars, to show how successfully the home under the direction of theChristian mother was made to counteract the influence ofpagan schools. There were also private schools forChristian youth, taught byChristians, for instance the school atImola, taught by Cassian.

Monastic schools

Monasticism as an institution was a protest against the corruptpagan standards of living which had begun to influence not only the public life ofChristians but also their private and domestic life. Even in the fourth century,St. John Chrysostom testifies to the decline of fervour in theChristianfamily, and contends that it is no longer possible for children to obtain proper religious and moral training in their own homes. It was part of the purpose of monasticism to meet this need and to supply not only to the members of thereligious orders but also to children committed to the care of thecloister the moral religious, andintellectual culture which could not be obtained elsewhere without lowering theChristian standard of life. At the same time episcopal schools, though instituted primarily for theeducation ofclerical candidates, did not decline to admit secular scholars, especially after the State schools of the empire had fallen into decay. There wereparochial schools also, which, while they aimed at fostering vocations to thepriesthood, were expressly commanded not to deny their pupils theright to enter the married state as soon as they reached the age of maturity (cum ad œtatem perfectam pervenerint). The explicit enactment of the Council ofVaison (529) in this matter is important because it refers to a similar custom already prevailing inItaly. It remainstrue, however, that although the episcopal and presbyteral (parochial) schools thus contributed to theeducation of thelaity, the chief portion of the burden of layeducation in the earlyMiddle Ages was borne by themonasteries. The earliest monastic legislation does not clearly define the organization of the "internal" and "external" schools. Nevertheless, it recognizes the existence in themonastery of children who were to beeducated, not for thecloister, but for the world. InIreland, as Archbishop Healy says, themonks, "taught the children of the rich and poor alike" ("Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars", 102), and toIreland went not onlyclerics butlaymen fromEngland and the Continent, to receive aneducation. On the Continent also theeducation of thelaity, "gentle and simple", fell to the lot of themonks. It is difficult to say when the distinction between the "internal" school (schola claustri) and the "external" (schola canonica, s. externa) was first introduced. We find it in St. Gall,Fulda andReichenau in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the internal school the pupils werenovices, future members of the order, some of whom were offered up (oblati) by theirparents at a tender age. In the external school were the children of the neighbouring villagers and the sons of the nobility; many of the references to this class of pupils in the monastic code lay stress on theobligation to treat all with equaljustice, not taking account of their rank in life. There was a similar custom in regard to the reception of young girls in theconvents, as appears from several enactments of Bishop St. Cæsarius of Arles and his successors. At Arles, moreover, according to Muteau (see bibliography) open schools (écoles ouvertes) were held by thenuns for the benefit of the entire neighbourhood. The curriculum of studies in the monastic schools comprised thetrivium andquadrivium, that is to say, grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry,astronomy, and the theory of music. Besides, themonks cultivated thescience and art of healing; they devoted attention to agriculture, building, and the decorative arts. They took pains to transcribe the Classics as well as the distinctlyecclesiastical works that had come down to them; and in doing this they developed the art of penmanship and that of illumination to a high degree of perfection. They wereannalists also, noting down year by year the important events not only in the life of their own community but also in theChurch at large and in the political world. Finally, by example and precept they dignified manual labour, which inpaganRome was despised as fit only for slaves.

The head of the monastic school was calledmagister scholœ, capiscola, proscholus, etc. By the end of the ninth century, however, the usual name for the head of the school wasscholasticus. His assistants were calledseniores. The method of teaching was influenced largely by the scarcity of books and the need of handing down without diminution the heritage of the past. The master dictated (legere was the word used to signify the act of teaching), and the pupils wrote not only the text but also the master's explanation or commentary. Of the many textbooks in use the most popular was the work by Marcianus Capella (about 420) entitled "Satyricon, seu de Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiæ". That the instruction given to thelaity in the monastic schools was entirely gratuitous is evident from thedecree of Bishop Theodulf ofOrléans in the eighth century, and from other documents. When, atTours, the external school was frequented by a number of wealthy pupils, whosevoluntary gifts to themonastery put the poorer students in a position of apparent inferiority, thebishop of thatsee, Amalric, gave a generous donation to themonks to be used in the maintenance of poor students. TheCarlovingian revival ofeducation affected not only the internal schools of themonasteries but also the external schools, and, during the reign of Charles's successorsbishops andpopes by a number of decrees showed their interest in the maintenance not only of schools ofsacred science, but also in schools "for the study of letters". The external school had by this time become a recognized institution, which the sons of the farmers in the neighbourhood of themonasteries frequented not by privilege but by a right freely acknowledged. Weknow that before the end of the ninth century both boys and girls attended the schools attached to theparish churches in theDiocese of Soissons. As time went on the establishment and maintenance of schools by theChurch was made a matter of express canonical enactment. No document could be more explicit than theDecree of the Third Council of Lateran (1179): "That everycathedral church have a teacher (magistrum) who is to teach poor scholars and others, and that no one receive a fee for permission to teach" (Mansi, XXII, 234).

Cathedral schools

Thecathedral schools sprang from the episcopal schools which, as has been said, existed from a very early time for the training ofclerics. Chrodegang,Bishop ofMetz, 742-66, is said to be the founder ofmedievalcathedral schools, but only in the sense that he organized theclergy of hiscathedral church into a community, and ordained that they undertake the conduct and management of the school attached to their church. Thebishop himself was to have control of the school and under him was to be the immediate superior of the school (magister scholœ). In the cities and towns where there was nocathedral, the canons of the local church were organized after the manner of thecathedralclergy, and conducted a "canonicate" school. In both institutions there came to be distinguished;

The method employed in thecathedral schools was identical with that of themonastic schools.

Chantry schools

Thechantry schools were similar in character to thecathedral and canonicate schools. Indeed, they may be said to be a specific kind of canonicate schools. Thechantry was a foundation with endowment, the proceeds of which went to one or morepriests carrying theobligation of singing or sayingMass at stated times, or daily, for thesoul of the endower, or for thesouls ofpersons named by him. It was part of theduty of the incumbents of achantry foundation to "teach gratis the poor who asked it humbly for thelove ofGod". (See "Catholic University Bulletin," IX, 3 sq.).

Guild schools, hospital schools, and city schools

The last beginning with the thirteenth century, shared the work ofeducation with thecloister,cathedral, andchantry schools. The guilds andhospitals wereecclesiastical foundations, were guided byclerics, and engaged in the work ofeducation under the direction of theChurch. The city schools at first met with opposition from the teachers in the monastic andcathedral foundations, although they also were under the control ofecclesiastics.Kehrein in his "History of Education" (see bibliography) mentions aDecree ofAlexander III which prohibits anyabbot from preventing anymagister orscholasticus from taking charge of a school in the city or suburb "sinceknowledge is agift of God and talent is free". Towards the end of theMiddle Ages the task of theecclesiastical teacher became so important that communities ofclerics were founded for the express purpose of devoting their lives to theduties of elementaryeducation. The best known of these communities is that of"The Brothers of the Common Life" founded byGerard Groot (1340-84) at Deventer. It soon extended to Windedheim, Agnetenberg, and other towns inHolland and NorthGermany. To this community belongedThomas à Kempis, the author of "The Imitation of Christ". That these various provisions for theeducation not only of theclergy but also of thelaity--monastic schools,cathedral schools, canonicate schools,chantry schools, guild schools,hospital schools, city schools, and special educational institutions--met theeducational needs of the times, and were adequate as far as the circumstances of the times would allow, is the verdict of all historians who view without prejudice theeducational career of theCatholicChurch. Allain (see bibliography) has told the story of primaryeducation inFrance; Ravelet (see bibliography) has gone over the whole question of primaryeducation inmedieval times; Leach has told part of the story (see bibliography) as far as pre-ReformationEngland is concerned. It is impossible to give more than a summary statement of the facts which these writers have accumulated. Those facts, however, justify the assertion that, far from opposing or neglecting theeducation of the masses, theCatholicChurch inmedieval times provided generously for their instruction in the elementary branches, as well as in the department of higher studies, whenever and wherever the political, social, andeconomic conditions were not so adverse as to thwart hereducational efforts.

Both the particular and thegeneral councils of theChurch, imperial capitularies, and episcopal andpapal decrees show thatbishops andpopes, while concerned primarily for theeducation of future members of theclerical body in thesacred sciences, were also at pains to encourage and promote theeducation of thelaity. For instance, the Council of Cloveshoe, held by Cuthbert,Archbishop ofCanterbury in 749, prescribes that abbesses as well asabbots provide for theeducation of all their households (familiœ). ACarlovingian capitulary of 802 enjoins "that everyone should send his son to study letters, and that the child should remain at school with all diligence until he became well instructed in learning". Theodulf ofOrléans in 797 decrees that gratuitous instruction be given by thepriests in every town and village of hisdiocese, and there cannot be the leastdoubt thateducation of thelaity is meant. The Council of Châlon-sur-Saône in 813 legislates in a similar spirit that not only "schools ofSacred Scripture" but also "schools of letters" be established. The Council ofRome, held in 853, directs thebishops of the Universal Church to establish "in every episcopal residence [in universis episcopiis] among the populations subject to them, and in all places where there is such need" masters and teachers to teach "literary studies and the seven liberal arts". These and similar documents lay stress on the obligatian which rests on theparents and godparents to see to theeducation of children committed to their care. By the middle of the ninth century the distinction between external and internal monastic schools being clearly recognized, andparish schools having become a regulardiocesan institution, the testimonies in favour of populareducation under the auspices of theChurch become clearer. In the tenth century, in spite of the disturbed conditions in the political world, learning flourished in the greatmonasteries, such as that of St. Gall (Switzerland). St. Maximin (Trier), and in thecathedral schools, such as those ofReims andLyons. The greatest teachers of that time, Bruno of Cologne and Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Sylvester II), taught not only the sacred but also the profanesciences. In the eleventh century the school ofChartres, that of Ste-Geneviève atParis, and the numerous schools of rhetoric and dialectic show that even in the higher branches of learning, in spite of the fact that the teachers were invariablyclerics, thelaymen were welcomed and were not deniededucation of the secondary kind. That, as historians have pointed out, the references to popular and elementaryeducation in the local councils of theChurch have not always been preserved, is explained by the fact that elementary Church schools were now an established fact. Ecclesiastical authority intervened only whenever some abuse called for remedial legislation. Thus, thedecree of the Third Council of Lateran already referred to (n. III) aimed at abolishing the custom of exacting fees for instruction in thecathedral schools. There were, naturally, details of arrangement to be determined, such as salary of teachers and supervision or personal instruction on the part of thepastor. These were provided in decrees, such as that of the Diocesan Synod ofSt. Omer in 1183 and that of Engelbert II,Archbishop ofCologne, in 1270.

The history ofeducation inEngland before theReformation is the story of the efforts made in monastic,cathedral,chantry, andparish schools for theeducation of thelaity as well as of theclergy. In the narrative of the suppression and confiscation of these foundations Leach (see bibliography) gives abundant documentary evidence to justify his assertion that "Grammar schools, instead of being comparatively modern, post-Reformation inventions, are among our most ancient institutions, some of them far older than the Lord Mayor of London or the House of Commons" (p. 5). He estimates the number of grammar schools before the reign of Edward VI to have been "close on two hundred", and these he considers to be merely "the survivors of a much larger host which have been lost in the storms of the past, and drowned in the seas of destruction" (ibid.). There were, he maintains, not only schools connected with thecathedral churches,monasteries, collegiate churches,hospitals, guilds, and chantries, but also independent schools, in one of which "an old man was paid thirteen shillings and fourpence by the Mayor, to teach young children their A B C" (p. 7). Lincoln,Chichester, and Wells were the principalcathedral schools. Beverley,Chester, Crediton, Ripon,Wimborne, Warwick, Stafford, and Tamworth had important collegiate schools. AtEvesham, Cirencester, and Lewes were the principalmonastery schools at the eve of theReformation, while atOxford, Cambridge, Eton, and elsewhere were thirty-one college schools of grammar before the reign of Edward VI, The number of schools in proportion to the population of the country was relatively very great, and as far as it is possible for us now to judge the attendance, that, too, must have been relatively large. The history ofeducation inScotland before the reformation is told in the first part of Grant's "History of the Burgh Schools ofScotland". "Our earliest records", says that writer, "prove not only that schools existed, but that they were then invariably found in connection with theChurch" (p. 2). He quotes documents for the foundation of schools in 1100, 1120, 1180, 1195, and cites in many instancespapal approval and confirmation of educational establishments in the twelfth century. He is convinced that these institutions were intended not merely forclerics but also for younglaymen (ibid., p. 12), and he concludes his summary by admitting that "The scattered jottings collected in this chapter show ourobligation to the ancient Church for having so diligently promoted our nationaleducation--aneducation placed within the reach ofall classes" (ibid., p. 72).

The educational institutions founded and supported by theChurch inFrance,Germany,Italy, and other parts ofEurope before theReformation have, in part, been mentioned in the general account of monastic andcathedral schools. Specht (see bibliography) has produced documentary evidence to show the extent to which laywomen wereeducated in theconvent schools of the ninth and the following centuries; he has also shown that daughters of noblefamilies were, as a rule,educated by private teachers who, for the most part, wereclergymen. The assertion so frequently made that, during theMiddle Ages, learning was considered out of place in alayman, that even elementaryknowledge of letters was a prerogative of theclergy, is not sustained by a careful examination of historical records. It istrue that there are passages in the popular literature of theMiddle Ages in which theignorantlayman, who is well versed in the art ofwarfare and in the usages of politesociety, affects to despise learning and to regard it as a monkish orecclesiastical accomplishment. But, as Léon Maitre (see bibliography) asserts, "suchignorance was by no means systematic; it arose from the conditions of the times". "Knowledge", says a twelfth-century writer, "is not an exclusive privilege of theclergy, for manylaymen are instructed in literature. A prince, whenever he can succeed in escaping from the tumult of public affairs and from [the confusion of] constantwarfare, ought to devote himself to the study of books" (P.L., CCIII, col. 149). The number of distinguishedlaymen and laywomen, emperors, kings, nobles, queens and princesses who, during themedieval era, attained prominence as scholars shows that the advice was not disregarded. Thecalumny recently reaffirmed that "the Church was not the mother, but rather the stepmother, of learning" is easily asserted, but is not so easilyproved.

The destruction of this vast and varied system ofecclesiastical legislation is a fact of general history. The schools, as a rule, disappeared with the institutions to which they were attached. The confiscation of themonasteries, the suppression of thebenefices on which the chantries were founded, the removal of the guilds from the control ofecclesiastical authority, the suppression ofcathedral and canonical chapters and the sequestration of their possessions by the State, were the immediate cause of the cessation of this kind ofeducational activity on the part of theChurch at the time of theReformation and afterwards. InProtestant countries these events took place in the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. InGermany, a compromise was reached in some States by the recognition of bothProtestant andCatholic "confessional" schools and the division of school funds, an arrangement which lasted until the beginning of the nineteenth century; inFrance the work of confiscation began with theFrench Revolution; inItaly,Spain, andPortugal the suppression and spoliation have taken place within the last half-century and are still going on. Apart from the question of elementaryjustice--the question of violation of a strict right to their own lands and funds, which theecclesiastical corporations possessed at the time theirproperty was seized and their schools suppressed--there arises now the question of theright to teach, the right of theChurch to found and maintain private schools, and the alleged exclusive right of the State toeducate.

The fundamental principles of canon law

Those principles bearing on these questions may be stated as follows:

From the interaction and conflict of these fundamentalrights arise the following more particular principles:

The present status of the Church and state in regard to education

In Germany

After theReformation inGermany the primary schools inProtestant provinces passed over to the control of the localcivil authorities. InCatholic communities theecclesiastical authorities did not yield so readily to the aggression of the State. All through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries councils (Cologne, 1536 and 1560; Salzburg, 1569; Breslau, 1592; Augsburg, 1610) withstood the encroachments ofcivil authority on theparochial schools and, as a rule, amodus vivendi was reached satisfactory to thebishops. By the end of the eighteenth century however, the notion of Statejurisdiction ineducational matters was firmly established. For the most part the foundation of private schools was the solution. These were recognized by German law as belonging to thejurisdiction of theChurch. Early in the nineteenth century the so-called "simultaneous schools" began to be the ordinary solution of the problem. In these there were children of variousdenominations, each denomination having, in theory, theright to care for the religious instruction of its members. On several occasions thebishops ofGermany or of some German state protested (e.g. atWürzburg, 1848; theBavarianbishops, 1850) against the restrictions of therights of theChurch. At the present time the simultaneous schools areobligatory in a few provinces and optional (facultativ) in others, while inBavaria, the Rhine Provinces and elsewhere, "confessional", i.e. denominational, schools are the rule, and simultaneous, or mixed, schools, the exception. Throughout the empire the supreme control of all elementary schools is vested in the government, the localecclesiastical authorities being granted a greater or less amount of supervision and control according to the different circumstances in different localities. The teacher of religion forCatholics is of course always aCatholic, almost always apriest, and is a regularly qualified and salaried teacher, like the instructor in other branches. The attitude of thebishops towards the contemporaryeducational system inGermany is set forth in the decrees of the Council of Cologne (1860).

In Austria

Until the beginning of the nineteenth century the conditions were similar to those existing inGermany. The legislation ofJoseph II had been distinctly hostile to religious influence in the schools. However, the enactments of 1808, 1868, 1885, etc. give a measure of authority and control to the localclergy which make the conditions inAustria to be as a rule more favourable than in theGerman Empire. The question of language has of course complicated matters in many provinces ofAustria, and local conditions, thepersonality of the government official, etc. have much to do with the actual status of religious teaching in the public schools. The decrees of the Council ofVienna (1858) contain the views of thehierarchy ofAustria in regard to the present condition of religiouseducation in that country. The Letter of theArchbishop ofVienna to thePapal Nuncio (22 Oct., 1868) is also an important declaration. See also articles 5-8 of the Concordat of 1855 (AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY).

In France

TheNapoleonicdecree of 1808 established in principle and in fact the most rigorous State monopoly ineducation. It met at once with a vigorous protest on the part of theCatholicbishops, who demanded freedom of instruction in the name of theparents in whom, they contended, theright toeducate is primarily vested. In 1833 and 1850 (La loi Falloux) "free schools" were recognized. No special concession was made to theChurch but permission was granted toindividuals to open schools. From 1833 to 1850 members ofreligious orders orpriests could teach only in the State schools. After 1850 they were free, as citizens, to open schools of their own, both primary and secondary. In 1886 a blow was struck at free primaryeducation by authorization given to mayors and school inspectors to oppose the opening of any private school on hygienic or moral grounds. In 1888 came another attack in the form of an order of the Council of State, depriving communes and departments of theright to grant appropriations for private schools. Finally in 1904 it was declared that "teaching of every grade and every kind" is forbidden inFrance to the members of the congregations. This resulted in the closing of 14,404 out of 16,904 "Congregational" schools. Since that time thebishops have tried to reorganizeCatholiceducation by establishing private schools in which the teachers are eitherlaymen and laywomen or secularized members of the congregations. Instruction in religion in the State schools was optional with theparents of the children by adecree of 1881. In 1882 religious instruction in the primary schools of the State was absolutely forbidden, and in 1886 religious andclerics were forbidden to teach in those schools. In place of denominational religion there was introduced first a species of "denominational neutrality" and later, a "scientific religion" (enseignement critique). Within the present decade the tendency of this teaching has been plainly seen in the introduction of textbooks which are both anti-clerical and anti-religious, with the result thatbishops are at present under indictment inFrance for daring to warn the people of theirdioceses against the use of such books in the schools supported by the people.

In Belgium

SeeBELGIUM; also pamphlet by Cardinal Dechamps, "Le Nouveau projet de loi sur l'enseignement primaire" (Mechlin, 1879).

