Poland

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Geography

The western part of the Sarmatian Plain together with the northern slopes of the Carpathians, i.e., the territory included between lat. 46° and 59° N., and between long. 32° and 53° E. of Ferro, with an area of about 435,200 square miles (twice as large asGermany), constituted the former Kingdom of Poland. Very likely Poland received its name on account of its extensive plains (in Polish the word for "field", or "plain", ispole), which are the characteristic feature of its topography. As an independent country (i.e., until the year 1772), Poland was bounded on the north by the Baltic Sea, on the east by the Russian Empire, on the south by the dominions of the Tatars andHungary, on the west byBohemia andPrussia. The rivers of Poland flow either to the north and west, and empty into the Baltic, or flow south into the Black Sea. The rivers that empty into the Baltic are the Oder, Vistula, Niemen, and the western Düna; those that empty into the Black Sea are the Dniester, Boh (Bug), and Dnieper. The climate is universally temperate, and the four seasons are sharply defined. The chief industry has always been agriculture, and little account has ever been made of either commerce or manufactures, although the country was situated on the direct line of communication betweenEurope andAsia.

The various divisions, by the union of which the Kingdom of Poland was formed, still bear their original names. They are: (1) Great Poland, in the basin of the Warthe. Cities: Gnesen, Posen on the Warthe; (2) Kujavia, north of Great Poland, at the foot of the Baltic ridge to the left of the Vistula. City: Bromberg; (3) Little Poland, the basin of the upper and middle Vistula. Cities: Cracow,Sandomir, Czenstochowa, Radom; (4) Silesia, at the headwaters of the Vistula and on the upper Oder, belonged to Poland only until the year 1335. Capital: Breslau; (5) Masovia, in the basin of the middle Vistula. Capital: Warsaw; (6)Pomerania, between the Baltic Sea, the Vistula and Netze. Cities: Kolberg and Danzig; (7)Prussia, originally the country between the Baltic, the Vistula, the Niemen and the Drewenz. Cities: Thorn, Marienburg, and Königsberg; (8) Podlachia, on the rivers Narew, and Bug. City: Bjelsk; (9) Polesia, in the valley of the Pripet. City: Pinsk; (10) Volhynia in the basin of the rivers Styr, Horyn, and Slucz. Cities: Vladimir and Kamenetz; (11) RedRussia, on the Dniester, San, Bug, and Prut. Cities: Sanok, Przemysl,Lemberg, and Kolomyia; (12) Podolia, in the basin of the Strypa, Seret., Sbrucz, and upper Boh. Cities: Kamenetz, on the Smotrycz,Mohileff, on the Dniester, Buczacz; (13) The Ukraine, east of the Dniester in the basin of the Bug and Dnieper. Cities: Kieff, Zhitomir, Poltava, Oczakow, and Cherson; (14) White Russia, on the upper Dnieper, Düna, and Niemen. Cities: Minsk, Vitebsk, and Polotsk; (15) Lithuania, on the middle Niemen, extending to the Düna. Cities: Vilna, Grodno, Kovno; (16) Samland, to the right of the lower Niemen. City: Worme; (17) Courland, on the Gulf of Riga, with the city of Mitau, belonged to Poland only indirectly; (18) Livonia, on the Gulf of Riga, and Esthonia, on the Gulf of Finland, belonged to Poland for a short time only.

Poland was, for the most part, populated by Poles; after the union ofLithuania with Poland were addedRuthenians and Tatars, and furthermore, though in no considerable numbers,Jews,Germans,Armenians, Gipsies, and Letts. As a matter of fact, the Poles inhabited the whole of Great Poland, Little Poland, and a part ofLithuania, as well as part of theRuthenian territory. Moreover, the nobility, the urban population, and the upper and bettereducated classes in general throughout the whole country were either Poles or thoroughly Polonized. The total population was generally given as nine millions. TheRuthenians inhabited the eastern (White and RedRussia), and the south-eastern provinces (RedRussia and the Ukraine). The Lithuanians formed the bulk of the population in Samland and the waywodeships of Wilna and Troki. A political distinction was made between "Crown Poland" and Lithuania. These two divisions, which united after 1569, differed more particularly in that each country had its own officials. After 1569, also, the designation "Republic of Poland" became customary to denote not any definite polity, but a league of states (Lithuania and Crown Poland). Crown Poland was called a kingdom; Lithuania, a grand-duchy. In 1772, 1793, and 1795 the territory of Poland was divided among the three adjoining states: Lithuania and LittleRussia were given toRussia; the purely Polish territories, toPrussia andAustria. The new boundary between these states was formed by the Pilica and the Bug. ThusRussia received 8500 square miles and 6,500,000 inhabitants; Prussia, 2700 square miles and 3,000,000 inhabitants; Austria, 2100 square miles and 4,275,000 inhabitants.