In England

Until the beginning of the nineteenth century there was no government system of primary schools inEngland, nor were any primary schools in receipt of State aid. It was not until 1833 that government grants were made, and then the schools that benefited by the grants were either schools of the National and British Foreign Society, or, in any case, schools in which theBible was to be read as part of the regular instruction. The civil disabilities under whichCatholics suffered, and the restriction of grants in practice to Bible-reading schools excludedCatholic private schools from State aid until 1848. In 1856 and 1858 the conditions under which grants were given were made more favourable toCatholics. From 1871 to 1903 the basic law of primaryeducation inEngland was Forster's Elementary Education Act of 1870. This Act, while it did not abolish thevoluntary or denominational schools, established the Board-schools. These were to be supported from the rates or taxes, and governed by school boards elected by the people. The Government helped to build the school and, in places where the boards were judged culpably negligent, compelled them to build. In 1876 and 1880 supplementary enactments were passed, called School Attendance Acts, which compel the attendance at eithervoluntary or Board-schools of all children under ten. The religious difficulty was met at first by leaving the matter of religious instruction to the discretion of the local board. Later the "Conscience" clause and the "Cowper-Temple" clause were added, in order to satisfy theAnglicans and theNonconformists. These clauses set aside a special hour for religious instruction, attendance at which was to be entirelyvoluntary, and forbade the use of "anycatechism or religious formulary distinctive of any particular denomination".Catholics were able to accept these conditions in some localities. Meantime various enactments, for example in 1891 and 1897, were passed, which lessened the burden of thevoluntary schools. The Bill of 1902, which became law in 1903, took the power out of the hands of the school boards, vested it in the town and county councils, and compelled these to take over and maintain thevoluntary schools. This broughtEngland in line withScotland, where a similar law was in force since 1872. TheNonconformists, however, objected because in localities where they were in the minority the religious instruction given in the schools would be denominational, that isAnglican. To meet this objection Mr. Birrell's Bill of 1906 was framed. But, after various vicissitudes, the Bill was finally defeated, and never became law. It would have had the effect of wiping thevoluntary schools out of existence and abolishing all denominational instruction, a result which, apparently, would be acceptable to theNonconformists, but is bitterly opposed by bothCatholics andAnglicans. In 1870 the number ofCatholic schools inEngland andWales was 354, providing for theeducation of 101,933 children; while in 1906 the number of schools had increased to 1062 and the attendance had reached 284,746. This increase is largely due to thezeal of theCatholic School Committee, now known as theCatholic Education Council.

In Ireland

The primaryeducation ofCatholics inIreland is provided for by;

The majority of the National Schools are taught by lay teachers. Many of the girls' schools are, however, taught bynuns, and boys' schools byChristian Brothers (of the Congregation of St. John Baptist de La Salle), Presentation,Marist, Patrician, andFranciscan Brothers, The Act of 1831 aimed at separate instruction in religion. In places where it is at all practicable there is a National School forCatholics and one forProtestants in the same locality. Where the attendance is "mixed" there is a separate hour for religious instruction, attendance at which isvoluntary. InCatholic sections, or when the majority of children areCatholic, the manager is almost invariably theparishpriest. The manager is the local school authority: he appoints the teachers (subject to the approval of the commissioners), removes them, and conducts all thenecessary correspondence with the commissioners. His powers and hisduties are those of a school board. He is, if apriest, responsible to hisbishop. By enactment of the Maynooth Synod of 1900 he may not dismiss a teacher without submitting the case to thebishop of thediocese in which the school is situated. Of the seven training colleges for primary teachers, five are under the management of theCatholicbishops. The number of teachers trained in these colleges is now more than double the number of untrained teachers. Religious instruction in the primary schools is given at a stated hour by the regular teachers of the school: this is supplemented by the localclergy, who have access, within reasonable limits, to the classroom for the purpose of religious instruction. That these conditions are, on the whole, acceptable to thebishops is clear from the pastoral address issued in 1900 from theNational Synod of Maynooth. It should be added, however, that it is due to the vigilance and devotedness of theIrishclergy that they have gradually evolved from the original National system which was "thoroughly dangerous", a system which at the present time is "a help rather than a hindrance to theChurch".

In the United States

"The greatest religious fact in the United States today", writes Archbishop Spalding, "is theCatholic School system, maintained without any aid by the people wholove it". The vastness of the system may be gauged by the fact that it comprises over 20,000 teachers, over 1,000,000 pupils, represents $100,000,000 worth ofproperty; and costs over $15,000,000 annually. This system grew up fromhumble beginnings. Its growth has kept pace with the growth of theChurch. The oldest schools in the present territory of theUnited States are theCatholic schools founded about 1600 in the Spanish colonies. The French colonies, too, had their schools as a regular part of the civil and religious scheme of colonization and civilization.Catholiceducational work in the Thirteen Colonies dates from the arrival of theCatholic colony inMaryland. The first regularly established school inMaryland dates from 1640. As the condition changed from that of a missionary country to that of a country regularly provided with a fixedecclesiastical organization, the schools came to be recognized as a function of organizedparish work. In the Spanish and French colonies the school, like theChurch, looked to the State for support. In the English colonies there was also State support of denominationaleducation, but whether theCatholics could or could not secure a share of the public funds depended on local conditions. When the States adopted their constitutions, they did not introduce any change in this respect. It was "the gradual rise of dissentient religious bodies in the colonies and States due to the influx of emigrants and other causes, that brought about important changes which led to the establishment of a 'non-sectarian' system of schools" (Burns, "The Catholic School System in the United States", p. 359). Weknow that in many instancesCatholics in the West and even inMassachusetts and New York obtained funds from the State for the support of their schools, as theEpiscopalians andPresbyterians did for theirs.

The unsuccessful attempt of Father Richard ofDetroit in 1808 to obtain for theCatholic schools of that city a share of the public funds, was followed in 1830 by a more successful plan at Lowell, Mass. At that time the population of Lowell included manyIrishCatholic immigrants. In 1830 at the annual town meeting a committee was appointed to consider the expediency of "establishing a separate school for the benefit of the Irish population", and the following year the sum of fifty dollars annually was appropriate for that purpose. In 1855 there were twoCatholic schools at Lowell; both were recognized as part of the school system of the town, and both were supported out of the public funds. After sixteen years of successful trial the arrangement was discontinued in 1852, owing to the wave of bigotry known as theKnownothing Movement that swept over New England. In New York, as early as 1806, St. Peter's School applied for and received State aid. A similar arrangement was made for St. Patrick's School in 1816. In 1824 this support was withdrawn by the State, owing to the activity of the Public School Society. To thissociety was committed the entire school fund for distribution, and, as we learn from the protests of New YorkCatholics, the activity of thesociety was directed towards making the public schools not strictly non-sectarian but offensivelyProtestant. In 1840 the School Controversy in New York was precipitated by the petition of theCatholics to be allowed a share of the public funds for their schools. The petition was rejected by the Common Council; but the fight was not, on that account, discontinued. With remarkablezeal, eloquence, and erudition, Bishop Hughes, supported not only by all hisCatholic people, but also by some of the non-Catholic congregations of the city, urged the claims of religiouseducation. He laid stress on the contention thatCatholics have aright to "a fair and just proportion of the funds appropriated for the common schools, provided theCatholics will do with it the same thing that is done in the common schools". He claimed no special privilege, but contended for the "constitutionalrights" of his people. He was opposed, not only by the Public School Society, but also by representatives of theMethodist, Episcopal, andPresbyterian Churches. The claims of theCatholics went before the legislature; but there also sectarianhatred was injected into the discussion and bigotry gained the day. The controversy, however, had one good result. It showed the imminent danger tofaith andmorals existing in the public school system as influenced by the so-called non-sectarians of that day, and as a consequenceCatholics set to work to build up, at a tremendous cost, a system ofparochial schools unsupported by the State.

In theory it is still maintained thatinjustice is being done toCatholics. If the "secular branches" are taught in theparochial schools to the satisfaction of the State authorities, the schools should be compensated for doing that portion of the task which the State has assumed. On the other hand, there are manyCatholics who are convinced that if State aid were accepted it could be done only at the cost of independence, that State aid would be the price of admitting State supervision to the extent of partial de-Catholicization. There have, nevertheless, been individual instances in which a compromise has been reached, e.g. Savannah, Georgia; St. Augustine, Florida; Poughkeepsie, New York; and Faribault and Stillwater, Minnesota. The last-mentioned instance gave rise to the celebrated School Controversy of 1891-92. The Faribault plan consisted in setting aside a certain time for religious instruction, to be given gratis by theCatholic teachers, and a time for secular instruction, to be given also byCatholic teachers. The secular instruction was to be paid for by the State, and in respect to that portion of its work the school was to be under State supervision; it was, in fact, to be recognized as a "public school". The question was finally carried to theCongregation of the Propaganda, which rendered its decision on 21 April, 1892, to the effect that "considering the peculiar circumstances and character of the arrangement, and the agreement by which the plan was inaugurated, it may be tolerated". In the discussion of the Faribault plan certain fundamental questions were touched, as for instance inDr. Bouquillon's "Education, to whom does it belong?" (Baltimore, 1891), "A Rejoinder to the Civiltà Cattolica" (Baltimore, 1892)," A Rejoinder to Critics" (Baltimore, 1892), Hollaind, S.J., "The Parents First" (New York, 1891), Conway, S.J., "The State Last" (New York, 1892), Brandi, S.J., in "Civiltà Cattolica", 2 Jan., 1892, tr. as a pamphlet (New York, 1892). It should be added that, owing to some local difficulty the agreement at Faribault and Stillwater was later discontinued, but a similar agreement is in force today in not a few places in Minnesota.

The attitude of thehierarchy of theUnited States towards the problem of elementaryeducation has been consistent from the beginning. At first Bishop Carroll, in the days immediately following the Revolution, entertained the hope thatCatholics might unite with their non-Catholic fellow-citizens in building up a system ofeducation that would be mutually satisfactory from the religious point of view. Soon, however, he realized that that hope was futile. After the FirstCatholic Synod he addressed (1792) a pastoral letter to theCatholics of the country, in which he emphasized the necessity of a "pious andCatholic education of the young to insure their growing up in the faith", and expressed the hope that the graduates of the newly-founded College of Georgetown would, on returning to their homes, be able "to instruct and guide others in local schools". Thus the plan of organizing separateCatholic schools was inaugurated. The FirstPlenary Council of Baltimore (1829) declares: "We judge it absolutelynecessary that schools should be established, in which the young may be taught the principles offaith and morality, while being instructed in letters" ("Decreta", n. 33). The Second Council (1832) renewed this enactment and entered into the details of organization (see "Decreta", n. 38). The ThirdPlenary Council of Baltimore (1884) devoted very careful consideration to the subject of elementary schools and decreed in explicit terms theobligation of establishing aparochial school in everyparish within two years of thepromulgation of thedecree, except where thebishop, on account of serious difficulties in the way (ob graviores difficultates) judges that a delay may be granted ("Acta et Decreta", 199, no. 1).

Parochial schools and public schools

The establishment and maintenance ofparochial schools does not imply the condemnation of public schools, or opposition of any kind to the purpose for which these are established. At a meeting of the National Educational Association atNashville,Tennessee in July, 1889, both Cardinal Gibbons,Archbishop ofBaltimore, and Archbishop Keane, thenrector of theCatholic University of America, stated the case in favour of denominational schools, and made it clear that, so far as citizenship and patriotism are concerned, theCatholic schools are aiming successfully at the same ideals as the public schools. Since that time thecalumny has been repeated thatparochial schools lead to sectionalism, and are opposed to national patriotism.Catholics can only answer that this is nottrue, and point to facts to justify their reply. Our schools teach everything that is taught in the public schools, and, in addition, teach religion and religious morality. The exclusion of religion from the public schools is, we think, historically, the result of sectarian division and sectarian prejudice. In recent times theorists have sought to justify the omission on pedagogical grounds, and have suggested various substitutes for religion as a basis of morality. We criticize the theories, and point to theeducational results in justification of our contention. If the exclusion of religion and the substitution for it of inadequate and futile moraleducation lead to disastrous results, theCatholics who call attention to those conditions, far from opposing the public school system, are really doing it a service. Meantime they feel that the tendency in theeducational policy of the public school system is more and more towards secularization. In the matter of morality they feel that experiments more and more dangerous are being tried in the public schools, and if they protest, they are doing what, after all, they have a right, as taxpayers, to do. Meantime also they are developing their own system ofeducation without giving up the contention that, injustice, they have aright to compensation for the seculareducation and theeducation in citizenship which they give in their schools.

Conflicts between theeducational authority of the State and theCatholicclergy have arisen in a few instances. Theclergy have always recognized the right of officials of the Department of Health, etc., to interfere in the matters in which they have competence. Where they have retained full autonomy, and have not yielded for the sake of affiliation or some other form of recognition, they have naturally avoided all friction with Stateeducational authority. By way of exception, we have the celebrated Ohio Compulsory Education case, in which Father Patrick F. Quigley, ofToledo, Ohio, resisted unsuccessfully the enactment of theState of Ohio (1890) compelling all principals and teachers in all schools to make quarterly reports to State officers. The still more famousWisconsin Bible Case involved the question of the right of the District Board of Edgerton,Wisconsin, to have theKing James Version of theBible read in the public schools which were attended byCatholic pupils. The Supreme Court ofWisconsin decided in favour of theCatholics.

Principles embodied in the parochial schools

The sacrifice whichCatholics are making in maintaining their system of primary schools is justified, in their estimation, by the following principles:

Besides, they strive, with great personal sacrifice on the part of people, teachers, and pupils, to keep up with the public school system in teaching the secular branches. They are as a rule the equals, and often the superiors, of the public schools in the quality of the secular instruction which they give. They have the advantage of discipline, uniformity of ideals, harmony of methods, and, above all, of disinterested devotedness on the part of their teachers. Finally, the fact should not be overlooked that theparochial schools save many millions of dollars annually to the non-Catholic public, who, if theCatholic children were not provided for inparochial schools, would beobliged to increase very considerably the annual cost ofeducation.

Organization and statistics

Theparochial school system isdiocesan in its organization. The supremeeducational authority is thebishop, who governs and administers the schools of hisdiocese through the assistance of a school board and, very often, adiocesan (clerical) inspector of schools. The immediate authority is vested in thepastor, whose task it is to provide building, salaries, etc. The teachers are almost universally religious. The principal of the school is appointed usually by thereligious community to which he or she belongs. The great majority of the schools are mixed, that is, schools for boys and girls. The only exceptions, apparently, are those in which the boys are taught by brothers and the girls by sisters. There is no recognized national central authority inCatholiceducational matters. However, theparochial school section of theCatholic Educational Association has already done much towards unifying and systematizing ourparochial schools. The training of teachers is, as a rule, provided for by the differentreligious communities engaged in the work of teaching. There are nodiocesan institutions for the training of the teachers for the whole diocese. During the summer of 1911 a regular session of theCatholic University of America was held for the benefit of the teaching sisterhoods. Of the three hundred who attended, a large percentage took up professional pedagogical subjects. Similar institutes were held atChicago,Milwaukee, and elsewhere. In the autumn of the same year the Sisters' College was formally opened at Brookland, D. C., under the auspices of theCatholic University of America, and of the twenty-nine students who attended the first session all took professional courses ineducation. The number ofparochial schools in theUnited States in 1911 was, according to the "Catholic Directory", 4972, and the number of pupils 1,270,131. These figures do not includeorphan asylums, which numbered 285 and took care of 51,938orphans. Neither do they include the non-parochial academies,convent boarding schools, and day schools, nor the colleges for boys, many of which have a number of primary pupils in attendance.

Australia

In Australia as in the other parts of the British Empire, the struggle in defence ofCatholiceducation has been a hard, uphill fight. Even in the present age theCatholics of Australia, who have by the most generous and devotedsacrifices created a fine system ofeducation, both primary and secondary, have not the right, which theCatholics ofEngland,Ireland, andScotland enjoy, to have any share whatever in the large sums of public money expended on the schools, whilst they are compelled to contribute this money in the form of taxes and rates.

History

From 1788, when Governor Philip first established a colonial settlement at Port Jackson, until 1826, the only schools available forCatholic children in the colony were the officially controlledAnglican schools, on which large grants of money and land were lavished. The devotedCatholicchaplain Father Therry started a small school in 1826, for which he managed to obtain a little Government aid. By 1836 there were thirteenCatholic schools. Through the influence of Governor Bourke, a liberalIrishProtestant, a system of State aid recognizing the variousdenominations was developed, a Denominational Board for distributing the funds was set up, and a modest allowance was secured byCatholics. But in 1848 a National Secular System was introduced with a Central Board of Education somewhat similar to that existing inIreland, yet running concomitantly with the existing Denominational Board. Hostility between the two was inevitable, and there were many inconveniences. By the Public School Act of 1866 a Central Council of Education was established and sundry changes were introduced, some being to the detriment of the denominational schools; for the defence ofCatholicrights a Catholic Association was formed. But the secular movement supported by anti-Catholic prejudice grew in strength and, by the Public Instruction Act of 1880, a centralized secular system, withdrawing all State aid from the denominational schools, was completely established in New South Wales; this had been done already in some of the other States, and as time went on was done also in the remaining. The effect of the measure was the speedy extinction of the great majority of the other denominational schools, whilst theCatholics, thrown again entirely on their own resources, started to build and support their schools (both primary and secondary), the numbers of which they have since then largely increased. The secular system has thus been in force in the State schools for thirty years, but the situation's not acquiesced in by theCatholics; they continue to demand the right as free citizens to have the money which they pay in taxes for the support ofeducation expended on the onlyeducation which they can conscientiously accept.

Present status of Catholic education

TheCatholic primary schools are under the authority of thebishop of thediocese. There are no school boards; inspectors appointed bydiocesan authority examine and report on the schools. Competitive yearly interprimary school examinations forCatholic secondary school scholarships give an extra stimulus to individual work. In some states Government inspectors are invited to visit the schools, but only in three states does thelaw enforce Government inspection. These schools are taxed like ordinary institutions; where they come into competition with the State schools, e.g. for civil service appointments, they win more than their share of successes. TheCatholic secondary schools and high schools for boys and girls are numerous, and are in charge of the religious congregations. TheJesuit Fathers have four colleges, and theVincentian andMarist Fathers (N. Z.) one each. The remainder are divided among theChristian,Marist, Patrician, andDe La Salle Brothers. Secondaryeducation is largely guided by theuniversity examinations, and here again theCatholic schools amply prove their efficiency. Victoria (Tasmania lately passed a similar law) by Act of Parliament (1906) exacts the registration of all private schools both primary and secondary, and of all teachers. An Educational Council, on whichCatholics are represented, has charge of the register, determines the conditions of registration, and adjudicates on individual claims. Vested interests are respected, but evidence of competency is to be required of all future teachers.Catholics are endeavouring to meet the new conditions by the establishment of training colleges, especially forwomen. In New South Wales, where similar legislation is probable,Cardinal Moran (d. 6 Aug., 1911) in 1911 established aCatholic Council of Education to safeguardCatholic interests.

In Australasia, includingNew Guinea, there are:Catholic primary schools, 1004; superior day schools, 196; boarding schools for girls, 194; colleges for boys, 27;ecclesiastical seminaries, 5; and one college for foreign missions. The estimated totalCatholic population is 982,578; scholars, 123,905. The great majority of theCatholic teachers are from among the 6000nuns and 549 brothers who devote their lives to the service of theChurch in the country. Lay teachers are chiefly employed in the country districts. Theper capita cost ofeducation in theCatholic primary schools averages between £3 and £4; in the State schools, between £5 and £6. The amount saved to the State by the self-sacrifice of theCatholic body totals annually about three-quarters of a million pounds. TheCatholic schools are maintained by thevoluntary contributions of thefaithful--church collections, concerts, bazaars etc.--and the gratuitous labours of the religious. The classes in theCatholic primary schools are graded in a system somewhat similar to that in the Government schools. In some of the states, notably in New South Wales, theCatholic school authorities have been able to issue specialCatholic school readers and periodical school papers. As an offset to the Government scholarships, which unlike those inEngland are tenable only at the Government high schools, theCatholics have founded scholarships inCatholic secondary schools for their primary school children. Technical instruction is usually included in the curriculum of the larger schools, but is more systematically organized inCatholic institutions fororphans and industrial work.

Canada

Canada is a self-governing dominion of the British Empire consisting of nine provinces and some territories not yet erected in provinces. Its population is partly French in origin and language, partly British. It will benecessary, in order to be accurate, to speak of each province separately.

Ontario

The beginnings ofCatholiceducation inOntario may be said to date back to the year 1615, in which the RecollectJoseph Le Caron, making a journey of exploration in the countries of theAlgonquin andHuron tribes, decided on the foundation of missions in their midst. Writing to the Court ofFrance, he said: "We must first make men of these Indians, thenChristians." During the years 1622-26, his first efforts were assisted by the arrival of Fathers Guillaume Poulin,Nicholas Viel, and de La Roche d'Aillon, of his order, and theJesuit Fathers Brébeuf and de La Noue. Their work was facilitated by the aid of interpreters who were goodChristians and valiant auxiliaries. By 1638 theJesuit Fathers, now ten in number, had established two residences on the banks of Georgian Bay. These outposts speedily became centres ofChristian andCatholic civilization. Until 1650 the missionaries, with their devotedlay brothers and coadjutors fromFrance, were the onlyCatholic teachers ofOntario. Their first lessons ofcatechism, of book-knowledge, and of agriculture, given amidst the greatest privations, and often at the peril of their lives, owed much more to their unlimitedzeal than to any generosity on the part of their pupils. In 1649 theHuron andAlgonquinneophytes were exterminated by the ferociousIroquois, who burnt or destroyed seven flourishing missions, which had been directed by no fewer than sixty missionaries and helpers, many of whom perished with their flocks. The surviving heroes of the Gospel found a new field of action among the Outaouais, who inhabited the present County of Bruce, the islands of Georgian Bay, and Great Manitoulin Island. The work that had been done for theHurons andAlgonquins of EasternOntario was now renewed on behalf of the Western tribes. Nothing that humanzeal could accomplish was spared to make of them civilized people and ferventCatholics. When Antoine* de La Mothe Cadillac founded the important post ofDetroit (1701), he was accompanied by missionaries, among whom was the Rev. Father Lhalle, who becamerector of the pioneers of Essex. The Iroquet tribe, belonging to the largefamily of theAlgonquins, settled in the farthest eastern end of the province in the present Counties of Stormont, Glengarry, and Prescott, received at an earlydate the joyful tidings ofCatholic doctrine and the benefit ofCatholiceducation.

After the War of American Independence, a great number of settlers, faithful to the British flag, took refuge in theProvince of Ontario. The first immigrants established themselves at Indian Point, in the vicinity ofKingston, in 1784. Later on, other loyalists took up homesteads atToronto and Niagara. The fewFrenchfamilies who had followed de La Mothe Cadillac to Detroit survived to constitute the colony of Essex, and their descendants rapidly invaded both the Counties of Essex and Kent, where the French population now almost forms a majority. In 1786 and 1802 Scotch emigrants settled in large numbers in the Counties of Glengarry and Prescott. From 1816 to 1825 British officers and furloughed soldiers, mostlyIrish, colonized the districts of Carleton, Lanark, andPeterborough. The construction of the Rideau Canal caused a large number of workmen to take up their residence inOntario. An entire colony ofScotchCatholics, expelled from theUnited States after the War of Independence on account of their attachment to the British Crown, settled inCanada near Niagara, in the Counties of Lincoln and Welland. A vigorous stream of immigration fromGermany in 1835 overflowed the western end of the province, in the present Counties of Bruce, Huron, and Perth. MeanwhileFrenchCanadians poured into the Counties of Russell, Prescott, and Glengarry. Raftsmen andFrenchCanadians of various occupations ascended the Ottawa River, exploring the regions now known as New Ontario, Algoma, Nipissing, and Thunder Bay. They are now in a majority in these three counties, and have churches,priests, and schools of their own.

ThisCatholic immigration, so abundant and sudden, incited the ardentzeal of Mgr Plessis,Bishop of Quebec, to send missionaries to UpperCanada. Priests from theseminary of Quebec, others from the foreign missionary organization ofParis, and a small number ofpriests who had immigrated with their Scotch orIrish countrymen ministered to the spiritual wants of thesecourageous colonists. They joyfully accepted their share of the great poverty of these pioneers. They thought more of preserving the Faith, of administering thesacraments, and of reforming abuses than of founding schools. Not that they considered schools as of little importance, but because, from lack of resources and teachers, the establishment of schools was an impossibility. From 1830, however, Toronto had itsCatholic school; thenKingston, in 1837 and Picton, in 1840, were likewise provided for. Thehierarchy of theCatholicChurch, ever anxious to foster theeducation of the people confided to its care, was soon established in the province. This was the signal for the opening of educational establishments at divers points. Ottawa had itsCatholic schools in 1844; Brantford in 1850; Goderich and Peterborough in 1852; Hamilton, Oshawa, and Barrie in 1855; Perth and Alexandria in 1856; Orillia in 1857; Berlin, Dundas, and St. Thomas in 1858; Belleville in 1860, and so on. The venerable Bishops A. McDonell, R. Gaulin, Power, Guiges, O.M.I., de Charbonel, Pinsonnault, Jamot, Farrell, and Phelan; Fathers J. Ryan, Proulx, Grand, Maloney, Carayon, Grattan, Bissey, Jeffrey, Bilroy, Lawler, Faure, theJesuit Fathers du Ranquet, Hanipaux, Chôné, Frémiol, the Oblate Fathers Tilmon, Dandurand, Tabaret, Soulerin, Manroit, and theBasilian Fathers--these were the pioneers and defenders ofCatholiceducation inOntario. They found very able helpers in the variousreligious communities ofwomen, and in theInstitute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. Many sincerelyChristianpersons among thelaity also devoted themselves to the cause ofCatholiceducation in the province. Among the earliest and most remarkable may be mentioned, atToronto, J. Harvey and J. Seyers; atOttawa, Dr. Riel, Friolle, and Goode; at Dundas, Miss Sweeney; at Brantford, J. d'Astroph; at Oakland, Capt. Fitzgerald.

TheCatholic schools have become numerous and powerful. Their organization, from the points of view of studies, discipline, and regular attendance of pupils, is better than that of all other institutions of the same class in the province. Many years have already elapsed since in the cities, villages, and other parts of the country, long opened up to colonization, the old square-timber school-houses were replaced by splendid buildings of brick or stone. The architecture of these schools is simple and beautiful; the systems of ventilation, lighting, and heating are excellent; the installation of suitable school furniture and accessories is almost complete. This progress is very evident, even in centres of colonization. The school trustees make it a point ofhonour to put up school buildings which are beautiful and spacious, and which leave nothing to be desired in ventilation, lighting, and heating. TheCatholic schools ofOntario are called separate schools. They do separate, in fact, for school purposes, theCatholic minority from theProtestant majority. They make it possible forCatholics to withdraw their children from the public or common schools, which are by lawProtestant. Nevertheless, there are some public schools which are reallyCatholic; these exist in localities exclusively or almost exclusivelyCatholic. Such schools are found especially in the Counties of Russell, Prescott, Algoma, Nipissing, Kent, and Essex. Separate schools were granted in 1841, when the Provinces of Upper and LowerCanada were united. Wishing to secure for their co-religionists in LowerCanada exemption from theobligation of sending their children to theCatholic schools (common schools in that province), and of paying taxes for the support of said schools, theProtestants ofOntario and Quebec proposed to establish a system of dissident or separate schools. What they claimed for theProtestants of LowerCanada they had to bind themselves in strictjustice to grant to theCatholics of UpperCanada.

The principle of separate schools,Catholic inOntario andProtestant in Quebec, received the royal sanction on 18 September, 1841. This fundamental law had been discussed by a committee of the Legislative Assembly in which LowerCanada was represented by fifteen members and UpperCanada by eight. This law authorized dissidents from the common schools, on giving notice to the clerk of the district council, to pay their school taxes for the support of separate schools, and to receive a share of the government grants foreducation in proportion to their number. The same law authorized the election by the people of trustees for the administration of separate schools. The governor was authorized to nominate in each city a board of examiners composed of an equal number ofCatholics andProtestants. TheCatholics ofOntario obtained the privilege of establishing a separate board for the examination of candidates wishing to teach in their schools; a clause in this fundamental law exempted theBrothers of the Christian Schools from submitting to examination by this board. From 1841 to 1863, at almost every session of the Legislature, theOntarioProtestants proposed amendments to the act establishing separate schools. These amendments tended, for the most part, to render the existence of separate schools inOntario so precarious that they would die out of themselves. The desired privileges for theProtestants of LowerCanada had been obtained; it was well known that these privileges would always be respected by theCatholic majority of Quebec; now, they thought, it would be safe to deliver the attacks of unenlightened fanaticism against the separate schools of UpperCanada. Cost what it might, the cry was raised for a single school system for the whole of UpperCanada--a common, public, or national school system. While constantly professing motives of the purestjustice and common interest, theProtestant Province of UpperCanada has continually sullied its reputation for fairness by setting an example of fanaticism, narrow-mindedness, and intolerance towardsCatholic schools, whilst LowerCanada, aCatholic province, has been a model of perfectjustice and toleration.

On 27 February, 1863, aCatholic deputy, R. W. Scott, presented for the fourth time a new law to govern the separate schools. This law was adopted, thanks to the generous aid given by theFrench Canadian deputies, mostly from LowerCanada. The UpperCanadian majority voted against the bill, but all the members from Quebec and twenty-one members from UpperCanada, among them severalProtestants, were in its favour and carried the measure.

1fOntario now possesses a system ofCatholic separate schools, it is largely due to theFrenchCanadians of LowerCanada, whose wishes in the matter were enforced by their representatives,Catholic andProtestant. This law, enacted in 1863, was maintained at the time of the confederation of the provinces in 1867; it still governs today theCatholic separate schools ofOntario. Yet it is far from giving to theCatholics of that province liberties equal to those enjoyed by theProtestant minority of Quebec. It recognizes theCatholic separate schools for primaryeducation only. Secondary or superioreducation inOntario isProtestant. TheCatholics have their academies,convents, colleges, anduniversities, but these are independent schools, supported by thevoluntary contributions ofCatholics who have also to contribute, on the same footing asProtestants, to the support of the government high schools, collegiate institutes, anduniversities. It refuses to separate schools theright to a share of the taxes paid by public-utility companies, such as railway, tramway and telephone companies, banks, etc. It withholds from the trustees of separate schools the right of expropriation in order to secure more fitting localities for their schools. It refuses to theProtestant father of aCatholicfamily theright to pay his taxes towards the support ofCatholic schools. It allowsCatholics the option of paying their taxes to support the public schools. As the rate of taxation for separate schools is generally higher than that for public schools, owing to the large number of children infamilies of theCatholic minority, and to the abstention of large business concerns from contributing the least support to the separate schools, it follows that manyCatholics, more or less sincere, avoid the higher rate and pay their taxes towards the support of the public, orProtestant, schools. The separate schools are administered, as by a court of finaljurisdiction, by the Education Department atToronto, in whichCatholics are not represented.

The law governing the separate schools nevertheless gives toCatholics the followingrights:

The board of trustees has likewise theright to impose the teaching in French or German of reading, spelling and literature, as provided for by the regulations of the Education Department, page 9, article 15, year 1907. TheFrenchCanadians, availing themselves of this right, have theFrench language taught in 250 schools, frequented almost entirely by their children. The Government has named threeFrench Canadian inspectors for these schools, called bilingual. The teachers of these schools are trained in two public bilingual training-schools, one at Sturgeon Falls and the other atOttawa, founded and supported by the Government, and directed byCatholic principals. The certificates issued by these schools give theright to teach in the bilingual schools for five years only. The Government makes a yearly grant to bothCatholic and public schools, the amount being calculated upon the value of the schoolhouse, the excellence of its furnishings, the certificates and salaries of the teachers, and the attendance of the children. The statistics for 1909, taken from the Report of the Minister of Education, are as follows:

TheCatholic colleges for boys are: in theDiocese of Toronto, that of theBasilian Fathers, founded in 1852, 15 professors, 280 students; in the Diocese ofLondon,Basilian Fathers, founded 1857, 37 professors, 149 students;Diocese of Hamilton, Fathers of the Resurrection, founded 1857, 11 professors, 100 students;Diocese of Kingston,secular clergy, founded 1837, 4 professors, 85 students. TheBrothers of the Christian Schools conduct an academy with 14 teachers and 297 pupils. TheUrsuline Sisters, 1 college for girls, 202 pupils; Sisters of Mary, 1 academy for girls;Sisters of St. Joseph, 1, 140 pupils; Sisters of Loretto, 4, 78 teachers, 490 pupils;Grey Nuns of the Cross, 2, 35 teachers, 555 pupils;Christian Brothers, 1, 14 teachers, 297 pupils. Otherconvent schools are those of theSisters of St. Joseph (seven schools, 74 teachers, 975 pupils); Sisters of Loretto (two schools, 30 teachers, 280 pupils);Grey Nuns of the Cross (one school, 6 teachers, 239 pupils);Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary (one school, founded in 1864); Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame (one school, 29 teachers, 380 pupils). There are three industrial schools under the care of religious institutes: theBrothers of the Christian Schools (8 teachers, 95 pupils); Daughters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (10 teachers, 110 pupils);Sisters of St. Joseph (10 teachers, 65 pupils). The nineorphanages under the care of religious are: 2 under theGrey Nuns of the Cross, with 385orphans; 5 under theSisters of St. Joseph, with 582orphans; 1 under the School Sisters of Notre Dame, with 54orphans; 1 under the Sisters of Providence, with 85orphans.

The appended table of religious institutes engaged in teaching inOntario at the present time (1911) is necessarily incomplete, reliable figures being unobtainable in many cases. In such cases the figures have been omitted altogether, as approximate figures are liable to be misleading.

Quebec

French rule (1635-1763)

Primary schools

With the introduction ofChristianity, schools sprang up in the French colony even among the remotest tribes. The Recollects were the first schoolmasters ofCanada. In 1616, one of them, Brother Pacifique Duplessis, opened, atThree Rivers, the first school ofNew France. Shortly afterwards theJesuit Fathers followed them, teaching the children reading, writing, arithmetic, andcatechism. In 1634, a year after the arrival of the pioneerfamilies inCanada, an elementary school was founded in Quebec. As colonists increased, primary schools sprang up. The boys' schools were at St. Foy, the Island of Orléans, Point Levis, Château-Richer, Quebec,Montreal,Three Rivers. Proofs exist that there were in the city and district of Quebec 15 primary schools for boys; in the city and district ofMontreal, 10; in the city and district ofThree Rivers, 7. Among the organizers were Mgr Laval and hisseminary. Mgr de St-Vallier, his successor, encouraged elementary, secondary, and technical schools by every means in his power. In the district ofMontreal the Sulpician Fathers founded several schools. M. Souart, superior ofMontreal from 1661 to 1668, tookpride in styling himself the first schoolmaster ofNew France; all his brethren shared hiszeal. In 1715 Brother Charon opened a school for boys at Pointe-aux Trembles, nearMontreal, and took upon himself the charge of recruiting teachers for the country districts. In investigating the history of the schools in pioneer days we invariably find as their founder or benefactor abishop, apriest, a religious congregation, or alayman, himself a school-teacher or assisted by a teacher who travelled from one district to another.

Theeducation of the girls was as carefully attended to as that of the boys. TheUrsulines built schools at Quebec andThree Rivers. Thereligious of the Hôpital Général de Québec erected a boarding school, while the Sisters of the Congregation de Notre Dame, founded by the Venerable Marguerite Bourgeoys, multipliedconvents atMontreal, Quebec,Three Rivers, and in the country districts, where the children of the colonists came to be trained in all things essential to the development of a strongChristian character. Charlevoix says: "If to this day, there prevail inCanada so great a gentleness in the manners of all classes ofsociety and so much charm in the intercourse of life, it is owing in great measure to thezeal of Marguerite Bourgeoys". Twelve houses were opened by the Congregation of Notre Dame during the period of French rule.

Special schools

Specializing in teaching was not unknown at this epoch when existence itself was a struggle. There were schools of mathematics and hydrography atMontreal at theJesuits and the Charon Brothers', art and trade schools at theseminary at Quebec, art and trade schools at St. Joachim, art and trade schools at the Charon Brothers.

Secondary schools

While defending the colony from the incursions of the Indians and fighting to retain their prior right of possession, the French not only established primary and special schools but founded and endowed secondary schools. The classical college of theJesuits was established at a time when the population of the entire country was but a few hundredsouls, and thePetit Séminaire of Quebec opened its doors on October, 1688.

British rule (1763-1910)

In 1763 60,000 FrenchCatholic colonists passed by right of conquest under BritishProtestant rule. The progress of theCatholic schools was greatly impeded. TheChurch, through her teaching communities andsecular clergy, organized schools in the most important villages; but, unfortunately, a great number ofparishes were withoutpastors. In 1801 the Legislature passed a law entitled "An Act to establish Free Schools", which provided for the establishment of a permanent corporation known as the Royal Institute. Thus the monopoly was given to theChurch of England to establish and supportEnglish Protestant schools for a population almost entirely made up ofFrenchCatholics, Scattered over the country districts, in the midst of a mistrustful people, the schools of the Royal Institute were patronized by the English colonists only. Twenty-four years after its foundation the Royal Institute had only 37 schools with 1048 pupils. On the other hand,parochial schools increased. AtMontreal, theSulpicians and the Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame opened free schools. ACatholiceducationalsociety was founded at Quebec to teach poor children and train teachers for country districts. Many othersocieties were formed in different parts ofCanada for a similar purpose. Theparishes were few that could not boast of fairly good schools. Private or independent schools increased more rapidly than theparish schools. In 1824 the Legislature passed the Parochial School Act authorizing thepastors and church-wardens to appropriate a fourth part of the revenue of theparochial corporation for the support of the schools under their exclusive control. In 1829 there were no less than 14,700 children in these schools which were supported at the cost of much sacrifice by a poor and scattered population. Many other attempts were made to organizeCatholic schools until, finally, in 1841, a law was passed wherein were contained the principal provisions of the Educational Act as it exists in theProvince of Quebec today. This law, considerably augmented by that of 1846, gave a great impetus to public instruction. In 1849 there were 1817 schools and 68,904 pupils. Owing to the influence ofDr. Meilleur, Superintendent ofCatholic Schools of Quebec,education made rapid progress. Chaveau, his successor, continued to work with the samezeal. He established three primary denominational normal schools in LowerCanada, two forCatholics, who were in a great majority, the third forProtestants. InOntario, there was but one normal school, for theProtestant majority, who neglected to dojustice to theCatholic minority, while Quebec gave toProtestants, who were in the minority, a separate normal school.

The school organization of theProvince of Quebec is now under the control of the Department of Public Instruction. The president, who is elected for life, is non-partisan in politics and bears the title of Superintendent of Education. He is assisted by a French and an English secretary, who are charged with the administration of the affairs of their respective nationalities and co-religionists. The Council of Public Instruction is composed of highly esteemed members, chosen from the tworeligious denominations; they framelaws and rules relating to public instruction which are afterwards submitted to the sanction of the government. The Council of Public Instruction is divided intoCatholic andProtestant sections. TheCatholic committee includes as ex-officio members thearchbishops,bishops or administrators ofdioceses and Apostolic vicariates of theProvince of Quebec, and a number ofCatholiclaymen. TheProtestant committee is composed ofProtestant members equal in number to thelaymen of theCatholic committee. Apart from these two committees, there are other members who do not form part of the Council of Public Instruction, but who have, in their respective committees, the same power as the members of the committees. These two committees, which sit independently, unite, under the presidency of the superintendent ofeducation, when there are matters to discuss that interest bothreligious denominations. All questions relating exclusively toCatholics or toProtestants are decided by their respective religious committees.

TheProvince of Quebec is divided into school municipalities for the support of one or more schools. These municipalities are subdivided into school districts, and are entrusted to the commissioners or trustees elected by the taxpayers. In large cities, like Quebec andMontreal, the commissioners are named by the Government on the suggestion of the superintendent ofeducation, thebishop of thediocese, and the city itself. The commissioners are the local directors and real supervisors of the school; they have charge of the administration; they name the teachers; dispose of schoolproperty, purchase ground and build schoolhouses, impose and collect the school taxes and fees. Taxpayers who do not profess the same religiousbelief as the majority of the inhabitants in the municipality where they reside, have aright to a school commission of their own, composed of three members chosen from among their co-religionists. These members, called school trustees, represent the dissenting minority; they have the same privileges as the commissioners.

The administration of public schools is controlled byCatholic school inspectors forCatholic schools, andProtestant for non-Catholic schools. These functionaries are subject to the superintendent ofeducation. There are also two general inspectors charged respectively withCatholic andProtestant normal schools. The first inspectors were named, in 1852. At present (1911) thirty-nineCatholic inspectors, under the supervision of a general inspector, visit the 6000Catholic schools of the province. The school revenues are obtained from government grants and local taxation, The operation of thislaw exhibits strikingproof of thegood faith and fairness of theCatholics, who constitute the great majority: they organize their schools, but never take advantage of their numbers to forceProtestants to send their children toCatholic schools. Allpersons wishing to teach in public schools under the administration of school commissioners and trustees must obtain diplomas from a normal school or from the Central Board of Examiners. Nevertheless,ministers of religion and members ofreligious communities of both sexes are exempt from these examinations. Members of teaching orders, after completing their course of studies, make anovitiate of two, three, or four years before receiving their "obedience". This period of normal training exempts them from the examinations imposed on lay teachers by the Central Board of Examiners. Primary teaching comprises three degrees: the elementary course (4 years), the intermediate course (2 years), and the superior course (2 years). Schools of the first degree are called primary elementary; those of the second, model, or primary intermediate; those of the third, academic, or primary superior. In the following table of statistics of elementaryeducation in theProvince of Quebec for the year 1909-10, those schools which are subject to the provincial or the municipal Government are classed as "State"; the others, as "Independent".