Napoleon took fromPrussia the Polish territories annexed in 1793 and 1795 and out of them formed what he called the Duchy ofWarsaw. New territorial changes were effected by the Congress ofVienna:Prussia received a part of the Duchy ofWarsaw as the Grand duchy of Posen;Russia received the rest of the Duchy ofWarsaw as a separate Kingdom of Poland (Congress Poland);Austria retained the territories previously acquired, under the name of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Galicia now has a population of more than seven millions, of whom somewhat less than four millions are Poles, and 3,074,000,Ruthenians. Grouped according to religion there are 3,350,000Catholics of theLatin Rite, 3,104,000 Greek Uniats, and 811,000Jews.

The San, a tributary of the Vistula, divides Galicia into an eastern and western part. The latter is occupied by the Poles, the former by theRuthenians, though there are also many Poles. For administrative purposes Galicia is divided into seventy-nine districts. Theintellectual centre of the country is Cracow (150,000 inhabitants), but the actual capital is Lemberg (250,000 inhabitants). There are twouniversities, one at Cracow and one atLemberg, one polytechnic institute atLemberg, and one commercial academy in each of these two cities. In the Polish provinces belonging toPrussia there are approximately four million Poles. In Silesia they constitute two-thirds of the population; they are also found on the Baltic and in the provinces of East and WestPrussia, being most numerous (more than 1,500,000) in the Grand duchy of Posen. The capital, Posen, numbers about 150,000 inhabitants. Among the Poles theCatholic religion predominates. The Poles under Russian rule are found chiefly in Congress Poland; also, in small numbers, inLithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine. The total probably amounts to nine millions. The capital of Russian Poland is Warsaw, with 800,000 inhabitants. The GreekUniatBishopric of Chelm (Kholm), situated within the boundaries of the Kingdom of Poland, was compelled by force to accept theschism in 1875; however, since 1905, a large majority of the former Uniats have returned to theCatholicChurch.

Political history

At the period when the authentic history of Poland begins, theGermans had already become the most powerful nation ofEurope, and their kings sought to extend their dominion to theSlavic tribes beyond the Elbe. The latter were very soon partly exterminated, partly subjugated. The eastern boundary ofGermany was advanced as far as the Oder; beyond this was Polish territory. But the German armies did not halt there; in the neighbourhood of where Frankfort now stands they crossed the Oder and attacked the Polish strongholds. Mieszko, the Polish ruler of Posen (962-92), acknowledged the German Emperor as his lord paramount, promising to pay a yearly tribute, and upon demand to aid him with an armed force. In 963 Mieszko bound himself and his people to embraceChristianity.Christian missionaries were at once sent to Poland; the firstbishopric was that of Posen, which was placed under the supervision of the Germanarchbishop atMagdeburg. This was the first contact of the Poles withEuropean civilization. FromGermany andBohemia numerous missionaries entered the country tobaptize the people, while from all the Western countries came immigrants andmonks, andconvents began to be built. The spread ofChristianity was greatly furthered by the two wives of Prince Mieszko: first, Dabrowska, a sister of the King ofBohemia, and then Oda, formerly anun whom Mieszko had married after the death of Dabrowska. Prince Mieszko considered himself a vassal of thepope, and as such paid him tribute. From this time on, theChurch contributes so much to the national development that it will be impossible to trace intelligently the political history of Poland without at the same time following itsecclesiastical development.