The teaching congregations direct a large number of schools, independent or under the control of different school commissions. TheChristian Brothers have 63 houses inCanada, 51 in theProvince of Quebec, 750 brothers and about 23,000 pupils. The following are the other teaching congregations of men: Clerks of St. Viateur, Brothers of Charity, Marist Brothers,Brothers of the Sacred Heart,Brothers of Christian Instruction,Brothers of St. Gabriel,Brothers of the Cross of Jesus (Diocese of Rimouski). Among the teaching congregations ofwomen are: theUrsulines, with houses in the Dioceses of Quebec,Chicoutimi,Sherbrooke, andRimouski. There are alsoUrsulines in theDiocese of Three Rivers; this house was founded by Mgr J.-C. de St-Vallier, secondBishop of Quebec. The Congregation of Notre Dame, founded atMontreal, 30 April, 1657, by Venerable Marguerite Bourgeoys (1620-1700), possesses 131 houses inCanada and theUnited States. It numbers 1510 professed sisters, 240novices, 45postulants. The Sisters teach 34,000 pupils in 21dioceses. TheGrey Nuns ofMontreal,Ottawa, Quebec, and St. Hyacinthe teach a great number of children. TheSisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary have their mother-house atMontreal and houses both inCanada and in theUnited States; professed religious, 1257;novices, 110;postulants, 81; establishments, 74;parochial schools, 32; pupils, 24,208. Other congregations are: the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of Providence, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary,Sisters of the Holy Cross and Seven Dolors (544 religious, 14,577 pupils inCanada and theUnited States), Sisters of St. Anne (63 establishments in theUnited States andCanada, 19,190 pupils),Sisters of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin, Nicolet (414 religious, 49 establishments), Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, Religious of Jesus and Mary,Sisters of St. Joseph (St. Hyacinthe),Daughters of Wisdom, Sisters of St. Mary,Franciscans of Mary (Quebec),Sisters of Our Lady of Perpetual Help, Sisters of the Holy Heart of Mary, Sisters of Our Lady of Good Counsel (Chicoutimi),Daughters of Jesus, Sisters of Charity of St. Louis, Religious ofSt. Francis of Assisi. Many of these congregations have mother-houses in theProvince of Quebec; they direct a great number of establishments and send missionaries to the other provinces of the Dominion and to theUnited States.

There are thirteen art and trade schools in the principal centres of theProvince of Quebec. During the school year 1909-10 there were 56 professors, 2632 boys. Besides the Agricultural Institute at Oka, affiliated toLaval University, and which is included in the scheme of superioreducation, there is an agricultural school in connexion with the College of St. Anne de La Pocatière, in the district of Quebec. There is a manual training and agricultural school for girls, under the direction of theUrsulines, at Roberval, Lake St. John district; another at St. Pascal, under the direction of the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame. Normal schools were founded in 1856. There are now ten; two for boys and eight for girls. Three normal schools for girls are soon to be opened, so that eachdiocese of theProvince of Quebec will have its own normal school. The pupils number 660; the professors, 110. There is oneCatholic school for the blind (boys and girls), the Nazareth Institute, directed by theGrey Nuns; fifty-five pupils follow the regular course, under the direction of five professors; many excel in music and in other subjects. TheCatholic Deaf and Dumb Institute, for boys, is directed by the Clerks of St. Viateur. The total number of pupils is 135, of whom 89 are instructed by the oral method, 46 by the written and manual alphabet. The work of teaching is carried on by 31 professors. TheCatholic Deaf and Dumb Institute for girls is directed by the Sisters of Providence; 71 sisters teach 142 pupils. The two methods are in use, but the oral method is employed in instructing almost all the pupils. Former pupils, numbering 115, are engaged in manual labour in these asylums, receiving physical,intellectual, and moral care.

The night-schools, numbering 129, have taught 2546Catholic pupils. There are a certain number of industrial schools. The Brothers of Charity direct a reform school (30 religious, 118 boarders). The Sisters of the Good Shepherd also have two houses, one atMontreal, the other at Park Laval. A great number of congregations are charged with the instruction oforphans; among the institutions may be mentioned theOrphan Asylum of Montfort, 305 children, Huberdeau, 220. The Fathers of theSociety of Mary and theDaughters of Wisdom have charge of theseorphans. All the principal cities have their kindergarten schools, which are not mentioned in the official reports. They are due to private initiative and are organized byreligious communities. There are 21 classical colleges at Quebec, 18 of which are affiliated withLaval University. They were founded bybishops,priests, orzealouslaymen who understood the needs of the different phases of the national and religious existence. Therein were fostered vocations to thepriesthood and the liberal professions. These classical colleges have givenCanada eminent men, both inChurch and State, who, in the dark hours of its history, have preserved itsfaith and nationality; they have flourished and are still flourishing, thanks to the generosity of their founders and former pupils. They receive but $12,643 from the Provincial Legislature. The accompanying table of theCatholic colleges of theProvince of Quebec exhibits the dates of their respective foundations as well as the number of pupils and professors in each.

English is the mother tongue of only a little more than 9 per cent of all the pupils attending these twenty-one institutions, the language of the remainder being French. The Classical course, including two years ofphilosophy, covers a period of eight years. It includes the study of Greek and Latin, to which educators, in certain countries, are coming back after having tried to abolish it. The study of the dead languages does not diminish the student's ardour for the two official languages of the country, French and English. Mount St. Louis, directed by theChristian Brothers, has a modern secondary course without Greek or Latin. They prepare young men principally for the polytechnical schools. The classical colleges affiliated withLaval University have theuniversity course of studies and examinations. In 1910 a new school was opened for thehautes études commerciales, and about twenty-six pupils have followed the courses. In 1911 the Legislature organized two technical schools: one atMontreal, the other at Quebec.

In 1908 the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame opened acollege for youngwomen. It is affiliated withLaval University, and embraces English, French, and commercial sections. The regular course, leading to the degrees of B.L., B.S.,B.A., includes two, three, or four years' study according to the anterior preparation of the student. About seventy-five follow the regular course. A large number attend the public lectures. The final examinations of the year are submitted touniversity professors. The staff of sixteen religious is assisted by professors.

Nova Scotia

Catholicism was introduced in the Province of Nova Scotia by the French with the first settlement of the country; but the first mention which we have ofCatholic schooleducation dates only from thirty years later, when the Recollects opened atPort-Royal aseminary for the instruction of French and Indian children. ThisCatholic teaching was evidently continued, since we find aCapuchin Father writing, in 1652: "Emmanuel Le Borgne, governor ofAcadia, has expelled from Port-Royal Madame de Brice d'Auxerre, superioress of the School for the Abenaquis". About 1680 thevicar-general, Petit, says in a letter to his superior, Mgr Vallier, that he has with him a man who teaches the boys of Port-Royal. Mgr Vallier himself first sends a Sister of the Congregation of Notre Dame to teach the Indian and French girls of Port-Royal, and a few years after, in 1686, he sends for Geoffrey, a Sulpician, "to continue the instruction of youth which so far has been so well looked after". In fact Geoffroy improved the school teaching and supervising. He also laid the foundation for the future coming of the Sisters of the Cross, who came in 1701, after the capture of Port-Royal by Phipps and the cession ofAcadia toFrance in 1697. After the final taking ofAcadia by the English it seems thatCatholic schools were abolished, as we find Father Burke writing: "There is a great desire to establish aCatholic School [in Halifax]. The need is pressing. We would succeed if we could have repealed aninfamous law forbiddingCatholic Schools". Through thezeal of theCatholic missionaries, however,Catholiceducation was not altogether neglected. In the western part ofNova Scotia, for example, we find aFrenchpriest, the Abbé Sigogne, urging his flock to send their children to school, organizing Sunday schools; thanks to his labours for the cause ofeducation, there were in 1851, in the district of Clare alone, 17 schools attended by 422 pupils.

In 1864 the Law of Common Schools was passed in the Provincial Legislature of Nova Scotia. Since then there have been very few separate schools properly so called. Under thislaw the province is divided into districts called schools sections, which are administered by a board of three trustees elected by the ratepayers of the section. It is theduty of the trustees to engage teachers and to pay them out of the funds derived partly from taxes directly imposed upon the inhabitants of the section and partly from government grants. According to law, the teaching of the Catechism is prohibited during regular school hours; but the trustees may instruct teachers to give lessons inCatholic doctrine during one half-hour after class every day. Inspectors are appointed by the Council of Public Instruction to visit the schools and report upon them to the superintendent ofeducation. Some of these schools are under the direction of religious teaching communities as follows: In theDiocese of Halifax the Sisters of Charity have charge of nine such schools, four in the city ofHalifax and five in the Acadianparishes of Meteghan, Church Point, Eal Brook, and West Pubnico, and the English-speakingparish of Prospect. In theDiocese of Antigonish the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame conduct seven of these schools, with 37 religious and 2281 pupils; the Sisters of Charity, 5 schools; theDaughters of Jesus, 2.

Besides these schools organized under thelaw, the Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Jesus have aconvent school atHalifax with 48 religious and 500 pupils; the Sisters of Charity, a separate school at Amherst andconvents at Rockingham Meteghan, and Church Point; the Sisters of the Congregation, at New Glasgow and Pictou; and the Filles de Jésus at Arichat and Cheticamp. These separate schools are supported by theCatholics of their respective towns. There are also threeCatholic colleges for boys in the Province:St. Francis Xavier (English), atAntigonish, with 15 professors and 200 pupils; St. Anne, at Church Point, with 18 professors and 180 pupils (French and English), and St. Mary, atHalifax, with 7 professors and 80 pupils.

New Brunswick

As had been the case inNova Scotia, the firstCatholic schools in New Brunswick were opened byCatholic missionaries; and when the regrettable deportation took place, it could be said that a great number ofAcadians were able at least to read theirprayers and also the exercises relating to theHoly Sacrifice of the Mass. One can easily understand how these poor exiles returned to their country and more particularly to New Brunswick. Their first care was undoubtedly to assure their very existence, as a great number of those who escaped deportation died of hunger and cold in the forest and on thedesert banks of the gulf. Next, they asked for missionaries and forpersons capable of teaching reading and writing to their children. For lack ofpriests they had to be content on Sunday with reading theprayers for Mass, and it was imperative to teach their children thetruths of religion as contained in the shortcatechism. Fifty years and more passed before it became possible for them--such was their extreme poverty, and so precarious the conditions of their existence--to procure the service of any school-teacher. However, at the close of the Napoleonic Wars, adventurers, sailors, deserters, or tourists came fromFrance, whoknew how to read and write, and their services were eagerly accepted. The old residents still remember M. Grenet, who taught at Barachois, M. Gabriel Albert, who taught at Grande Digue, M. Jean Leménager, who taught at Memramcook, M. Alexandre Théodore, who taught at Petit-Codiac (Ruisseau du Renard) and in neighbouringparishes.

Then came the Abbé Antoine* Gagnon,parishpriest of Barachois, of Grande Digue, of Shédiac (Gédaique), etc., who founded acollege at Grande Digue. This school remained open for two years (1833 to 1835), with three teachers, Messrs. Des Varennes, Braidly, and Gosselin. When the lands and properties of this institution were afterwards sold, the proceeds were placed in the hands of Mgr Sweeney, in trust for theeducation of young Acadians, in the event of another college being built in the diocese for any other similar purpose. During the first years that followed the return of the Acadians, after their dispersion, teachers boarded with the scholars'parents in turn, and received from $3 to $5 per scholar, which means that only the prosperous centres could procure their services. In those days the Acadians received from the BritishProtestant authorities the fulness of their political and civilrights without molestation or annoyance in things religious or relating to theFrench language. The thinly populated country did not as yet complain of the burden of its schoollaws.

The first act to be found in the Statutes of New Brunswick concerningeducation isdated 1805 and relates to the founding of a public grammar school for the City ofSaint John. It is therein enacted that therector of Trinity Church shall be one of the directors of this school, and at the same time president of the Board of Administration. A somewhat paltry grant was awarded to this establishment. In the same manner, other grammar schools were authorized for different localities in New Brunswick. The first law establishing publicparish schools dates from 1833. These schools are placed under the control of three school trustees for eachparish. These trustees possess great executive authority. They subdivide theparishes into school districts, engage and dismiss teachers, and give them such certificates as entitle them to their grants from the Government, the maximum of which is $160 for eachparish. The justices of the peace are entrusted with theduty of making school reports to the Government. No certificate of competence was exacted beyond theapprobation of theparochial syndics, and no examination as to aptitude was held. It was not until many years afterwards (towards 1853) that the Board of Education, with itshierarchy and inspectors, was definitely organized. These latter, until the events of 1871, always showed kindness and liberality towardsCatholic teaching and the French tongue. TheCatholic teachers received from the board their grant, as did also theProtestant teachers, French and English alike. In 1871 a law was passed by the Provincial Legislature establishing "Neutral Schools", in which theFrench language was ignored; but it was taught in the French schools and was afterwards recognized officially. The French and theEnglishCatholics protested energetically against thisunjust measure. Petitions were signed and sent to Ottawa requesting the repeal of thislaw, which was injurious to theCatholics who constituted one-third of the population of the Province. Some turbulent and stormy years passed over; certain defenders of the minority wereimprisoned, and finally amodus vivendi was adopted to the effect that the school remain neutral from 9 A. M. till 3.30 The books shall be approved by the Government. The use of theFrench language was recognized, and a set of books was chosen to that end.

After the regular school hours the Catechism was permitted to be taught. Nowadays all the schools of New Brunswick are under the control of thelaw, even those exclusively attended byCatholic children. The number ofCatholic children frequenting the schools is about 23,000; the teachers, male andfemale, number about 600. About eighteenconvents under the direction of various religious congregations are scattered through the principal centres of the province. There are three colleges: one atChatham (English) founded in 1910, directed by theBasilian Fathers, and containing 90 pupils; one at Caraquet, French and English, founded in 1899 by theEudist Fathers, and containing 150 pupils; one at Memramcook (l'Université du Collège Saint-Joseph), French and English, founded in 1864, directed by the Fathers of the Holy Cross, and containing 250 pupils. With the exception of a fewconvents these institutions are not under state control.

Prince Edward Island

The system of public schools in this province is not denominational. There are therefore no primaryCatholic schools, except sevenconvents under the direction of the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame, All the schools have been under the immediate control of the State since 1877 and are strictly neutral, or non-sectarian. Besides theconvents, which teach about one thousand girls, there is aCatholic college for boys, which accommodates about one hundred and fifty. Nearly all the pupils of this college are boarders, and theireducation costs them about $150 each, while, of the thousand girls in theconvents, there are barely one hundred boarders, whoseeducation costs each about $60. The Government pays $720 to the Sisters who teach the provincial normal school conformably to the programme of studies prescribed by the Department of Education. The other 900 girls who attend theconvent schools receive theireducation for a nominal payment. The majority pay nothing. Generally speaking, the expense of heating the schools is borne by the respectiveparishes in which theconvents are situated, and, in return the day-scholars living in the vicinity of theconvent areeducated gratuitously. Until 1850 there were very few schools among the Acadians. In eachparish there were two men who taught reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Manitoba

The first French schools in this province were established in 1818 on the arrival of the Rev. Norbert Provencher, afterwards Bishop Provencher, and the Rev. Nicholas Dumoulin. Bishop Provencher opened his first school at St. Boniface, and Father Dumoulin opened his at Pembina. As the population increased, the schools multiplied. In 1835, notwithstanding that the population was very limited, there were already five schools. After many efforts Bishop Provencher succeeded in founding a school at Red River for young girls, and the first teacher was Angélique Nolin (Metis). In 1844 the Gray Nuns ofMontreal, at the earnest request of Bishop Provencher, came to the West. Those who arrived first were Sisters Lagrave, Lafrance, Valade, Coutlée. The firstconvent founded by them was at St. Boniface, and the second at St. François-Xavier. In 1835 Bishop Provencher got an English teacher for his boys' school. This school in time became St. Boniface's College. At Pembina Father Dumoulin was occupied in preparing young men for thepriesthood, and in 1821 he had six students in Latin. The primary schools increased rapidly. Every place where a spire indicated a house of worship a school sprang up. Soon, unfortunately, a crisis came, and theCatholics were severely tried.

At the present time (1912), in virtue of the British North American Act, each province has theright to adopt the system ofeducation that best suits its particular needs. It must, however, respect the privileges orrights already guaranteed to the divers groups or sections having separate schools. Accordingly, whenManitoba asked, in 1870, to become a unit of the confederation, theCatholic deputies, under the clear-sighted direction ofBishop Taché, demanded a formal law covering therights already acquired. In 1890, theCatholics were, unfortunately, the victims of a legalpersecution which embittered the last years ofBishop Taché. TheProtestant majority of that province should have treated theCatholic minority with as much generosity as theCatholic majority, in theProvince of Quebec, treated theProtestant minority. Such, however, was not the case. The schools were secularized, and the teaching of French was discontinued. Protestations were made, and the grievances were laid before the British Throne, which recognized therights of theCatholics. Archbishop Langevin, of St. Boniface, vigorously defended therights of theCatholics, but nojustice was done him. The compromise of 1896 was voted: this act embodied the principle of the "neutral schools" system, and, although diminishing the bad effects of thelaw, it deserved to be styled, byLeo XIII, a law "defective, imperfect, insufficient" (manca est, non idonea, non apta). It is thus that theCatholics of Winnipeg and of Brandon areobliged to pay double school tax. The public school is a school to whichCatholicparents cannot send their children. They areobliged to openCatholic schools at their own expense, while paying their share of taxes to theProtestant schools. Nevertheless, in those places whereCatholics are grouped inparishes, in the country or at St. Boniface, in the municipalities having aCatholic majority, they can electCatholic trustees who protect their co-religionists. In this way they can secure the government grant for the schools attended byCatholic children. Thanks to the vigilance of the valiant Archbishop Langevin of St. Boniface, twoCatholic inspectors have been appointed for theCatholic schools. These schools are 190 in number, with an attendance of over 7000 pupils. It is to be remarked, however, that it is with much difficulty that religious teaching is tolerated during class hours. Besides, the schoolbooks are notCatholic, andCatholic interests are not sufficiently safeguarded. There is oneCatholic normal (French and English) school at St. Boniface, and another (English and Polish) at Winnipeg.

The teaching congregations are numerous. TheInstitute of Mary, fromParis, has schools at Winnipeg and St. Boniface. The Clerics of St. Viateur have anorphanage for boys at Makinac. TheBrothers of the Cross of Jesus, fromFrance, have two schools in theFrenchparishes at St. John Baptist and at St. Pierre Jolys. TheSisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, ofMontreal, have sixconvents or schools in theFrenchparishes, St. John Baptist, St. Agathe, St. Pierre, St. Boniface. St. Mary's Academy, Winnipeg is for English-speaking girls. The Sisters of the Five Wounds have fourconvents in theFrenchparishes of Notre Dame de Lourdes, St. Claude, St. Leo, and St. Alphonse. TheBenedictine Sisters, fromDuluth,Minnesota, have two schools at Winnipeg, one English and German, the other English and Polish. TheFranciscan Missionary Sisters of Mary fromRome have two schools among French and English-speaking whites at St. Lawrence and a school for the Indians at Pine Creek. We must not forget to mention the LittleServants of Mary Immaculate of theRuthenian Rite, theDaughters of the Cross, and the Oblate Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Mary Immaculate who are entirelyconsecrated to theeducation of youth. The Classical College of St. Boniface, founded by Bishop Provencher, was at first directed bysecular priests, then by theBrothers of the Christian Schools, afterwards by the Oblate Fathers. In 1885 it was confided to theJesuit Fathers, who have organized a course of studies to the satisfaction of the two principal nationalities whose children, to the number of 300, attend the college. There are a French section and an English section, with a regular Classical course having Latin and Greek for its basis. Each year its students succeed admirably in competition with those of other colleges in theuniversity examinations. The non-Catholic colleges are St. John's (Anglican), Manitoba College (Presbyterian), and the Wesley College (Methodist). There are 300 pupils attending St. Boniface College.

In 1909 Archbishop Langevin founded apetit séminaire which he confided tosecular priests. The Rev. Father Joubert was the first director. There are at present 54 candidates preparing for thepriesthood. A glance at the numerous nationalities represented at the preparatoryseminary suggests someidea of the cosmopolitan character of the vast regions of the great West. At the same time it gives a faintidea of the episcopal solicitude in providing for each nationality missionaries of their own blood and language. In thisseminary there are 30 French-speaking, 10Ruthenians, 6Irish, and 8 Germans. In 1905 the Holy Family Juniorate was founded by the Oblate Fathers at St. Boniface.

Saskatchewan and Alberta

The work begun by Bishop Provencher has kept pace with the increase of the population. The Gray Nuns became missionaries among the Indians. They founded aconvent atAlberta and a school at Crosse Island. Their first attempt in establishing a school was at St. Ann, but in this they were unsuccessful.

In 1870 the Federal Parliament voted a law of administration for the Territories. However, it was only in 1875 that they received a rudimentary form of government under the North-west Territories Act. According to that Act the people could establish "such schools as they think fit". The principle of separate schools was therein recognized. It would be too long to give the history of the school legislation of these territories up to the constitution of the two new provinces ofSaskatchewan and Alberta in 1905. At all events the new constitution should have safeguarded one essential, giving toCatholics theright to organize everywhere separate schools trulyCatholic and theright to their share of the government grant. Unfortunately such was not the case. Notwithstanding the agreement of 1870, and notwithstanding even the British North America Act, which the Parliament ofCanada cannot modify, the system of neutral schools was imposed on theCatholics. It is not the half-hour of religious teaching that makes a school reallyCatholic: it is essential that there should beCatholic books, explained byCatholic teachers, in aCatholic atmosphere. But nothing of all this was granted. However, the government is equitably administered in those districts where theCatholics are in a majority. Thirty-one such districts appear in the last Report of the Minister of Education for the Province of Saskatchewan (page 14). These schools are public schools in which religion may be taught at stated hours. The right, therefore, to organize separate schools forCatholics is limited to the districts where they are in the minority (there are twelveCatholic separate-school districts in the same Province of Saskatchewan).