Poland had hardly begun to play a part in history when it acquired extraordinary power. This was in the reign of the famous Boleslaw Chrobry (992-1025), the eldest son of the first Polish ruler. His dominions included all the lands from the Baltic to the country beyond the Carpathians, and from the River Oder to the provinces beyond the Vistula. He had at his command, ready for instant service, a well-equipped army of 20,000 men. In spite of his great power, Boleslaw continued to pay the customary tribute toGermany. By his discreet diplomacy he was successful in obtaining the consent of thepope, as well as of the German emperor, to the erection of anarchiepiscopal see atGnesen, and thus the Polish Church was relieved of its dependence upon Germanarchbishops. To emphasize Poland's independence ofGermany, Boleslaw assumed the title of king, beingcrowned by the newly createdarchbishop ofGnesen in 1024. Theclergy in Poland were at that time exclusively of foreign birth; intimate relations between them and the people were therefore impossible. The latter did not become enthusiastic about the new religion, nor yet did they return topaganism, for severe penalties, such as knocking out the teeth for violating the precept offasting, maintained obedience to theclergy among the people.

After the death of Chrobry disaster befell the Poles. Their neighbours attacked them on all sides. The son of Boleslaw, Mieczyslaw II (1025-34), unable to cope with his enemies, yielded allegiance to the emperor and lost the title of king. After his death there was an interregnum (1034-40) marked by a series of violent revolutions. Hosts of rebellious peasants traversed the country from end to end, furiously attacked castles,churches, andconvents, andmurdered noblemen andecclesiastics. In Masoviapaganism was re-established. Casimir, a son of Mieczyslaw II, surnamed the Restorer, recovered the reins of government, with the aid ofHenry VIII, restored law and order, and rooted outidolatry. At his death the sovereignty devolved upon his son, Boleslaw II, Smialy (1058-79). This ruler was favoured by fortune in his warlike undertakings. His success at last led him to enter upon a conflict with the emperor. Conditions at the time were favourable to his securing political independence. TheEmperor Henry IV was engaged in a struggle for supremacy withPope Gregory VII, who allied himself with the vassal princes hostile to the emperor, among them Boleslaw Smialy, to whom he sent the kingly crown. Poland revolted from the empire, and the Polish Church began a reform in accordance withGregory's decrees. By the leading nobles Boleslaw was thoroughlyhated as a despot; the masses of the people murmured under the burden of incessantwars; theclergy opposed the energetic reformation of theChurch, which the king was carrying on, their opposition being particularly directed againstGregory'sdecree enforcing thecelibacy of the clergy. The dissatisfied elements rose and placed themselves under the protection ofBohemia, Bishop Stanislaw even placed the king under the ban of theChurch, while the king declared thebishop guilty of high treason for allying himself withBohemia and the emperor. The king's sentence was terribly executed atCracow, where thebishop was done to death and hewn in pieces. In the civilwar which ensued Boleslaw was worsted and compelled to take refuge inHungary.

After his death Poland had to pass through severe and protracted struggles to maintain its independence. Towards the end of the eleventh century its power was broken by theBohemians and Germans, and it was once more reduced to the condition of an insignificant principality, under the incompetent Wladislaw Herman (1081-1101). At this period theclergy constituted the onlyeducated class of the entire population, but they were foreigners, and the natives joined their ranks but slowly. At all events they are entitled to extraordinary credit for the diffusion of learning in Poland. Theconvents were at that time the centres of learning; themonks taught the people improved methods of cultivating the soil, and built inns andhospitals. During the whole of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Poland was in a most unfortunate condition. Boleslaw III, Krzywousty (1112-39), at his death divided the country into principalities, which were bequeathed to his sons as hereditary possessions. The eldest son was to receive the territory of Cracow, with his capital atCracow, and to be the overlord of the whole country. In course oftime the other sons again divided their lands among their children, and thus Poland was split up into smaller and smaller principalities — a process whichproved fatal. The overlords were unable to effect permanent reforms; Wladislaw II (1139-46), Boleslaw the Curly-haired (1146-73), Mieczyslaw the Old (1173-77), Casimir II the Just (1177-94), Mieczyslaw the Old (supreme for the second time, 1194-1202), Wladislaw III (1202-06). The only spiritual bond that held the dismembered parts of Poland together was theChurch. With this in mind Leszek the Wise (1206-27) increased popular respect for theclergy by giving them theright to elect theirbishops, and territorialjurisdiction over church lands. His brother, Prince Conrad of Masovia, about this time summoned theknights of theTeutonic Order. Theheathen tribes on the borders of Poland — Jazygians,Lithuanians, andPrussians — were constantly making predatory incursions into the country. ThePrussians, who had settled east of the Vistula, were active in these raids.

To put an end to this state of things a knightly order established by Germans in Palestine was summoned by Conrad for the conquest andChristianization ofPrussia. TheseKnights of the Cross, so called from the black cross upon their white cloaks, established themselves on the Vistula in 1228. They were also known as theTeutonic Knights (Deutschen Ritter). In a short time they exterminated thePrussians, to replace whom German colonists were brought into the land, forming a powerful state controlled by the order, a state of strictly German character, which soon directed its attacks against Poland. The condition of Poland, meanwhile, was disastrously affected by another cause: it was subdivided into about thirty small states, and the supreme princes, Henry I the Bearded (1232-38), Henry II the Pious (1238-41), Boleslaw (1243-79), Leszek the Black (1279-88), Henry Probus (1288-90), Przemyslaw II (1290-95), and Waclaw II (1290-1305), could find no remedy for theevil. Moreover, in the years 1241 and 1259 the Tatars invaded the country, completely devastated it, and carried off vast multitudes into captivity. The territories thus depopulated were then occupied by well organized colonies fromGermany. In the early thirteenth and late fourteenth centuries these colonists became possessed with a desire to seize the sovereign power in the State, weakened as it was by sub-division. But the magnates of Poland decided to oppose this scheme resolutely. Theclergy issued instructions atsynods against the admission ofGermans tochurch benefices, the church being the only power that could supply any means of firm national organization. TheArchbishop ofGnesen was the supreme religious head of all the Polish principalities. Theclergy of the time, having been for fully a century native Poles, cultivated the Polish language in the churches andschools. It was among theclergy that the opposition to the German influence first took form. Above all, it was theclergy who took active measures to bring about the union of the various divisions of Poland into one great kingdom.

Circumstances favoured this plan. For during this period of incessant civilwars, Tatar invasions, famine, contagious diseases, conflagrations, and floods, thepiety of the common people was remarkable. Never before or after was the number ofhermits andpilgrims so large, never was the building ofconvents carried on so extensively. Princes, princesses, nobles, andknights entered the various orders; large sums of money were given for religious foundations. To this period belong the Polishsaints whom theChurch has recognized. Theclergy gained extraordinary influence. In the convent-schools singing and preaching was henceforth carried on in the Polish language. Germans were not admitted to the higher dignities of theChurch. At the same time the Polishclergy prepared to bring about a union of the several states into which the country was divided. This was accomplished after many years ofwar by the energetic prince Wladislaw, surnamed the Short (1305-33). He determined, furthermore, to have himselfcrowned king. After receiving the kingly crown from thepope, hecrowned himself in the city of Cracow (1320). His whole reign was spent inwarfare; in a way, he restored Poland and preserved it from foreign domination. His son and successor, Casimir the Great (1333-70), undertook to restore order in the internal affairs of the realm, demoralized by a century of almost uninterruptedwarfare. He promoted agriculture, the trades, and commerce; he built fortresses and cities, constructed highways, drained marshes, founded villages, extended populareducation, defended thelaws made them known to the people by collecting them into a code (1347), established a supreme court at Cracow (1366), and offered a refuge in Poland to theJews, who were then everywherepersecuted. He also founded auniversity at Cracow (1364) and organized a militia. When he inherited the Principality of Halicz (Galicia), a part of LittleRussia, he brought this district to a high degree of prosperity by his policies. Casimir died without issue, and with him the Piast dynasty became extinct.