It would be somewhat difficult to determine the number of pupils attending the schools in theCatholic public-school districts or in theCatholic separate-school districts. TheDiocese of Prince Albert, which comprises all that part of the Province of Saskatchewan, has 54 academies and schools attended byCatholic children. (These schools are not reallyCatholic. They are neutral schools attended byCatholic children and endowed with a government grant.) These children number in all about 3000. The southern part of the province is in the newDiocese of Regina. The firstBishop ofRegina wasconsecrated on 5 November, 1911. There are a great number ofCatholic schools in that flourishing part which is found in the Archdiocese of St. Boniface. The Sisters of Notre Dame of the Cross of Maurianais,France, have here two schools, one at Forget, and the other atSt. Hubert, TheSisters of St. Joseph of St. Hyacinthe have a school for Indians at Lake Croche. The Sisters of Notre Dame of the Missions, fromLyons, direct threeconvents: a boarding-school for English-speaking girls, atRegina, and two others in the French-speaking centres at Lebret and at Wolseley. The Oblate Missionaries of the Sacred Heart and of Mary Immaculate direct a school for Indians at Fort Pelley. The industrial school at Qu' Appelle has 242 Indians, under the Sisters of Charity.

The Diocese ofSt. Albert comprises all the southern part of the Province of Alberta and a part of the Province of Saskatchewan. It has an industrial school, 14convents, 8 boarding-schools for Indians. The pupils in the schools of theCatholic school districts number about 3700. We find here again the Sisters whose mother-house is in Quebec:Sisters of the Assumption, Gray Nuns ofMontreal, Sisters ofNicolet, Gray Sisters ofNicolet, etc. There are also the Polish Sisters of theRuthenian Rite. Thepetit séminaire ofSt. Albert was founded by Bishop Grandin in 1900. Father Cullerier O.M.I., was its first director, but the Oblate Fathers have now given up the institution and the Missionaries of Chavagnes, or Sons of Mary Immaculate, direct it at present (1911). There are 33 pupils in attendance. The Oblate Fathers have opened a juniorate at Strathcona, where they have 14 pupils.

British Columbia

This province entered the Confederation in 1871. In it there is not oneCatholic school in receipt of a government grant. The differentdioceses bear the expense ofCatholiceducation. TheArchdiocese of Vancouver has eight industrial schools for Indians, with an attendance of 513 pupils; four academies for young girls; sevenparochial schools, with a total attendance of 729 girls. New Westminster possesses an excellent institution of learning, Saint Louis College, under the direction of the Oblate Fathers. In theDiocese of Victoria, which comprises Vancouver and the adjacent island, there are two academies for young girls, with an attendance of 342; nineparochial schools, with 450 pupils; two industrial schools, 110 pupils (boarders). Thesecular priests direct acollege of 50 pupils. Among theCatholic educational institutions there are nine directed by the Sisters of St. Anne, whose mother-house is at Lachine, nearMontreal, viz.:

Territories

In the vast regions of the West outside of the provinces regularly constituted, there are large territories where missionaries are engaged inGod's work, under the guidance of vicars-Apostolic; and wherever a church is built, a school adjoins it. There are sixconvents in the Vicariate of Athabaska.

The Gray Nuns have a boarding-school forIndians at Lake Laplonge in theVicariate of Keewatin. At Cross Lake, 4 Oblate Sisters of Mary Immaculate carry on a boarding-school for Indians, in which there are 20 pupils. In theVicariate of Mackenzie there are, at Great Slave Lake, 7 Gray Nuns at the head of a school of 45 pupils. At Providence 13 sisters give instruction to 75 pupils. At Yukon there are 9 schools, and at Dawson 3 Sisters of St. Anne from Lachine, nearMontreal, teaching 65 pupils.

Newfoundland

Although the Province of Newfoundland does not form a part of theCanadian Confederation, it should be mentioned here. In eachparish there is a school under the care of theparochialclergy and supported by a government grant. The principal teaching congregations areIrish Christian Brothers,Sisters of Mercy, and Presentation Nuns.

England

It was the commonbelief until quite recently that the grammar schools ofEngland, that is the main part of the machinery of English middle-classeducation, were the offspring of theReformation, and owed their origin to the reign of Edward VI. This legend is now exploded. A.F. Leach begins his masterly work, "English Schools at the Reformation" (London, 1896), with the sentence: "Never was a great reputation more easily gained and less deserved than that of King Edward VI as a Founder of Schools", Thetruth is that the feweducational foundations made by the Government either ofHenry VIII or Edward VI were but re-foundations forming a small salvage from the wreck ofeducational endowments confiscated with themonasteries and chantries. In factEngland was singularly well provided with schools previous toHenry VIII. Among them were thecathedral schools, collegiate grammar schools,monastery schools, guild schools, and perhaps most numerous of all,chantry schools. For theduty of teaching a school was frequently combined with theobligation of singing Mass for thesoul of thepious founder. The great majority of these were termed "grammar schools". They usually taught reading, writing, and Latin. Many reached a good standard and included rhetoric and dialectic in their curriculum. There were also song schools of more elementary character. As most of the grammar schools taught gratuitously, a very liberal provision ofeducation was open even to the poorer classes. Indeededucation as a whole was on a more democratic basis, and good secondary instruction more widely diffused inEngland inCatholic times than in the first half the nineteenth century. "The proportion of the population which had access to Grammar Schools, and used them was much larger than now" (Leach, p. 97). Rashdall similarly concludes that "at least in the laterMiddle Age the smallest towns and even the larger villages possessed Schools where a boy might learn to read and acquire the first rudiments ofecclesiastical Latin: while, except in very remote and thinly populated regions, he would never have had to go very far from home to find a regular Grammar School ("The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages", II, 602). TheReformation, with the confiscation and plunder of themonasteries and chantries, involved the destruction of much of theeducational machinery of the nation. Theevil consequences are testified by Ascham, Latimer, Cranmer, and Harrison Watson.

However, the old appreciation of the value ofeducation in a short time reasserted itself. Theecclesiastical control of all schools, now in the hands of theReformers, was strengthened by new legislation. The religious instruction given in the schools was that of the Established Church, and the scholars were required to participate in theprayers and church services. The steady pressure of this machinery on the minds of the young was bound to be fatal to the old religion. During Elizabeth's long reign the great majority ofCatholics were practically compelled to send their children to the nearest grammar school, if the children were to receive anyeducation at all. For the better-offfamilies thechaplain orpriest maintained in hiding commonly also acted as tutor. But as time went on the situation grew worse. Then, in order in some degree to providepriests and also to furnish some means ofCatholiceducation for at least the children of the nobility and gentry who clung to the old Faith, there were founded theEnglishseminaries and colleges on the Continent. First among these was the English College atDouai, started in 1568 by Allen, afterwardscardinal. Its primary object was the training ofpriests for the English mission, but it also accepted lay students. Within a few years it contained over 150 pupils. Before the year 1700 it had sent back toEngland over 300priests, more than a third of whom suffered death for theCatholicFaith (seeDOUAI). It endured till theFrench Revolution, when, as we shall see, it gave birth to the two Colleges ofUshaw and Old Hall.Irish and Scotch colleges were also established atDouai for a similar purpose. In 1578 was founded the English College atRome. It was designed to provide places for sixtyecclesiastical students. After a very short time it was entrusted to theJesuits, who managed it till the suppression of the Society in 1773. There were also founded English colleges at Valladolid in 1589, and at Seville in 1592, by Father Parsons, and atMadrid in 1612 byFather Creswell. The English College atLisbon was started in 1622 by William Newman, asecular priest. All these latter colleges sent manypriests toEngland especially during their first decades, but as time went on, perhaps through their remoteness and the Anglo-Spanish Wars, they failed to keep up the intimate connexion withEngland which was always retained between the mother-country andDouai andSt. Omer. The three Spanish colleges were merged into the single foundation at Valladolid in 1767.

The most important college founded beyond the sea of which the primary object was theeducation of lay students, was theJesuit school begun atSt. Omer by Father Parsons in 1592. It had an eventful career of 200 years on the continent ofEurope, and then coming back toEngland settled atStonyhurst, whence it became the progenitor of the great majority of theJesuit schools scattered throughout the British Empire today. Starting with twenty-three boys, it had by 1603, according to the spies of the English Government, "a hundred and forty gentlemen's sons of great worship". In 1632 there were over 200 pupils, the Sons of the chief noblemen and gentry who remained loyal to the old Faith. Boys going to and returning from the college were more than once captured andimprisoned, and bills of high treason were returned, against theparents of pupils there. It turned out manymartyrs and confessors of the Faith, and indeed, during the latter part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, pastSt. Omer's boys scattered up and down the country formed the main part of the "old guard" of the dwindling body of the layCatholics inEngland.

Meantime the cruellest part of the penal code was thestatutes directed againstCatholiceducation. Thus in the twenty-third year of Elizabeth's reign an Act was passed forbidding the keeping or maintaining of any schoolmaster who had not a licence from theProtestantbishop. The penalty was £10 per month, with a year'simprisonment for the schoolmaster. This statute was strengthened by another in the first year of James I, imposing a fine of forty shillings a day. Later this was made even more stringent by the Act of Uniformity in 13 Charles II, requiring all tutors and schoolmasters, besides obtaining thebishop's licence, to conform to the Established Church, under penalty of three months'imprisonment for each offence. Concomitantly it was forbidden toeducateCatholic children abroad. Thus in 27 Elizabeth it was made punishable as aprœmunire to send aid to any foreignseminary orJesuitcollege, or to anyperson in the same. Further in 1 James I it was enacted that the sending of a child or otherperson to a foreign college should entail a fine of £100 and render the child incapable of inheriting real or personalproperty. The severity of thislaw was again increased in 3 Charles I. Finally, in 1699 a clause of a cruel Act under William and Mary offered £100 reward to every informer who would effect the conviction of any Popishpriest for keeping a school oreducating or boarding aCatholic youth for that purpose, the penalty being madeimprisonment for life. Relentlesspersecution of this kind, carried out with such rigour that the colleges ofDouai,St. Omer, and Valladolid, between them, within a century and a half had mustered a grand roll of 250martyrs, besides numberless confessors, triumphed; and by 1770 theCatholicChurch inEngland was reduced to a scattered remnant of some 60,000souls (Amherst).

Occasionally, during these dark days, in lulls of the storm, or in quiet places, a smallCatholic school was started and struggled on with varying fortunes for a shorter or longer time. Thus, under James II (1685-8) two schools were started in the neighbourhood ofLondon, but perished soon afterwards. Another, begun at Twyford, nearWinchester, about the same time, had a somewhat better fate and survived till the Stuart rising in 1745. The poet, Alexander Pope, was a pupil at this school, and the distinguished biologist, Father Turberville Needham, was an assistant master here. It had less than thirty pupils when Bishop Challoner visited it in 1741. There was also for a time about this period a small school managed by theFranciscan Fathers at Edgbaston, near Birmingham. Another, known as Dame Alice School, existed for a number of years in Lancashire. But the history of each was usually much the same--a short, timid, and precarious life, some untoward accident, and the feeble institution came to an untimely end.

Just, however, when the complete extinction ofCatholicism seemed at hand, the revival began. By the middle of the eighteenth century thepersecution commenced to abate. The old fear of theChurch had waned. Toleration for other forms of dissent had been growing. About 1750Catholics began to breathe a little more freely. One evidence of this was the starting of a school at Sedgley Park, near Wolverhampton, byBishop Challoner in 1762. Yet so great was the timidity of theCatholic gentry at the time that a deputation of them waited on thebishop to dissuade him from so daring a measure--fortunately in vain. Within six years the numbers of the school rose to a hundred boarders, and for a century it was the chief centre where the Midlandclergy received their earlyeducation. Previously to this, another school for small boys had been begun at Standon Lordship.

The real revival ofCatholiceducation inEngland, however, only commenced when theCatholic colleges beyond the seas, broken up by theFrench Revolution, ventured to return. In 1777 theBritish Government sorely neededIrish soldiers for the Americanwar, and in 1778 the first EnglishCatholic Relief Bill repealing the most galling of thepenal laws was passed. In 1793 the College ofDouai was seized by the agents of the French Republic. After temporaryimprisonment the professors and students came toEngland and were allocated at first to Old Hall, Ware, and then in part to Crook Hall, the futureUshaw, near Durham. There were differences of opinion among the Englishecclesiastical authorities, some urging the continuance of theDouai community as a single college in the South ofEngland, others advocating the claims of the North. However unpleasant at the time was the disagreement, itproved a solid gain to theCatholicChurch inEngland. For the outcome was the starting of the two large colleges,St. Cuthbert's at Ushaw and St. Edmund's at Ware, both destined to have honourable and fruitful careers and to be sources of much strength to the Faith. Each of them provides today for a community of over 300 students complete courses of humanities,philosophy, andtheology, andeducates lay as well asecclesiastical pupils. About the samedateEnglishBenedictine communities, compelled to return fromLorraine and fromDouai, for a time resided at Acton Burnell, but separated later to found Ampleforth College in Yorkshire in 1803, and Downside in 1815, two schools which continue to do increasingly valuable work for EnglishCatholiceducation. At the same time was begun, largely through the influence of certainlaymen of the Cisalpine Club, but acting in co-operation withBishop Talbot, Oscott College, in the Midlands. After a successful history of three-quarters of a century as a mixed school, it was converted into a purelyecclesiastical college, with courses ofphilosophy andtheology. It trains the Midlandclergy as well as a considerable number from otherdioceses today.

In 1794 theJesuitCollege, formerly atSt. Omer, but subsequently transferred toBruges in 1762, and thence toLiège in 1773, migrated to Stonyhurst, in Lancashire. In addition to the large educational institution into which it developed atStonyhurst this college became the parent stock of a prolificfamily. Starting with twelve boys, its numbers by 1813 had risen to over two hundred and twenty. The first offshoot was Clongowes Wood College,Ireland, in 1814, which speedily rivalled the parent school in point of numbers, and was itself the mother-house from which successful colleges were started atDublin,Limerick,Galway, and Tullabeg. Later on from thisIrish centre were founded several flourishingJesuit schools inAustralia. In Great Britain itself from the Stonyhurst root there originated during the nineteenth century, eight other secondary schools, all designed for theeducation ofCatholiclaymen: in 1841 Mount St. Mary's College, a boarding-school in Derbyshire, now numbering over 200 pupils; in the same yearSt. Francis Xavier's College, a day-school atLiverpool, which has reached a roll of 400; in 1862, Beaumont College, nearWindsor, also exceeding 230 pupils; subsequently large day-colleges, at Preston, 1864, at Wimbledon and at Stamford Hill, NorthLondon, in the last decade of the nineteenth century. St. Aloysius's day-college,Glasgow, which has exceeded 300 pupils, was founded in 1859; and aJesuit day-college has been opened atLeeds early in the present century. Meantime atStonyhurst itself in addition to the school, which now numbers some 350 lay students, there has been erected St. Mary's Hall, which is a house ofphilosophical studies and training college for the members of thesociety. It has been approved by the government as a recognized training college for secondary school teachers, and has some 60Jesuit students. TheJesuittheological College of St. Beuno in NorthWales was founded from Stonyhurst in 1848.

Other secondary schools of note are St. Bede,Manchester and St. Cuthbert's, Newcastle-on-Tyne, managed by thesecular clergy; the Oratory School, started byCardinal Newman at Edgbaston; Ratcliffe College, conducted by theRosminian Fathers; aBenedictine College at Ramsgate, and St. George's College, Weybridge, besides general successful schools managed by the brothers. Exact statistics in regard to secondary schools are impossible, owing to the indefiniteness of this term, which inEngland includes a wide variety of types and grades, from something just above the elementary school to Eton or Harrow. However, if we take the "Report of the 1910 Annual Conference of English Colleges" for our guide, we find this list includes thirty-three colleges or secondary schools for boys. All these are under the management ofpriests or religious. There are also in the country someCatholic preparatory schools for small boys and some small private institutions conducted bylaymen, but these above indicated form substantially the present machinery ofCatholic secondaryeducation of boys.

Catholic girls' secondaryeducation is similarly in the hands of religious. Old English foundations returning from abroad after theFrench Revolution, like theCatholic colleges, or new teaching congregations, openedconvent schools for primary as well as for secondaryeducation and have multiplied rapidly. The total number ofCatholic girls' schools which may be fairly classed as secondary is, for the same reason, very difficult to determine. Over one hundred and forty are advertised in the "Catholic Directory", but many of them are very small institutions.

Relations of Catholic secondary education with the government

AllCatholic secondary schools inEngland arevoluntary institutions. They were founded independently of the Government. Until recent years none of them received any state support, and they were subject to no form of state inspection. Indeed secondaryeducation, as such, did not receive any systematic support from the state inEngland prior to 1902; but a large number of non-Catholic schools possessed considerable endowments, many going back toCatholic times. During part of the past century, secondary schools, by fulfilling certain conditions, could earn grants from the Government Department of Art and Science; and a fewCatholic schools derived some small funds from this source. But in the Act of 1902, the government adopted a completely new attitude towards secondaryeducation. It empowered local authorities, i.e., county councils and urban councils, to build new secondary schools and to take over byvoluntary agreement existing secondary schools and to maintain them out of local rates assisted by imperial grants. On the other hand,voluntary schools which fulfil certain regulations are enabled to share in this state aid. This Act is fraught with important consequences, as it is clear from the history of primaryeducation that the state contribution will largely increase, and unlessCatholic day-schools can secure their fair share of it they will be unable to sustain the competition. Practically the grants are obtainable only by day-schools. The conditions in regard to efficiency, staff qualifications, and equipment, with liability to inspection, are stringent, but a well-managed school can already secure a good subsidy. One of our most successfulCatholic schools in 1910 thus earned between £2000 and £3000. But the upkeep required is correspondingly costly. ElevenCatholic schools for boys, including fourJesuit day-schools, are at present approved by the Board of Education and recognized as grant-earning. Another important point is that intending elementary teachers must in the future spend at least three years in a "recognized" secondary school. The necessity of a sufficiency of such "recognized"Catholic schools is therefore obvious. Unfortunately the government regulations at present seriously hamper the increase of such secondary denominational schools.

OfCatholic girls' secondary schools, thirty-four are already "recognized", of which eleven belong to the Sisters of Notre Dame. In 1911 there were twoCatholic training colleges forfemale secondary teachers, recognized and approved by Government. One is inLiverpool, conducted by the Sisters of Notre Dame; another inLondon, under the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus. There is so far oneCatholic training college for male secondary teachers--that atStonyhurst.

Catholic primary education

Whilst a tolerable supply of secondary schools existed inEngland during the eighteenth century, the primaryeducation of the nation was in a most wretched condition. Previous to 1830 Government took no interest in theeducation of the poor. In addition to the efforts of some of theclergy and a few philanthropiclaymen, the chief agencies working for the building and maintenance of schools for the poor in the early part of the nineteenth century were twovoluntarysocieties, one anAnglican, the other a Dissenting organization. The first government help to primaryeducation was given in 1833, a grant of £20,000. Today it exceeds £16,000,000. As the best available method of distribution, the grant was handed over to the twosocieties to be spent in building schools and for othereducational purposes. It was then made annual and increased from time to time. In 1839 a further allowance was given towards the establishment of training colleges for the preparation of teachers. These colleges soon multiplied. Government inspectors were appointed, but the power of accepting or approving them was conceded to the twovoluntarysocieties. The system was in fact frankly denominational. But down to 1850, although over £600,000 had been distributed,Catholics had not received a penny of this public money.

However, during the previous sixty years, in spite of their general poverty and of thepenal laws before 1829, the handful ofCatholics in the country had strivenzealously for theeducation of their children. As early as 1764 theCatholics ofLondon formed a small "Society for the Instruction of the Children of Catholic indigent Parents", though how much this was able to accomplish we cannot tell. At least tenCatholic primary schools existed inEngland prior to 1800; and probably not many more. But with the cessation of thepersecution and the beginning of the immigration fromIreland,Catholic elementary schools began to multiply. By 1829 these had risen probably to about 60 or 70. Thenceforth progress was more rapid. In 1851, though excluded from the government grant given since 1833, there were inEngland 311Catholic schools built for the poor and mainly by the pennies of the poor. From 1851 theCatholic schools received some small share of the public grants, and by 1870 the number had risen to 383.