During Casimir's reign theclergy, on account of their services in bringing about the unification of the kingdom, gained extraordinary popularity, all the more because they were the onlyeducated element of the nation. There were sevenreligious orders:Benedictines,Templars,Cistercians,Dominicans,Franciscans, Lateran Canons, and Præmonstratensians. Libraries andschools were to be found only in theconvents, where, also, thepoor, the sick, and the crippled received comfort and help. Besides promoting religion, some of theconvents, especially those of theCistercians, sought to promote agriculture by clearing forests, laying out gardens, and introducing new varieties of fruits, etc. TheCistercians employed the lay members attached to their order in manual labour, under strict regulations, in their fields, gardens and workshops. TheNorbertine,Cistercian,Dominican,Franciscan, andBenedictinenuns devoted themselves more particularly to theeducation of girls. Laymen despised learning as something unworthy of them. On the other hand, theclergy only unwillingly admittedlaymen into theirschools, which they regarded as preparatory institutions for those intending to take orders. The firstschools were established by theBenedictines at Tyniec, but as early as the thirteenth century this order, composed for the most part of foreign-born members, ceased teaching. Thesecular clergy establishedschools in thecathedral, collegiate, andparish churches.

While Casimir still lived the nobility elected as his successor Louis, King ofHungary (1370-82), who assumed the regency without opposition immediately after Casimir's death. Under him the relations existing between the people and the Crown underwent substantial changes. Louis had no sons, only daughters, and he was anxious that one of these should occupy the Throne of Poland. With this object in view he began to treat with the Polish nobles. The nobles assented to his plan and in return received numerous privileges. Thereafter there was bargaining and haggling with each new king, a course which finally resulted in the complete limitation of the royal power. On the other hand, the despotism of the aristocracy increased in proportion as the power of the kings declined, greatly to the detriment of the other estates of the realm. Louis was succeeded, after much hesitation on her part, by Queen Hedwig (Jadwiga), in the year 1384. The Poles urged her marriage to Jagiello, or Jagellon, the Prince of Lithuania, but on condition that he and all his people should embraceChristianity. As soon as Jagiello had accepted this proposal and had beenbaptized, he wascrowned King of Poland (1386-1434) — on the strength of being the consort of Queen Hedwig. Soon after the close of thecoronation festivities at Cracow a large body ofecclesiastics crossed intoLithuania, where, after a short resistance on the part of theheathenpriests, the people werebaptized in vast multitudes. One of the most important tasks of the united kingdom of Poland and Lithuania was the final reckoning with theTeutonic Knights, whose power still threatened both countries. In 1409 began awar which was signalized by the crushing defeat of the order at Tannenberg-Grnfelde. The battle of Tannenberg broke for all time the power of the order, and placed Poland among the great powers ofEurope. Until then Poland had been looked upon as a semi-civilized country, where the natives were little better than savages, and culture was represented by the Germanclergy and colonists. With the battle at Tannenberg this period of disrepute was at an end.

The influence of the Polishclergy was still further increased after the union of Poland and Lithuania. The royal chancery was administered byclerics. Theclergy now (1413-16) caused the adoption of a whole series of enactments againstheresy with especially severe provisions againstapostates. In the generalsynods, in which the Polishclergy had formerly been classed as German, its representatives in the course oftime received even greater attention, and the candidacy of Polish church dignitaries for thepapal Throne was considered in all seriousness. Polishecclesiastics brought it about that the adherents of the Eastern Schism in the Province of Halicz (Galicia) made their submission to theHoly See at Florence in 1439. Jagiello's son Wladislaw (1434-44) in the year 1440 accepted the Hungarian Crown also, in order that, with the united forces of the two kingdoms, he might successfully resist the power of theTurks. He gained a brilliant victory over theTurks (1443), but, continuing thewar at thepope's instance, in spite of the treaty of peace, met with disaster, and fell in the battle of Varna. His successors, Casimir the Jagellon (1447-92), John Albert (1492-1501), and Alexander (1501-06), wrought for the welfare of the State with varying success. The son of Alexander, Sigismund I (1506-48), sought to consolidate his military power and replenish his treasury. He succeeded in redeeming the mortgaged estates of the Crown, but could not obtain the consent of the nobility to the formation of a standing army and the payment of regular taxes. Sigismund also carried on severalwars — with the Russians, the Tatars, and the Wallachians. In his reign, too, the secularization of the domains of the Teutonic order took place. The grand master, Albert, with the whole chapter and a majority of theknights,abjured their allegiance to the emperor, and adoptedLutheranism, an example followed by a large part of thePrussian nobility and all the commonalty. At the same time the land which had heretofore belonged to the order was proclaimed as a secularPrussian principality. Poland, desirous of continuing its suzerainty overPrussia, sanctioned these changes (1525), on condition, however, that Albert should swear allegiance to the Polish king. Albert accepted these terms, andPrussia accordingly became a fief of the Jagellons.

Towards the end of Sigismund's reign, between 1530 and 1540, a powerful tendency towards reform in religious matters manifested itself throughout Poland. This reform was indeednecessary. At the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century theclergy were thoroughly depraved. As a memorial, presented to thepapal nuncio by the better elements, proves, thebishops were concerned only about the attainment of new dignities and the collection of their revenues; they oppressed the labourers on church lands, keeping them at work even onSundays and holy days; thepriests were uneducated and in many cases were only half-grown youths; theclergy were venal;monks dressed in silken robes often shared in the carousals of the nobility. The noblesenvied the flourishing estates of theclergy. Thus a fruitful soil was provided for the spread ofheresies in Poland. The spread of Hussite doctrines was not arrested until as late as 1500. The aristocracy, especially the younger members, who had attended foreignuniversities, now began to turn more and more toCalvinism, because this religion gavelaymen a voice in matters affecting the church. Complete freedom of speech andbelief was introduced. From all sides theReformers, driven from other countries on account of their teachings, migrated to Poland, bringing with them a multiplicity ofsects. The depravedclergy were unable to maintain their supremacy. Zebrzydowski,Bishop ofCracow, was wont to say openly: "You maybelieve in what you will, provided you pay me thetithe". Moreover, many of theclergy married. The aristocracy regarded the new doctrines as an advance upon the old, drove theCatholicpriests from the villages, substitutedProtestant preachers, and ordered their dependents to attend theCalvinistic or Hussite devotions. But the common people opposed this propaganda.

TheReformation failed in Poland; but it stimulated theintellectual activity of the Poles and contributed very largely to the creation of a national Polish literature in place of the hitherto prevalent Latin literature. The sectarians were compelled to employ the vernacular in their addresses, if their teachings were to be effective with the masses. TheReformation gained momentum and growth especially after the death of Sigismund I, when his son Sigismund Augustus (1548-72) succeeded him. There was at the time much discussion as to convoking anational synod and establishing a national Church, independent ofRome. The representatives of variousdenominations in 1550 demanded the abolition of theecclesiastical courts and complete religious liberty; they furthermore proposed the confiscation of church lands, the permission of marriage to theclergy, and communion in both kinds. But the king would not consent to these demands. The diet even passed stringentlaws against theProtestant agitators, placing them on the footing ofpersons guilty of high treason. Nevertheless adecree was issued forbidding the payment of any and all tribute to thepope; at the same time theecclesiastical courts were deprived ofjurisdiction in cases ofheresy, and thecivil power was no longerobliged to execute their sentences. Theheretics, however, did not gain complete equality ofrights under thelaw. This curtailment of their liberty was because thesects were at variance with one another and because, furthermore, theReformation was hardly more than a matter of fashion with the magnates, while the gentry and common people remained true to theChurch; so that theheretics were unable to secure a majority in any part of Poland.

Still the number ofCatholic churches converted toProtestant uses amounted to 240 in Great Poland and more than 400 in Little Poland, in addition to which the varioussects had built 80 new churches, while inLithuania, whereCalvinism was particularly prevalent, there were 320 Reformed churches. As many as 2000families of the nobility had abandoned the Faith. But theProtestants, although a very considerable portion of the population, were rendered incapable of successful effort by endless dissensions, while theCatholics, led byHosius,Bishop ofErmland, sought to strengthen their position more and more. The latter took advantage of all the blunders committed by the sectarians, organized the better part of the Polishclergy, and with great energy carried into effect the reforming decrees of theCouncil of Trent. Furthermore, theCatholics adopted all that was good in the policy of theheretics. Polish works no longer appeared in Latin but in Polish, and it was even decided to translate theHoly Scripture into Polish. In the field ofscience theJesuits also developed great activity after the year 1595. As a result of these measures, the dissidents steadily lost ground; the Senate and the Diet were exclusivelyCatholic. The plan of creating a national Church lost ground, and at last was entirely abandoned (1570).