In that year Forster's Act, the first greatEnglisheducation measure, was passed. It was enacted that henceforth schools should be established in every school district throughout the country. These might be eithervoluntary schools, or Board-schools. The latter were to be provided and managed by local school boards elected for this object. They were to be built out of the local rates, and maintained out of the rates and grants from the imperial exchequer. They were to be undenominational or secular in character and exempt from all religious instruction of any definitely denominational kind. But they might retain Bible lessons and give someChristian religious instruction of an undogmatic or colourless quality (Cowper Temple Clause). Along with these Board-schools, or in place of them, were sanctioned thevoluntary schools. These could be built by private bodies at their own expense. Ordinarily such bodies were religious organizations. For the maintenance of these schools the proprietors could obtain in aid of their own contributions the imperial grants, provided they fulfilled certain conditions ofeducational efficiency and admitted government inspection. Eachvoluntary school was controlled by a small committee of managers representing the trust or body who owned the school. The school was allowed to retain thereligiouscharacter of the denomination to which it belonged, to appoint teachers of their creed, and to give religious instruction according to their tenets subject to a "time-tableconscience clause" facilitating the absence from the religious lesson of any children whoseparents objected to their attending it.

As all previous work in elementaryeducation was due to thevoluntary or denominational bodies, nearly all existing primary schools werevoluntary schools. But in response to the now much increased demand theCatholics, like theAnglicans, disapproving of the secular Board-schools for their children, set themselves to the building and maintenance of additionalvoluntary schools. By the year 1901 the total number of primary schools had risen to a little over 20,000. Of these, 5878 were Board-schools, and 14,275 werevoluntary schools, but as the Board-schools were stronger in the towns and larger in size, of the total attendance of 5,000,000 children nearly half went to the Board-schools. Of thevoluntary schools theCatholics now owned 1056, with an attendance of nearly 400,000 children,--a magnificent increase from the 383 schools of 1870. The state contribution toeducation, which had been £20,000 in 1833, and £914,721 in 1870, had reached £16,000,000 in 1901. But though the supporters of thevoluntary schools made heroic efforts, the burden of the struggle was becoming intolerable, especially for a poorer section of the community like theCatholic body. The cost both of building and upkeep kept constantly rising, owing to the higher standard forced by the competition of the Board-schools, which drew unlimitedly from the public rates which the supporters of thevoluntary schools were compelled to pay in addition to theirvoluntary contributions to their own schools. Moreover, by legislation of 1876 and 1880 attendance of children at school was made compulsory. The important statute was enacted: "It shall be theduty of the parent of every child to cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction". This increased the number of school children and entailed the further statute that elementaryeducation should be provided gratuitously for the indigent, and ultimately resulted in legislation by which primaryeducation was made free or gratuitous for all. The annual cost ofeducation per child inEngland was: in 1860, 21s. 7d.; in 1870, 25s. 4d.; in 1880, forvoluntary schools, 34s. 73/34;d., for board schools, 42s.; in 1902, forvoluntary schools, 46s. 4d., for board schools, 60s. 9d.

Such was the state of things which necessitated the Education Act of 1902. This Act abolished the school boards, transferring their functions to the general local authority--the County Council or Urban Council. It equalized the condition of Board-schools andvoluntary schools--henceforward termed provided and non-provided schools--in regard to maintenance by public funds, whether from local rates or imperial grants, both schools being of equally public character in regard to secular instruction. It enacted that the local authority must maintain and control all secular instruction in the public elementary schools of its district; but whereas the local authority must provide the cost of both building and upkeep of the provided schools, in the case of the non-provided (i.e.voluntary) schools the building and equipment is to be at the expense of the denominational body which volunteers to set up the school. The school thus is, and remains, theirproperty. Each school is managed by a committee of six managers who have the appointment and dismissal of the teachers. The local authority has thenomination of all the six managers of the provided schools, but of only two in the case of non-provided schools. The trust body which owns the school has the right of nominating four of the six. It is on this slender clause the main value of the Act from theCatholic standpoint hinges, for it is this clause which retains the efficient control of the school for religious purposes in the hands of the denomination which built it. In the provided school religious instruction is on much the same footing as in the former Board-schools; that is, some Bible lessons and religious instruction of a non-denominational character may be given if the local authority chooses. In the non-provided school religious instruction may be given in accordance with the trust-deeds, that is with the tenets of the proprietors of the school. This is to be under the control of the managers and subject to a time-tableconscience clause, and not at the charge of public moneys.

For the sake of clearness, then, the present position of theCatholic elementary school inEngland in 1912 is this: The cost of the school building and its equipment must be found by theCatholic congregation, whilst the State through the local authority provides all working expenses for all secular instruction. EachCatholic school when first built is vested in the hands ofCatholicecclesiastical authorities by carefully drawn-up trust-deeds. The committee of managers usually includes thepriest in charge of the mission with three of the chiefCatholiclaymen of theparish. To these are added the two members appointed by the local authority. The right of opening new schools where needed is also secured by the Act of 1902. On the whole, therefore, the condition ofCatholic schools under this Act is fairly satisfactory. The Board of Education may, however, exert unpleasant pressure by exacting regulations under the title of efficiency. Still, though burdensome, if tolerable, the sacrifice in the long run ought to make for the good of the children. More objectionable have been attempts of certain bigoted local authorities to discriminate against the non-provided schools in the scale of salaries and some other matters. However, judicial decisions tend to prevent thisinjustice. The chief anxiety at present is the precariousness of the situation. Three Education Bills in succession have been before Parliament which sought to transfer the entire control of the school from the managers appointed by the owners of the non-provided schools to the local authority, and under the plea of abolishing religious tests for teachers aimed at rendering all schools liable to accept teachers of any religion or of none. Up to the present, each of these measures has been defeated, and largely by the resoluteness of theCatholic minority.

Provision of Catholic teachers

The method of training teachers inEngland for primary schools during the last century has usually included some years of apprenticeship as monitors or pupil-teachers in the primary school during which the candidate for the teaching profession continued his or her studies, receiving at the same time a small stipend from the State. At the end of this apprenticeship the young man or woman either began with the lowest grade of assistant-teacher and worked up by concomitant private study to pass examinations leading up to a first-class certificate; or the more fortunate candidates obtained scholarships, which secured them two years in a training college approved and assisted by the Government. In recent years, however, the aim of the Board of Education has been to secure that all future teachers of primary schools shall have gone through the last three or four years of their school course in a secondary school, and shall subsequently have the advantage of a two or three years' course at a training college. The preparation ofCatholic teachers has followed the same lines as that of other teachers belonging to thevoluntary division of the system. At present there are inEngland five recognizedCatholic residential training colleges forfemale primary teachers. All are managed by religious. The largest, that conducted by the Sisters of Notre Dame atLiverpool, was opened in 1856. In 1909 there were in residence at all the five training colleges 507women students. There is one residentialCatholic primary training college for men underdiocesan authorities inLondon. There were 114 students there in 1909. The State contributes scholarships or burses of £38 per annum for eachfemale student and £53 for each male student at these colleges. Though the ordinary course is two years, it may be prolonged to three or even four years in the case of very promising students. As at present the total number ofCatholic elementary teachers is about 8000, to staff near 1100 schools and teach about 400,000 children, and as the insistence on training constantly increases, there is need of increased provision in this respect. One source of anxiety lies in the efforts of the Board of Education in recent years to compel thevoluntary training-colleges, if in receipt of any grant, to admit students of alldenominations. In the case of residential training colleges, this would obviously be fatal to theirCatholic character. The attempt has been therefore vigorously resisted and, so far, successfully. A more serious difficulty in regard to the formation ofCatholic elementary teachers for the future, as before hinted, seems to lie in the paucity of recognizedCatholic secondary schools whichCatholic boys and girls looking forward to a teaching career can attend, as such attendance for three or four years is now to become a permanent regulation of the Board of Education. Moreover the many valuable scholarships open to these and other pupils from primary schools can now be held inCatholic secondary schools, provided these be recognized.

Special classes of schools

TheCatholiceducation of certain other classes of children is also provided for bycharitable institutions, which are primarily due tovoluntary effort, and conducted by religious congregations or other charitable organizations, but frequently receive considerable state aid, subject to certain conditions. Thus there are in Great Britain:Catholic certified poor-law schools, for boys, 13; for girls, 28; reformatory schools, for boys, 5; for girls, 2; industrial schools, for boys, 14; for girls, 12.

The chief organizations for the safeguarding ofCatholiceducational interests are thediocesan school associations and the centralCatholic Education Council of Great Britain. There are sixteen of the former. Thebishop or someCatholiclayman of position is usually the chairman, and the committee includes some of the most influentialCatholiclaymen of thediocese. TheCatholic Education Council was founded by thebishops of Great Britain in 1905. It took over the functions of the oldCatholic School Committee, which originated in 1847, and also those of theCatholic Secondary Education Council, begun in 1904. The Council consists of ninety-five members nominated in certain proportions by thebishops,diocesan school associations, and the Conference ofCatholic colleges. The object of this Council is to look after and defend the general interests ofCatholiceducation both primary and secondary, and the Council is recognized by the Government as representing theCatholics ofEngland in matters ofCatholiceducation. In fine, the conclusion presented by the history ofCatholiceducation in Great Britain is that, in a country where the conception oftrue freedom and the sense of equity prevails throughout the mass of the nation, even a small minority with a clearly just claim, however unpopular at the start, will triumph in the long run, if it insists with resolution and perseverance in its just demands.

Ireland

The history ofCatholiceducation inIreland in the period from theReformation to Catholic Emancipation is to be considered rather the story of an heroic struggle than a record of a school system in anytrue sense, and it must be gleaned from all sorts of out-of-the-way sources, for the historian of theCatholic schools of that period has not yet arisen. From theReformation to the Treaty of Limerick (1534-1691) records are very scanty, and though, in spite of the troubled state of the times, manyCatholic schools managed to survive and to do good work, there was no such thing as an organized system of schools, nor would anything of the kind have been possible. Throughout the eighteenth centuryCatholic schools were repressed by thepenal laws, one object of which was, according to Lecky, "to reduce theCatholics to a condition of the most extreme and brutalignorance". The same author says: "The legislation on the subject ofCatholiceducation may be briefly described, for it amounted simply to universal, unqualified and unlimited proscription". Keeping a school, or teaching in any capacity, even as usher or private tutor, was a penal offence, and a reward of £10 was offered for the discovery of a Popish schoolmaster. Notwithstanding the severity of theselaws the managers of the Charter Schools, when seeking aid from Parliament in 1769, found itnecessary to complain of the great number of schools "under the tuition of Popish masters" that were to be found in many parts of the country.

Proselytizing schemes

The Government and the ascendancy party, while prohibitingCatholiceducation, made several very ambitious though futile attempts to give aProtestanteducation to the children of the poorIrishCatholics through the agency of proselytizing schools. These schemes may be mentioned here since they were meant forCatholics, though fortunately little used by them. An Act of Parliament of the reign ofHenry VIII (1537) proscribed the erection of schools in everyparish, but the Act remained almost a dead letter. In the reign of Elizabeth an Act was passed (1570) for the establishment ofdiocesan free schools. Some schools were founded, and in the course oftime the number was increased, but they never realized the function indicated by their name of free schools; they became in the main ordinary grammar schools for the children of well-to-doProtestants. A scheme of Royal free schools was initiated by James I (1608) in connexion with the plantation of Ulster. Their story differs little from that of the other proselytizing schools, but their endowments have not altogether disappeared and they were divided betweenCatholics andProtestants under a scheme made by the Educational Endowments Commission of 1887. Passing over other more or less partial schemes, the Charter schools, founded in response to an appeal made by Boulter, theProtestantprimate (1730), demand a brief notice. Under the charter granted in 1733, a system of schools was begun which, by means of agreements secured by a combination offraud and terror, tookCatholic children from theirparents and homes and deported them to most distant parts of the country. These schools became hotbeds of shameful cruelty without a parallel in the history of public, or probably even in that of private,education in any land. Yet they were powerfully supported and received large grants from theIrish Parliament, but their downfall was brought about by the indignant exposure of their callous inhumanity by John Howard, the philanthropist, who took occasion to investigate their condition while he was engaged in an inquiry into the state of theprisons.

All these classes of schools were avowedly proselytizing, and as they were the only schools which could be openly established in the country in the eighteenth century, at any rate till towards its close, theeducation ofIrishCatholics was confined to what could be done by the efforts ofpriests in their own districts, and by those of the "hedge" school-master, who with great devotion sought to keep alive the lamp ofknowledge, though heknew that a price was on his head as on that of thepriest. That these efforts were numerous and active is clear from the complaint of the trustees of the Charter schools in 1769, to which reference has already been made. Moreover, in spite of the severe penalties prescribed by law, the practice of sendingIrish youths to Continental countries to beeducated was very common, and it appears from a return made to Parliament that, at the time of the outbreak of theFrench Revolution, there were no fewer than 478Irishecclesiastical students making their studies on the Continent. Towards the close of the eighteenth century the rigour with which thepenal laws had hitherto been enforced was considerably relaxed, and the immediate result was an extraordinary growth ofCatholic schools all over the country, but without any organic unity or definite system. By far the most importanteducational work of that period was the foundation ofMaynooth College.

Christian Brothers

In 1802 Edmund Ignatius Rice, of Waterford, began a work forCatholiceducation which has been the source of incalculable good. In that year theIrish Christian Brothers were founded, and in 1820 theHoly See extended to them theBrief ofBenedict XIII by which the French Brothers were established in 1725. TheChristian Schools soon found their way into the chief centres of population in the southern half of the country, and at the present day they number 100 and have 29,840 pupils. All the Royal Commissions which have inquired into the condition ofeducation inIreland have reported in terms of enthusiastic praise on the splendideducational work done in the schools of theChristian Brothers, and it is unnecessary to say that they have been a tower of strength to the cause of religion.

National schools

The National schools, as they are called, were introduced in 1831, by a motion of Mr. Stanley, chief secretary forIreland, to place at the disposal of theIrish Government a grant for the purpose of providing combined literary and moral and separate religious instruction forIrish children of alldenominations. The new system was at once attacked by thePresbyterians and very soon by theEpiscopalian Protestants, but at first it was in the main supported by theCatholics, though Dr. McHale,Archbishop ofTuam, was a notable exception. The concessions made by the Commissioners of National Education for the purpose of placating the variousProtestantsects had the effect at last of unitingCatholics in opposition to the system. Apparently it was not enough that in a Board of seven commissioners only two wereCatholics; one rule after another was made of such a character as to leave nodoubt of the very serious danger that these new government schools would prove to be simply another proselytizing agency, as was, indeed, the avowed policy of theProtestantarchbishop, Whately. As the outcome of prolonged and bitterCatholic opposition the schools were at length made tolerable, though they retain their fundamental undenominationalism to the present day.

Outline of system

The National Education system is now governed by a body of twenty commissioners appointed by the Crown, of whom ten, including the resident commissioner, areCatholics. All the other higher offices, even inspectorships, are divided equally betweenCatholics andProtestants, offices being in some instances duplicated in order to preserve the balance. The form of local control of the schools that has been adopted gives toCatholics such measure of security as they possess. The immediate management is committed toindividuals appointed by the Board, and in the large majority of cases these are the localclergy, amongstCatholics usually theparishpriests. Of a total of 8401 National Schools, 5819 are underCatholic management, and of these, 5650 are underclerical and 169 under lay managers. These managers have the sole right of appointing and dismissing the teachers, but an arrangement made forCatholic schools, and sanctioned by the Synod of Maynooth, provides that in the exercise of this right the approval of thebishop shall be sought. This arrangement has been accepted by the teachers as an ample protection against the danger of arbitrary dismissal. The managers have, moreover, general authority over the schools and the teachers, but the commissioners themselves, through their inspectors, control the standard and the efficiency of the teaching, and enforce the regulations of their code. The undenominationalism of the system makes itself felt chiefly in two ways: first, in the prohibition of religious emblems even in purelyCatholic schools, and, secondly, in the refusal of the commissioners to sanction the use even inCatholic schools of readers or other books containing any matter which might be considered open to objection if the schools had mixed attendance ofCatholics andProtestants.

Provision of schools

School buildings may be vested in the commissioners, or in trustees, or they may be held by the managers as owners. If a school is vested in the commissioners, a course considered objectionable byCatholics, that body provide the entire cost of erection, equipment, and maintenance. If the school is vested in trustees, the commissioners make a grant of two-thirds of the cost of building and equipment, leaving the remaining third, and the entire cost of subsequent maintenance, to be met by local contributions, for the raising of which the manager is responsible. If the unrestricted ownership of the school is retained by the manager, no contribution is made, but loans may be obtained in certain circumstances.

Catholic schools

The schools of theIrish Christian Brothers have refused to enter the National system, but it has been accepted by those of other brotherhoods, and byconvent schools generally. The number ofconvent andmonastery National schools is 396, and the average number of children on the rolls, 111,508. Of the 8401 National schools 4391 are exclusivelyCatholic as regards teachers and pupils, 1542 are similarlyProtestant, and the attendance is mixed in 2461 schools, in which theCatholic pupils are 69.7 per cent of the whole. The number of pupils in exclusivelyCatholic schools is 373,613, and theCatholics in the schools in which the attendance is mixed, number 131,657. There are, therefore, altogether 505,270Catholic pupils in the National schools out of a total roll of 704,528.

Finance

The whole scheme of Nationaleducation, with the exceptions stated above in regard to building, equipment and maintenance, is financed by the Government, chiefly by an annual parliamentary vote, which in 1909-10 amounted to £1,621,921. The ascertained expenditure from local sources in 1909 was £141,096.

Training of teachers

The supply of trained teachers is maintained by seven training colleges, of which one, for men andwomen, directly managed by the commissioners, is forbidden toCatholics, another, also for men andwomen, isEpiscopalian Protestant, and two for men and three forwomen areCatholic. TheCatholic training colleges are under the immediate management of thebishops of thedioceses in which they are situated, two under theArchbishop ofDublin, and one each under the Bishops ofDown and Connor,Limerick, and Waterford. The students in these colleges, all of which are residential, are known as King's scholars, and the colleges are supported by capitation maintenance grants paid by the commissioners.

Technical instruction

Technical instruction is carried on by local committees under the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction forIreland. The Department was established by Act of Parliament in 1899, and has, in addition to the sums voted for special institutions such as the Royal College of Science, an annual income of £197,000, of which £62,000 must be devoted to technical instruction, £10,000 to the development of fisheries, and the balance to agricultural instruction and development. The technical schools established under this system are undenominational, but as they are almost exclusively evening schools and are confined to technical subjects of instruction, or preparatory work connected therewith, they are freely attended byCatholics.

Secondary schools and colleges

Speaking generally, all schools of secondary standard, and colleges underuniversity rank inIreland, are purely denominational. In the department of secondaryeducationCatholics received no assistance from the State until 1878, when an Act of Parliament established the Commissioners of Intermediate Education to encourage and promote secondaryeducation by distributing grants to schools of alldenominations on the basis of an annual general examination in the subjects of secular instruction, and giving exhibitions and prizes to the most successful candidates. A further Act of Parliament, in 1900, widened the powers of the commissioners and enabled them to add inspection to the examination, which, however, must be retained. The system of inspection established under this Act has not yet got beyond the tentative stage, and cannot be really effective as long as the annual examination continues to be the basis of the distribution of grants.

Outline of system

The commissioners are twelve in number, sixCatholics and sixProtestants, and as their powers are strictly limited to subjects of seculareducation, the denominationalism of the schools is in no way impaired. Thediocesan colleges, with few exceptions, accept the system and compete for their share of the grants. The great colleges and the smaller schools of thereligious orders are all within the system, as are also nearly all theconvent secondary schools. TheChristian Brothers, though refusing to enter the National system of primary schools, have freely entered the Intermediate system, and have added secondary departments to their schools, in which they accept the programme of the Intermediate Board, and submit to the examinations and inspection. The official statistics published by the Board take no account of thereligious denomination of schools or pupils, but they give sufficiently detailed information about each school to make it possible to arrive at fairly exact figures. Of 344 schools, 218 areCatholics: 128 for boys, 84 for girls, and 6 mixed. The school rolls show thatCatholics number approximately 8,780 boys out of a total of 12,067 and 4,000 girls out of 6,428. These rolls contain the names only of those pupils who are within the limits of secondary school age and the total number of pupils in the schools is probably 25 per cent greater.

Finance

The Intermediate Education Act (1878) gave the commissioners, from the funds realized by the disestablishment of theProtestant Church, £1,000,000, the interest of which was at first their sole income. The Local Taxation Act (1890) increased the income of the Board by the addition of the residue of specified excise and customsduties after certain fixed charges had been met. The amount received from this source was subject to fluctuation, but for several years it showed a downward tendency, and in 1911 the Government substituted for it a fixed annual sum of £46,000, which brings the income of the Commissioners up to £80,000 a year. The Government further admitted, in 1911, the claim ofIrish Intermediateeducation to an annual parliamentary vote, and if this is made proportional to the corresponding vote inEngland it should more than double the income of the Board.

Prominent schools

The following list gives the names of the larger and more importantCatholic schools inIreland and of the authorities conducting them.