Sigismund Augustus endeavoured to bring the nations under his sway into closer relations with one another, and he succeeded in effecting the union of Poland with LittleRussia and Lithuania at the Diet ofLublin (1569), after which these three countries formed what was called the Republic (see above, under 1). With Sigismund the House of Jagiello came to an end. After his death theArchbishop ofGnesen,Primate of Poland, assumed the reins of government during the interregnum. As early as the reign of Sigismund the Old, the nobility had secured a fundamental law in virtue of which the king was to be elected not by the Senate but by the entire nobility. After the death of Sigismund the nobles elected Henry of Valois king (1574). But after five months, upon receiving news of his brother's death, he secretly left Poland to assume the Crown ofFrance. Stephen Bathori, Prince ofTransylvania, was next chosen king. His wise administration (1576-86) had many good results, more particularly in extending the boundaries of the kingdom. After his death theSwedish prince, Sigismund III, of the House of Vasa (1587-1632) was elected. This king was one of the mostzealous champions ofCatholicism. His main object was, besides completely checking the propaganda of theReformation, to give Poland a stable form of government. In the very first years of his reignCatholicism gained considerably. At this time, also, theJesuits came into Poland in larger numbers and very soon made their influence felt among the entire population. Theirschools, founded at enormous expense of energy and capital, were soon more numerously attended than theschools of theheretics.Jesuit confessors andchaplains became indispensable in greatfamilies, with the result that the nobles gradually returned toCatholicism. Among the masses theJesuits enjoyed great esteem as preachers and also because of their self-sacrifice in the time of the plague. Lastly, they pointed out to the nobility the exalted mission of Poland as a bulwark against theTurks and Muscovites. After the influence of theheretics in Poland had been destroyed, theSociety of Jesus resolved to reclaim from theGreek schism the millions of inhabitants of LittleRussia. To these efforts of theJesuits must be ascribed the important reunion of theRuthenianbishops withRome in 1596. Ecclesiastically, the Polish dominions were at this time divided into two Latin archbishoprics with fifteen suffragandioceses, while theUniat Greeks had three archbishoprics with fivebishoprics. Theschismatical Greeks had the same number of archbishoprics (Metropolia), besides fourbishoprics.

Under Sigismund III Poland wagedwars of self-defence with Sweden,Russia, the Tatars, and theTurks. Poland's power at that time was so great that the Russian boyars requested a Polish prince, the son of Sigismund III, to be their ruler; but the king refused his consent. Sigismund transferred the royal residence from Cracow to Warsaw. After his death the nobility elected Wladislaw IV king (1632-48). Towards the end of this reign the warlike Cossacks, a tribe of LittleRussia on the River Dnieper in the Ukraine, who defended the southeastern frontier of Poland against theTurks and Tatars, revolted, joined forces with the Tatars, and with their combined armies inflicted a severe defeat upon the Poles. But even worse times were in store for Poland under the succeeding rulers, John Casimir (1648-68) and Michael Chorybut Wisniowiecki (1669-73). The Cossacks and Tatars made terrible ravages on the eastern frontiers of Poland. Then the Swedes, under Charles Gustavus, conquered (1665) almost the whole of Poland; King Casimir was compelled to flee to Silesia. After that the Russians invaded the country and occupied Kieff, Smolensk, Polotsk, andVilna. In the autumn of 1655 the State, as such, ceased to exist. Lithuania and the Ukraine were under the power of the Czar; Poland had been conquered by the Swedes;Prussia was occupied by the Brandenburgers. No one dared offer any resistance. But when the Paulitemonks of Czenstochau repelled an attack of 2000Swedish troops, the spirit of the nobles and magnates revived. Theclergy made this a religiouswar, the victory of Czenstochowa was ascribed to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin, whose gracious image wasvenerated in thatconvent; she was proclaimed "Queen of the Crown of Poland", and John Casimir, atLemberg (1656), devoutly placed himself and the entire kingdom under her protection. In the event, the Swedes were soon routed. Thewars almost simultaneously conducted againstLutheran Swedes, theschismatic Muscovites, andMohammedan Tatars intimately associatedCatholicism with patriotism in the minds of the Poles. "For Faith and Fatherland" became their watchword.