Boys

Diocesan Colleges conducted by thesecular clergy, under the immediate control of thebishops: St. Finian's College, Mullingar; St. Mel's College, Longford; St. Macarten's College, Monaghan; St. Columb's College, Derry;St. Malachy's College, Belfast; St. Colman's College, Newry; St. Patrick's College, Cavan; St. Eunan's College, Letterkenny; Holy Cross College, Clonliffe, Dublin; St. Peter's College, Wexford; St. Patrick's College, and St. Mary's Lay College, Carlow; St. Kieran's College, Kilkenny; St. Colman's College, Fermoy;St. Finbarr's Seminary,Cork; St. Patrick's College, Thurles;St. Brendan's College, Killarney; St. Flannan's College, Ennis; St. Munchin's College, Limerick; St. John's College, Waterford;St. Jarlath's College, Tuam; Diocesan College, Ballaghadereen; St. Joseph's College, Ballinasloe; Summerhill College, Sligo; St. Muredach's College, Ballina.

Conducted by religious orders:Cistercians, Mount Melleray Seminary, attached to the Abbey, Cappoquin; St. Joseph's College, attached to the Abbey, Roscrea.Congregation of the Holy Ghost: Blackrock College, Dublin; Rockwell College, Cashel; St. Mary's College, Rathmines, Dublin.Congregation of the Mission (Vincentians): St. Vincent's College, Castleknock, Dublin; St. Patrick's Training College, for National Teachers (men), Drumcondra, Dublin;Dominicans, College of St. Thomas, Newbridge;Society of Jesus, Clongowes Wood College, Sallins; Belvedere College, Dublin; Sacred Heart College, and Mungret College, Limerick; College of St. Ignatius,Galway.Society of Mary (Marists), St. Mary's College, Dundalk; Catholic University School, Dublin;Christian Brothers, O'Connell Schools, North Richmond Street, and several other large schools in Dublin;Christian Brothers' College, and Our Lady's Mount,Cork;Christian Schools in Belfast,Limerick, and many other centres.Presentation Brothers, Presentation Monastery, and Mardyke College,Cork, and several other schools;De La Salle Brothers, Training College for National Teachers (men), Waterford.

Girls

TheDominican College, Eccles Street, and the Loreto College, St. Stephen's Green,Dublin, besides remarkable success in the examinations of the Intermediate Board, won for themselves acknowledged eminence, even in competition with men's colleges in the late Royal University, and have opened halls in connexion with the National University, St. Mary's, Muckross Park; Sion Hill, Blackrock, Dublin; Training College for National Teachers (women), Belfast; Training College for Secondary Teachers,Dublin, and many other schools.Loreto Nuns, Loreto Abbey, Rathfarnham; schools in Balbriggan, Bray, Dalkey, Gorey, Clonmel, Navan, Mullingar, Letterkenny, Kilkenny, Fermoy.Faithful Companions of Jesus: Laurel Hill Convent, Limerick; St. Mary's Convent, Newtownbarry;Sisters of St. Louis, Monaghan, Carrickmacross, and Kiltimagh.Ursulines: Convents of Blackrock, and St. Angela's,Cork; Sligo, Thurles, and Waterford, where, in addition to the school, the Sisters conduct a training college for secondary school teachers.Brigidines: Convents of Tullow, Mountrath, Abbeyleix, and Goresbridge.Sisters of Mercy: in addition to a large number of elementary schools in various parts ofIreland, higher schools in Dundalk, Queenstown, Macroom, and St. Marie's of the Isle,Cork, and in Limerick a Training College for National Teachers (women).Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary: Lisburn;Sisters of the Sacred Heart: Mount Anville, Dublin.

Schools of handicrafts have been established in connexion with many of theconvents. Among the more important of these are, for lace and crochet:Mercy Convents, Dundalk, Ardee, Kilbeggan, Longford, Enniskillen, Queenstown, St. Lelia's School,Limerick, Newcastle West, Roscarbery, Dungarvan, Stradbally, Claremorris, Westport, Castlebar, Sligo, Roscommon, and Boyle;Poor Clares, Ballyjamesduff and Kenmare.Presentation, Thurles, Carrick-on-Suir and Youghal;Sisters of Charity of St. Paul, Kilfinane;Sisters of Charity, Benada Abbey, Co. Mayo, and Foxford. Many of these schools, and some others have also hosiery, shirtmaking, and similar industries, and some, as Foxford, Loughglynn, St. Lelia's,Limerick, Dundrum, and Roscarbery, are centres of much needed industrial life in their several localities.

Seminaries

Theeducation of students for thesecular priesthood is carried on chiefly in Maynooth, which is a nationalseminary, though many students are sent to theIrish Colleges inRome andParis and a large proportion of the students ofDublin,Cashel, Kildare,Ossory, and Waterford receive their wholeeducation in the localseminaries. With these exceptions, however, the localseminaries confine themselves to the secondary school programme, and send their students to Maynooth or the Continent for their studies inphilosophy andtheology. Eachreligious order makes its own provision for the training of its subjects, and candidates for the foreign missions areeducated in All Hallows College, and in theseminaries situated in Carlow, Kilkenny, Thurles, and Waterford. (See alsoIRELAND;CHRISTIAN BROTHERS OF IRELAND;ALL HALLOWS COLLEGE;MAYNOOTH COLLEGE.)

Scotland

Catholiceducation inScotland during penal times fared much as inEngland. By 1670 theCatholic population had dwindled to some 14,000 communicants, of whom about 2000 survived in the Lowlands (Leslie's report toPropaganda). Scotch colleges which sent many missionaries back to suffer for theirfaith had been founded atRome,Douai, Paris, and Valladolid. However, in the crushed condition of the country candidates for thepriesthood became scarce. SmallCatholic schools were occasionally started in remote districts during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and struggled on for a while. Thus in 1675 two small schools existed at Glengarry and in the Island of Barra. Early in the eighteenth century a smallseminary was begun at Scalan in Glenlivat to be subsequently transferred after sundry vicissitudes to Aquhorties. Others were started at Samalaman andLismore. The first really importantCatholic collegiate foundation inScotland since theReformation was that at Blairs, in 1829, when the two surviving "littleseminaries" at Aquhorties and Lismore were united to form the new college, destined to have an honourable and fruitful career as the futureAlma Mater of a considerable proportion of the Scottishpriesthood. Since Catholic Emancipation there has been a large immigration fromIreland and a rapid growth within the Scottish community, so that the remnant of 1800 has risen to an estimatedCatholic population of 518,000 inScotland in 1910, with 554priests and 238 missions. The story of the progress ofCatholiceducation during the past century has been much the same inScotland as inEngland. As each littleCatholic congregation formed, it started a school. In spite of the stronger religious bigotry in the beginning, the increasing demand for liberty and equality for dissenters after the separation of the Free Church in 1843 helpedCatholiceducational claims.

However, it was the Education Act ofScotland of 1872 that has determined the Scotch system down to the present time. That Act, following on the line of the English Act of 1870, established, or rather inScotland reformed and re-established a dual system of public schools, i.e. Board-schools, andvoluntary or denominational schools. Both receive considerable grants from the imperial exchequer, whilst the former enjoy rate aid. Thevoluntary schools, built and partially maintained by private funds, retain thereligiouscharacter of the body which owns them. Fortunately inScotland thevoluntary schools did not meet with the same hostility from the supporters of the public or Board-schools as they did inEngland. The religious differences which have set the EnglishNonconformists against theAnglican proprietors of the great mass of thevoluntary schools did not exist there. As a consequence, thevoluntary schools generally, and theCatholic schools in particular, received more liberal treatment and less pressure, and the intolerable burden and acute need for reform which brought about the English Education Act of 1902 did not arise. The present situation ofCatholic Education inScotland, as gathered from the Scotch Education Department Blue Book for 1910-11, may be thus summarized:

Catholic voluntary day schools

Primary, 207; higher grade, 12. These provide places for 107,740 scholars. The average number on the registers during the past year was 92,594. The average in actual attendance, 81,980 (41,363 boys, 40,617 girls). Teaching staff: certificated teachers, male 167,female 1306; assistant (provisonally certificated) teachers, 475. Average annual salary ofCatholic teachers: principal masters, £148; principal mistresses, £94; assistant masters, £94; assistant mistresses, £73. The average salaries for the public schools at the same time were: principal masters, £189; mistresses, £95; assistant masters, £136; mistresses, £81.Catholic teachers thus work at a sacrifice. Total annual income ofCatholic primary schools:--voluntary contributions in various forms, £39,100; state contribution under various heads: annual grant, fee grant, grant in aid, grants for drawing, etc., about £170,000. The inclusion of rent (on the basis of assessment) in the approved expenditure is permitted in Scottishvoluntary schools. This amounted in 1909 to £36,000, or an average of £164 per school. The total expenditure onCatholic primary schools in 1910 was £208,624, which worked out at a cost per child of £2. 13s. 5d.; while the cost to the State of each child in the public schools amounted to £3. 14s. 1/12;d. Moreover the public schools drew about twenty-three shillings per child from rates not available to thevoluntary schools. Still on the whole, though theCatholicChurch is subject to certain financial disadvantages, it has secured freedom, and when worked in a liberal spirit the Scottish system hasproved tolerable, indeed with certain further amendments helping to raiseCatholic teachers' salaries to those of the public schools it would be even fair.

The working conditions of theCatholic primary schools inScotland are much the same as inEngland. The chief manager and correspondent of eachCatholic school is usually thepriest in charge of the mission, but the manager of groups ofvoluntary schools are united into small Councils or Committees in which they share common control and responsibility for certain purposes--an arrangement possessing some distinct advantages. In regard to secondaryeducation, the better higher grade schools help towards this inScotland; and there are twelve suchCatholic higher grade schools recognized and receiving grants. Owing to the difficulty already alluded to of defining secondary schools, it is not easy to give accurate statistics. OneCatholic school for boys, theJesuitCollege inGlasgow, is on the list of secondary schools recognized by the Government. The Marist Brothers also conduct a boarding college at Dumfries, St. Mungo's Academy, inGlasgow, and a hostel for the training of male teachers. There are twoecclesiastical colleges, Blairs and St. Peter's, New Kilpatrick; and in addition to those recognized as higher grade schools, there are probably about half a dozen academies andconvent boarding schools giving secondaryeducation. There is one large training college forfemale teachers, managed by the Notre Dame Sisters, in Glasgow.

United States

Out of aCatholic population of approximately 14,347,027, nearly one-half of theCatholic children attending elementary schools in theUnited States were beingeducated under theparish school system in the year 1910.Catholic schools are practically impossible in most country districts, and it has been estimated that from one-fourth to one-third of the number ofCatholic children of school age live in country districts. In towns and cities, therefore, where alone it is possible, generally speaking, to build and maintainCatholic schools, it may be said that all but about one-fourth to one-sixth of theCatholic population attending school is beingeducated in theparish schools. The number of pupils in theparish schools is also steadily increasing.

This result has been achieved by a process of gradual growth, the root of it all being the firm determination of theCatholic mind to make religion a vital element in theeducation of theCatholic child. This determination has characterized the attitude of AmericanCatholics in respect toeducation from the very beginning, and it has been shared alike by theclergy and thelaity. The earliestCatholic colonists implanted the principle of religious training in the virginCatholic soil, and every decade that has passed since then has added but a new growth or a fresh vigour to theeducational mustard seed, A school appears to have been founded by theJesuits inMaryland not very long after the arrival of the first colonists, though there is some uncertainty as to the exactdate and its first location. But even before the coming of the Calverts,Catholic schools existed inNew Mexico and Florida. By the year 1629, many schools for the natives ofNew Mexico had been established by theFranciscans, and this was eight years before the first school in the thirteen eastern colonies. The first schools within the present limits of theUnited States were thus founded byCatholic missionaries. It is probable that the earliest of these mission schools inNew Mexico were inaugurated soon after the effective occupation of the region by Don Juan de Oñate in 1598. In Florida, school work among the natives appears to have been begun about the same time. A classical school existed at St. Augustine as early as 1606. TheJesuits established a series of flourishing schools for the natives of Lower California, early in the eighteenth century; and theFranciscans, during its last quarter, developed the singularly successful mission schools in UpperCalifornia. All of these schools for the natives had an industrial character. InNew Orleans, aparish school was opened in 1722, four years after the founding of the city; and five years later a band ofUrsuline Sisters established aconvent and school there for theeducation of girls. There is evidence also of the existence ofCatholic schools at a very early period at St. Louis, Kaskaskia, Mackinaw,Detroit, and Vincennes. A college was opened by theJesuits inMaryland in 1677, and another in the city of New York, about 1684, under the administration ofGovernor Dongan; and, when they foundedCatholic missions inPennsylvania, schools were opened in connexion with the more importantparishes as a matter of course.

The era of religious freedom ushered in by the Revolution resulted in the multiplication ofCatholic educational institutions of every kind. Colleges were founded atGeorgetown and Mount St. Mary's, and plans were framed for the development ofCatholiceducation on a larger and more systematic scale. FathersBadin and Nerinckx inKentucky, and Father Richard atDetroit, were energetic and farseeingeducational pioneers. Religious teachers for the schools also began to appear. Alice Lalor opened a school atGeorgetown in 1799, which became the mother-house of the Visitation Sisters in theUnited States. Mother Seton established her community at Emmitsburg in 1809; Father Nerinckx founded the Sisterhood of Loretto in Kentucky two years later, and about the same time Father David organized the Sisters of Charity of Kentucky. From this time until about the year 1840 there was a slow but solidCatholiceducational growth throughout the eastern half of the country, with the steady increase of theCatholic population.Bishop Kenrick at Philadelphia, Bishop Dubois at New York, Bishop Benedict Fenwick atBoston,Bishop England atCharleston, Bishop Dubourg inLouisiana, and Bishops Flaget, Rosetti, Edward Fenwick, Résé, and Bruté in the west, were unremitting in their labours in behalf ofCatholiceducation in their respectivedioceses.

About the year 1840 a new period of school growth began, with the inpouring of the great streams of emigration fromGermany andIreland. During the years 1840-60 twice as manydioceses were organized as the number existing at the beginning of this period, and the heads appointed for these new sees were as profoundly convinced of the necessity ofCatholic schools as had been the greatbishops of the earlier periods. "The school alongside the church" was everywhere the acceptededucational maxim. Thelaity were of one mind with theclergy in the matter, and the building of schools went everywhere hand in hand with the building of churches. The immigrants were poor, but they gave unstintedly of their limited means for the erection and equipment of both. The first school buildings were often of the most makeshift character, but they were gradually replaced by larger and more commodious structures. The result was that the two hundredparish schools existing in the country in the year 1840 were multiplied several times over before the beginning of the Civil War. The problem of providing teachers for the new schools was generally solved by an appeal to the existingreligious communities ofEurope. Many of these sent colonies to America, and so rapid was the growth of these colonies that their members, within a few years, outnumbered those of the teaching communities previously established in the country. Most of these new bodies, too, became independent of the parent organizations. The greater number of the teaching communities now in theUnited States trace their American origin to the little pioneer bands that crossed the ocean to take charge of schools for the children of theIrish and German immigrants.

Towards the year 1860 the period of greatest growth in the history of the schools may be said to have ended, and the period of development begun. All through the eastern half of the country, theCatholic school system was by this time solidly established. In the Far Western and South-western States, the work ofeducational growth and expansion still went on, with the opening of the country there to settlement; and greatbishops, like aBlanchet inOregon, anAlemany inCalifornia, a Lamy inNew Mexico, and a Macheboeuf inColorado, were called upon to do heroic pioneer labour in the founding of schools, like that which had been done farther East by thebishops of an earlier period. But, by the close of the immigration period, the main lines of the vast network of schools were clearly laid down. It remained to provide for the internal development and progress of the system, and to adjust more perfectly the relations of its component elements. This has been the chief aim since theSecond Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866. The specific purpose and results of the work that has been accomplished in this direction will be dealt with more in detail in the sections that follow.

Legislation

At the FirstProvincial Council ofBaltimore in 1829, it was declared by the assembled Fathers to be "absolutelynecessary that schools should be established, in which the young may be taught the principles offaith and morality, while being instructed in letters". This was the first authoritative declaration of theChurch in theUnited States on the subject ofCatholic schools, and the decrees of subsequent councils have but reiterated, amplified, or given more precise practical effect to, the general law thus laid down. The First Plenary Council of Baitimore, held in 1852, exhorted thebishops "to see that schools be established in connexion with all the churches of their dioceses", and, ifnecessary, to provide for the support of the school from the revenues of the church to which the school was attached. Several of thebishops of the West urged even stricter legislation, and at the SecondProvincial Council ofCincinnati, six years later, these views were embodied in a formaldecree.

TheSecond Plenary Council of Baltimore did little more than ratify the decrees of previous councils. In 1875, however, theCongregation of Propaganda issued an "Instruction to the Bishops of the United States concerning the Public Schools", in which it was pointed out that the public schools as conducted involved grave danger to thefaith andmorals ofCatholic children, and that consequently both the natural and theDivine law forbade the attendance ofCatholic children at such schools, unless the proximate danger could be removed. At the same time, the Sacred Congregation admitted the possible existence of causes which would excuseCatholicparents in the matter, and it was left to theconscience and judgement of thebishop to decide in each case. This "Instruction" led up to theeducational legislation of the ThirdPlenary Council of Baltimore in 1884. The need was generally felt byCatholics for more precise and specific legislation in reference to the schools, bothparochial and public. In somedioceses, it meant exclusion from thesacraments forparents to send their children to the public schools; in others, it appeared to be made a matter of little or no account. The legislation enacted by the Council fully answered the general expectation. It defined theobligations imposed by the moral law uponparents in the matter of the religiouseducation of their children. It provided for the case in which children were practically compelled by circumstances to attend the public schools. At the same time, it sought to give more specific application to its own legislation as well as that of previous Councils by the followingdecree:--

Other decrees of the Council dealt with the question of the improvement of the schools. The more important of these will be referred to in the course of this article.

Attendance

The total number ofparish schools in theUnited States according to the "Catholic Directory" of 1910, was 4845, with an attendance of 1,237,251. The total number of pupils inCatholic educational institutions of all kinds the same year, including colleges, academies, industrial, reformatory, and eleemosynary schools, was 1,450,488.

Teachers

On the basis of an average of forty pupils to a teacher, the above figures imply that there are about 31,000 teachers engaged in theparish schools of theUnited States. Fully nine-tenths of these belong to religious institutes. The proportion of lay teachers to religious varies greatly with locality. In certain districts the lay teachers are very numerous; in most of thedioceses, however, they constitute but a small fraction of the whole number. The number of male teachers is also relatively small, amounting to not more than one-fifteenth of the total. The religious teachers are divided among two hundred and seventy-five distinct teaching bodies, including independentconvents as well as congregations or orders. There are eleven teaching brotherhoods. Many of the religious organizations have less than one hundred members, others have several thousand. The largest, the School Sisters of Notre Dame, has nearly four thousand religious. The work of some is limited to a single diocese, while others have schools and branch establishments scattered through a large number of states. As a rule, the teaching orders have extended their work wherever opportunity offered, regardless of state ordiocesan boundaries. The result of this has been to makeparish schooleducation remarkably homogeneous, as compared with the public school system.

Many of these teaching bodies, although at present entirely independent of each other, have sprung from a common parent organization. Thus, there are twenty-four independent establishments of theBenedictine Sisters, twenty of theDominicans, twenty-two of theFranciscans, twenty-two of theSisters of St. Joseph, forty-six of theSisters of Mercy, eighteen of theUrsulines, and twenty of the Visitation Sisters. The mother-houses or central establishments of these communities are generally located in theUnited States. Religious communities inCanada have responded generously to the demand for teachers in the States, especially in New England, where theFrench-Canadian immigration has been so large, and eighteen of theCanadian teaching congregations now have branch establishments in this country. Eleven communities look to mother-houses inFrance. Besides these, seven communities have their mother-houses inBelgium, six inGermany, four inItaly, and one each inHolland,Switzerland, andEngland.

Candidates for admission to thereligious life are required to spend at least one year in thenovitiate. In the case of the teaching orders, thenovitiate may be regarded as a normal school in which pedagogical training goes hand in hand with instruction in the principles of thereligious life. Before entrance into thenovitiate, the candidate has to pass through a preliminary course of instruction in the secular branches, and this course covers not less than two years. The rules of all the teaching orders thus provide for a normal training lasting for at least three years. Previous to the ThirdPlenary Council of Baltimore, however, owing to the demand for teachers, the pre-novitiate course was frequently abbreviated, and sometimes even omitted altogether. The consequence was that teachers were often insufficiently trained for their work, and the instruction in the schools suffered accordingly. The legislation of the Third Plenary Council went far towards remedying thisevil, by providing that regular normal schools should be established by the communities where they did not already exist, and that candidates should be allowed to remain in these schools until they had satisfactorily completed the prescribed work:--

"In order that there may be always ready a sufficient number ofCatholic teachers, each thoroughly equipped for the holy and sublime work ofeducation of youth, we would have thebishops concerned confer with the superiors of congregations dedicated to the work of teaching in the schools, either directly on their own authority or, if need be, invoking the authority of the Sacred Congregation, for the establishment of normal schools where they do not yet exist and there is need for them. These are to be in suitable establishments, in which the young may be trained by skilful and capable teachers, during a sufficient period oftime and with a truly religious diligence, in the various studies andsciences, in method and pedagogy, and other branches pertaining to a sound training for teaching".

In order to give effect to thislegislation, the Council decreed the establishment of school boards in eachdiocese for the examination of teachers, and made it unlawful to engage a teacher for a school who had not obtained a diploma from thediocesan examiners:--

"Within a year from thepromulgation of the Council, thebishops shall name one or morepriests who are most conversant with school affairs, to constitute adiocesan board of examination. It shall be the office of this board to examine all teachers, whether they are religious belonging to adiocesan congregation or seculars, who wish to employ themselves in teaching in theparochial schools in the future, and, if they find them worthy, to grant a testimonial or diploma of merit. Without this nopriest may lawfully engage any teacher for his school, unless they have taught before the celebration of the Council. The diploma will be valid for five years. After this period, another and final examination will be required of the teachers.

"Besides this board for the examination of teachers for the whole diocese, thebishops, in accordance with the diversity of place or language, shall appoint several school boards, composed of one or severalpriests, to examine the schools in cities or rural districts. Theduty of these boards shall be to visit and examine each school in their district once or even twice a year, and to transmit to the president of thediocesan board, for the information and guidance of thebishop, an accurate account of the state of the schools".

Only lay teachers and religious belonging to adiocesan community were named as being bound by thislegislation, but indirectly it affected allCatholic teachers. Owing to the lack of teachers, it was frequently found difficult to enforce the requirement of adiocesan diploma, to be gained by a formal examination. It may be said, however, that the legislation of the Council had the desired effect. All thereligious communities now have well-equipped normal schools, and candidates, unless they come with superior qualifications, are usually required to complete the full curriculum. Summer normal schools are also conducted at the leading mother-houses, the courses lasting for a month or six weeks. In manydioceses, too, summer institutes are held, the religious and lay teachers of thediocese being assembled for the purpose during a week or two at some convenient place.

Curriculum

The curriculum of theparish school comprises eight elementary grades. There is a class incatechism daily, and Bible history is also taught several times a week. In the singing-class, devotionalhymns are used, and the school-sessions are opened and closed byprayers or brief devotional exercises. Outside of these religious instructions and practices, it may be said that the curriculum of theCatholicparish school does not differ much from the curriculum of the corresponding public school, except that there is a stronger tendency in the former to emphasize the importance of those branches that are commonly designated as "the Three R's". DistinctivelyCatholic textbooks are employed quite generally, especially in the lower grades. Textbooks in common use in the public schools are, however, frequently used in the teaching of the purely secular subjects. In the matter of uniformity, somedioceses have gone much farther than others. In some, a common curriculum, with fixed recitation-periods, is prescribed for the schools, together with an authorized series of textbooks; in others, a common curriculum is prescribed, but the selection of textbooks and the fixing of recitation-periods is left to thepastors and principals; in many others, again, thediocesan authorities have not imposed any official standards of uniformity in these respects, except in the matter of religious instruction.

Organization and administration

Three elements of authority are concerned in the conduct of theparish school, thepastor, the superiors of the teachers, and thebishop. Thepastor has, besides the financial responsibility, immediate supervision over the school with respect to the faithful and efficient fulfilment of its work, and occupies by right the position of the school principal. Practically, however, he shares the responsibility of this position with the religious superior in charge of the school. The supervision of the work of the school, in most instances, is really left largely to the immediate religious superior. The higher religious superiors, having control of the supply of teachers and of the teachers' training as well as a supervision of the teaching in a large number of schools, enjoy a practical power over their schools that is comparable in some respects with that of thebishop. Thebishop, nevertheless, possesses the supreme control over all the schools of hisdiocese, subject only to the regulations of the Councils and of higher authority. It is chiefly from thebishops that movements looking towards the betterment of the schools have come. And the trend ofCatholic school development is strongly towards an increase of the exercise of the episcopal authority over the schools.

Bishop Neumann of Philadelphia in 1852 attempted adiocesan organization ofCatholic schools, by instituting a "Central Board of Education", to be composed of thepastor and two lay delegates from each of theparishes in Philadelphia, and to be presided over by thebishop. But the project appears to have been in advance of the times. In 1879 Bishop Joseph Dwenger ofFort Wayne,Indiana, organized a school board, consisting of eleven members and a secretary, all beingpriests. The board was to have control of studies and textbooks in the schools of thediocese, to examine teachers, and to gather statistical information about the schools. The effect was seen to be so wholesome that the Fort Wayne plan was adopted by the FourthProvincial Council ofCincinnati in 1882, with an additional provision for dependent local school boards in the larger places. When the ThirdPlenary Council of Baltimore met, two years later, it practically adopted the Cincinnati plan for all thedioceses. Although the Council speaks only of a central "board of examination", and would appear, therefore, to limit the functions of this board to the examination and approval of teachers, it was expected, nevertheless, that more ample powers would be conferred on these boards by thebishops, and this in fact was done. Bishop Gilmour's "Constitution and By-Laws for the Government of the Parochial Schools" ofCleveland, issued in 1887, may be taken as typical ofdiocesan legislation generally in this regard. According to this "Constitution" the central board was to be made up of seven members, who were to be examiners of teachers as well as inspectors of schools in their respective districts. The board was vested with full control over theparish schools, under thebishop. Local boards were also instituted, to consist of three, five, or seven members, who were to visit and examine each school within their respective localities at least once a year.

The board system represented an important advance in the work ofCatholic school organization, and had everywhere a quickening effect. It soon became evident, however, that the system was still far from perfect. The men selected to serve on the boards, while devoted to the interests of the schools, were too busily engaged with otherduties to give more than a small share of their time to the work. Besides this, few if any of them had had any formal pedagogical training. There was need, it was seen, of an executive officer of the central Board who should be specially qualified for the work of inspection and supervision, and who should devoted his entire time to this task. The New York school board took the lead in the matter, and in the year 1888 appointed the Rev. William J. Degnan as inspector of schools. He was succeeded in the office the following year by the Rev. Michael J. Considine, who served in this capacity until the year 1900. The title of inspector was changed to that of superintendent. TheDiocese of Omaha adopted the plan in 1891. The Rev. John W. Shanahan, laterBishop ofHarrisburg, was appointed superintendent of schools for theArchdiocese of Philadelphia in 1894. Soon he added a new and important feature to the system; this was the appointment, for each teaching order in thediocese, of a community inspector of schools, theidea being that the recommendations of the superintendent in regard to the teachers and teaching would be more easily made as well as more effectively carried out through the co-operation of competent authorized representatives of the respective teaching bodies. The system ofdiocesan organization, as thus developed, consisted of a central board, with a superintendent of schools, and a board of community inspectors acting in conjunction with the superintendent in the inspection of schools and in the carrying out of the regulations of the board. In this form, the system has heen adopted by otherdioceses, and is gradually replacing the older or simple "board" system. Sixteendioceses have at present introduced the "superintendent" system, while thirty-seven still adhere to the original "board" plan.

Financial support

Catholicparish schools are either "free" or "pay" schools. The latter are supported by the tuition fees of the pupils, paid to the head of the school. Free schools are usually supported by theparish treasury, although here and there schools are found whose expenses have been provided for, in whole or in part, by the endowment of some generous individual. The general tendency is towards free schools, and even where tuition fees are relied on, it is usuallynecessary for theparish to provide for part of the school's expense. Teachers generally receive from $200 to $300 per year if members of a sisterhood, and from $300 to $400 per year if members of a brotherhood. In severaldioceses the salaries are higher than this, and within recent years a movement for the increase of teachers' salaries has been gaining ground. Lay teachers employed in theparish schools receive but little more than religious. Generally speaking,Catholic teachers' salaries are less than one-half as much as the salaries of corresponding teachers in the public schools, and the actual cost of schooling under theCatholic system is only about one-third of what it is under the public school system. It has been estimated that the average annual per capita cost ofparish schooleducation in theUnited States is $8. This would mean that theeducation of the 1,237,251 pupils in theparish schools during the year 1909-10 cost approximately, for that year, $9,898,008. Theeducation of the same pupils in the public schools the same year would, according to the estimate referred to, cost approximately $30,511,010; and if the annual interest on thenecessaryproperty investment were added, the total would be upwards of 34,000,000 (American Eccles. Review, XLIV, 530). This is, therefore, about the amount of money that theCatholic school system saves annually to the States.

Catholic schools and the State

Catholic schools are thus, in general, entirely supported by thevoluntary contributions ofCatholics. For a considerable period after the Revolution, however,Catholic schools in many places were, along with the schools of otherdenominations, supported from the public funds. This was the case in Lowell,Massachusetts, from 1835 to 1852. In the City of New York, it was also the case until the year 1824. The efforts of Bishop Hughes, in 1840 and subsequently, to restore this condition, were without the hoped-for success. Gradually, State after State framedlaws forbidding the payment of public funds to denominational schools and many States even embodied such provisions in their constitutions. Several plans for avoiding the legal barriers that were thus raised against the attainment of theirrights in the matter of theeducation of their children have been proposed and put to trial byCatholics, with the co-operation of their fair-minded non-Catholic fellow-citizens. One of the most celebrated of these was the "Poughkeepsie Plan", which was accepted by the public school board of Poughkeepsie, New York, in 1873. Under this plan, the school board rented theCatholic school buildings for a nominal sum, and accepted the twoCatholic schools of the place as public schools under the common regulations framed for the public schools, theCatholic teachers, who werenuns, continuing as before and receiving their salaries from the board. The board agreed likewise to keep the school buildings in repair. The plan proved to be mutually satisfactory, and was continued for many years. Substantially the same arrangement was made in several other places in theState of New York. The arrangement was discontinued at Poughkeepsie in 1899, only when the superintendent of public instruction intervened, and rendered a decision adverse to its constitutionality. AtLima, in the same state, a similar decision was rendered by the superintendent in 1902, and the appeal against this to the courts resulted finally in a judgment of the supreme court of the State, which sustained the action of the superintendent.

The famous "Faribault Plan" was an arrangement substantially the same as that at Poughkeepsie which Archbishop Ireland effected with the school boards of Faribault and Stillwater, inMinnesota, in 1891. There was considerable opposition on the part ofCatholics, however, to such arrangements, one of the chief reasons being that religious instructions, under the agreement, had to be given outside of the regular school hours. An appeal toRome in the Faribault case resulted in the decision "Tolerari potest", 21 April, 1892, which authorized the continuance of the arrangement under the specific circumstances. The controversy amongCatholics had the effect of concentrating public attention upon the matter, and of arousing slumbering anti-Catholic prejudice. The Paribault Plan is still in operation in some places; and in various parts of the country, especially in the west, whereCatholic settlements are numerous, there areCatholic schools which derive their support from the public school boards. But such arrangements are purely local. In certain states, recent legal decisions authorize the attendance of pupils from theparish schools at the manual training classes in the public schools.

In connexion with these practical plans for the settlement of the "school question" there has been frequent discussion amongCatholic educators and apologists as to therights of the State in respect toeducation.Dr. Brownson would deny to the State theright toeducate, in the strict and proper sense of the term, although he conceded to it theright to establish and maintain public schools. This was the view more generally held by AmericanCatholic educators. In the year 1891 theRev. Thomas Bouquillon, D.D., professor ofmoral theology at the Catholic University, Washington, issued a pamphlet in which he maintained that the State has theright toeducate, in the sense that it has the right of "establishing schools, appointing teachers, prescribing methods and programmes of study"; and that "education belongs to men taken individually and collectively in legitimate association, to thefamily, to the state, to the church, to all four together, and not to any one of these four factors separately". These views aroused a storm of controversy which lasted for several years, and engaged the attention not only ofCatholics in theUnited States but of the wholeCatholic world. The efforts ofCardinal Satolli to settle the question by means of a series of fourteen propositions which he submitted to the board ofarchbishops at their meeting in New York, in the autumn of 1892, were futile; and the agitation subsided only whenPope Leo XIII addressed a letter to the Americanhierarchy through Cardinal Gibbons in May, 1893, in which, while appealing for the cessation of the controversy, he declared that the decrees of the Baltimore Councils were to be steadfastly observed in determining the attitude to be maintained byCatholics in respect both toparish and to public schools.

Schools of foreign nationalities

One of the most difficult problems that has confronted theChurch in theUnited States has been theeducation of the children of the immigrants arriving from foreign shores and speaking a foreign language. These immigrants were poor, and yet, if their descendants were to be saved to the Faith, it was imperative thatCatholic schools and teachers should be provided for them, as well as churches. The missionarypriests who came to minister to the immigrants were, as a rule, keenly alive to the importance of theCatholic school, and, acting in conjunction with the Americanbishops, they have, to a great extent, overcome the difficulties that stood in the way and built up flourishing systems of schools. The chief difficulty, besides poverty of material resources, was that of the securing of competent teachers. Lay teachers were commonly employed at first. Little by little, however, religious were introduced, colonies of religious teachers being brought from abroad for this purpose, and even newreligious communities founded here. Some of these communities rew rapidly, and they have furnished a constantly increasing supply of teachers for these schools.

The Polish schools have the largest aggregate attendance. They are scattered all over the country, but are especially numerous in the large industrial centres. There were, in 1910, 293 Polishparishes with schools, having an attendance of 98,126 and with 1767 teachers, the great majority of these being religious. Next in number come the French schools, most of which belong to theFrench-Canadians, and are located in New England. These schools in 1910 numbered 161, with 1480 teachers, and a total attendance of 63,048. TheItalians, although they compare in numerical strength with the Poles and French, are far behind them in the matter of provision forCatholiceducation. There were but 48 Italian schools in 1910, with 271 teachers, and an attendance of 13,838.Bohemian schools, the same year, had an attendance of 8978; Slovak schools, 7419; and Lithuanian schools, 2104, with a corresponding number of teachers of these nationalities. There were formerly many German schools in theUnited States but schools in Germanparishes now generally employ English as the medium of instruction, although German is taught also as one of the regular classes. In the case of the nationalities mentioned above, English is always a part of the curriculum of the schools, and often it is the chief medium of instruction. In Italian schools, very little time is given to the study of Italian, and the same istrue in many of theFrench-Canadian schools. In schools of theSlavic peoples, more time is given, as a rule, to theparental mother-tongue, and it is used conjointly with English as a medium of instruction. In Polish schools, from one-third to one-half of the time is most commonly devoted to the study or the use of the Polish language. Many of the States have attached to their child-labourlaws the condition that a child, even though of employment-age, shall have acquired the ability to read and write English. Legislation has had an influence in the steadily growing predominance of the English language in the schools of the foreign nationalities, but the effect is due in the main to the American life and atmosphere.

Industrial schools

Catholic industrial schools in theUnited States number 117, with an attendance of probably 15,000. Many of these schools are reformatory in character, but a large number are high-grade industrial schools in charge of the teaching orders. There are also manual training classes in many schools, especially in schools for girls.

Schools for negroes and Indians

There are probably near 150,000Catholicnegroes in theUnited States and for these there exist 119Catholic schools, with an attendance of about 8000. Variousreligious communities are in charge, conspicuous among which are two congregations of coloured Sisters, the Oblate Sisters of Providence, founded atBaltimore in 1829, and which now has a membership of 146, and the Sisters of the Holy Family, ofNew Orleans, which was founded in 1842, and has a membership of 112. A collection is taken up annually in all the churches of theUnited States for the mission work among theNegroes and Indians, and many of the schools derive their support from this source.

The number ofCatholic Indians is approximately 100,000. There are 63Catholic Indian schools, with nearly 5000 pupils. About 6000Catholic Indian pupils are beingeducated in the government schools. 55 of theCatholic schools are boarding institutions. Many of these are of an industrial character, the policy ofCatholics in respect to theeducation of the Indians having always been to give prominence to training in the manual and industrial arts. The success of this policy has been often testified to by government inspectors of Indian schools as well as by distinguished American statesmen. A limited support is accorded to these schools by the Federal Government. Under the so-called "Peace Policy" inaugurated by President Grant in 1870, about 80,000Catholic Indians passed fromCatholic toProtestant control. Through the efforts of the Bureau ofCatholic Indian Missions, established some years later, together with the active efforts of members of thehierarchy, a new policy was inaugurated by the Government, under which it entered into contracts with theCatholic authorities concerned to provide for the support ofCatholic Indian schools.Catholic schools multiplied rapidly in consequence until, in 1896, a policy was entered upon which involved the entire discontinuance of appropriations for denominational schools. In the year 1900 appropriations ceased. To keep up the schools, an organization known as the Society for the Preservation of the Faith among Indian Children was founded, and with the contributions from thissociety, together with the annual collection taken up for the purpose, and the donations of generous benefactors, many of theCatholic schools were kept alive. In 1904, under the administration of President Roosevelt, through the work of theCatholic Indian Bureau, a considerable allowance was made to certainCatholic schools by the Government from the Indian tribal funds, in answer to the petitions made byCatholic Indians. This policy has been continued up to the present, and in 1908 the appropriations made toCatholic schools in this way reached the sum of $111,586.90. Prominent among the agencies which have successfully laboured in behalf ofCatholic Indianeducation has been the community ofSisters of the Blessed Sacrament for Indians and Coloured People, which was founded by Mother Katherine Drexel in 1889. Thesenuns now number 143.

Orphanages

The number ofCatholicorphanages. in theUnited States in 1910 was 258: 45,343 children are cared for andeducated in these institutions, which are found in everydiocese, and which are in charge ofreligious communities, generally of Sisters. They are usually supported by theparishes or by thevoluntary contributions of thefaithful. A limited number are endowed. (See alsoEDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB;EDUCATION OF THE BLIND.)

Secondary schools

There are two classes ofCatholic secondary schools in theUnited States those which are intended to prepare pupils for a highereducation, and those which are closely connected with theparish schools and aim to fit at least the greater number of their pupils for active life. The former are found both in colleges for boys and in academies for girls. The latter are sometimes an integral part of theparish school system, or, again, they may be without direct connexion with theparish schools, although intended to complete and round out their work. A report made to theCatholic Educational Association in 1908 showed the existence of 85Catholic colleges for boys, having pupils in collegiate as well as secondary courses. The number of students pursuing collegiate courses was 4232, the number in the secondary or high school departments was 10,137, There is a growing sentiment amongCatholic college men in favour of at least a wider separation of the high school department from the college proper.

In the "Catholic Directory" for 1910, 709 institutions are classed as academies for girls, with an attendance approximating 90,000. The larger number of these institutions have no collegiate departments, and are to be regarded as secondary schools. All the academies have, in fact, high school departments which are generally denominated the "academic course", with the exception of Trinity College, Washington; and nearly all have also elementary schools, divided into the "primary" and "preparatory" departments. Probably over one-half of the above total attendance is in these elementary departments. The greater part of the remaining half is in the academic or high school departments. Many of the larger institutions have developed collegiate departments that compare favourably with those of the best-equipped colleges for boys. The number of these colleges for girls as well as the number of their collegiate students is at present growing rapidly. The curriculum in the larger institutions thus consists of three main divisions, the elementary department, the academic or high school department, and the collegiate department, the latter two covering each four years. The smaller institutions have, as a rule, only the elementary and high school courses, although their high school or "academic" department is sometimes made to include a year or two of collegiate work. Besides these departments, the academies generally have well-graded and thorough courses in art and music, both vocal and instrumental, leading to corresponding honours or diplomas. The ideals of culture represented by these latter features are, in fact, a distinguishing feature of the work of theCatholic academy, and constitute one of its strongest appeals for popular favour and support.

Within the past quarter of a century, manyCatholic secondary schools or high schools have been developed in close connexion with theparish schools. Most often these high schools are directly attached to singleparish schools. In some cases, however, they are "central" high schools, affiliated with a number of inferior schools. Sometimes, too, they stand alone, although receiving their pupils from the upper grades of theparish schools. Some of those which are attached to singleparish schools have only one high school grade, but most of them have from two to four grades. The number of schools with four full grades is rapidly increasing, and there is also a notable tendency towards the establishment of central high schools. A committee of theCatholic Educational Association reported, in the year 1911, the existence of 304Catholic high schools for boys only or for both boys and girls, apart from the academies for girls and the preparatory departments of colleges for boys, with a total attendance of 7902 boys of high school standing and 6160 girls. About one-half of these schools have four full high school grades, and 215 of them have courses in Latin. The total number of high school teachers was 1006: 157 of the schools derive their support from tuition-fees, 164 fromparish revenues, and 5 are endowed. The investigations of the committee revealed the existence of a widespread movement for the development of facilities for secondaryeducation in connexion with theparish school system. The movement springs from a popular demand, and is based on the fundamentalidea ofCatholiceducation. It is evident that the further progress of this movement is destined to have a highly important influence upon theparish schools as well as the academies and colleges. (See alsoCATHOLIC EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.)

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