Overwhelmed by so many reverses, John Casimir abdicated in 1668. He was succeeded by Michael Wisniowiecki, during whose reignanarchy steadily increased. The Cossacks and Tatars again invaded Poland, as did a large army ofTurks. The latter were defeated, however, bySobieski, at Chotin, when barely 4000 out of 10,000 escaped death. In gratitude for this glorious achievement the nation, after the death of Wisniowiecki, electedJohn Sobieski king (1674-96). An excellent general andpiousChristianknight,Sobieski, immediately after his accession to the throne, entered upon a struggle with theTurks. He aimed at the complete annihilation of theTurkish power, and for this purposezealously endeavoured to combine the Christian Powers against theTurks; he also entered into a defensive and offensive alliance with the German Emperor. When the grand vizier, Kara Mustafa, at the head of about 200,000 men, had crossed the German frontier and was besiegingVienna,Sobieski with a Polish army hastened to its relief, united his forces with the emperor's, and utterly defeated theTurks (1683). This campaign was the beginning of a series of struggles between Poland and Turkey in which the latter was finally worsted. Under Augustus II, Elector of Saxony,Sobieski's immediate successor (1697-1733), Poland began to decline. Charles XII, King of Sweden, invaded Poland and occupied the most important cities. The Elector of Brandenburg, a former vassal of Poland, took advantage of the internal dissensions to make himself King ofPrussia with the consent of Augustus II, thereby increasing the number of Poland's enemies by the addition of a powerful neighbour. Charles XII deposed Augustus II, and a new king, Stanislaus Leszczynski (1704-09), was elected by the nobility. Civilwar followed, and the Swedes and Russians took advantage of it to plunder the country, pillaging churches andconvents, and outraging theclergy. Augustus II resumed the throne under the protection of Russian troops, and Leszczynski fled toFrance.

From that time onRussia constantly interfered in the internal affairs of Poland. The next king, Augustus III, of Saxony (1733-63), was chosen through the influence ofRussia. The political parties of Poland endeavoured to introduce reforms, butRussia andPrussia were able to thwart them. The king promoted learning and populareducation; he was inspired with the best intentions but was weak towardsRussia. From the very beginningRussia had the partition of Poland in view, and for that reason fomented discord among the Poles, as didPrussia, especially by stirring up the magnates and theheretics. As early as 1733 the Diet deprived non-Catholics of political and civilrights, andRussia made use of this fact to stir up open revolt. The question of equalrights for dissidents was discussed, it istrue, at one session of the Diet, but in 1766 the protest of thepapal nuncio resulted in the rejection of the proposed change. At the same time a keen agitation was carried on against even the slightest concession in favour of non-Catholics. The latter, together with some of the aristocracy, who were dissatisfied with the abrogation of several aristocratic prerogatives, altogether 80,000 in number, placed themselves under the protection ofRussia, with the express declaration that they regarded the Empress Catherine II as protectress of Poland, binding themselves to use their efforts towards securing equalrights for the dissidents, and not to change the Polishlaws without the consent ofRussia. But the patriotic elements could not submit to so disgraceful a dependence onRussia: they combined, in the Confederation of Bar (in Podolia), in defence of theCatholicFaith and therights of independence under republican institutions. At the same time, through the efforts of theCarmelitemonk Marcus, the religious brotherhood of the Knights of the Holy Cross was organized.

The confederation, therefore, was of areligiouscharacter: it desired, on the one hand, to free Poland from its dependence onRussia, on the other to reject the demands of the dissidents. After it had declared an interregnum, the king's Polish regiments and the Russian forces took the field against it. The confederation had hardly been dispersed whenAustria,Russia, andPrussia occupied the Polish frontier provinces (altogether about 3800 square miles with more than four million inhabitants). The manifesto of occupation set forth as reasons for the partition: the increasinganarchy in the republic; the necessity of protecting the neighbouring states against this lawlessness; the necessity of readjusting conditions in Poland in harmony with the views and interests of its neighbours.Prussia received WestPrussia and Ermland; White Russia fell toRussia; Galicia was given toAustria. In the countries thus annexed each state began to pursue its own policies. In White Russia there were manyRuthenian Uniats: the Russian government at once took active measures to sever their union withRome, and bring them into theschism. Theparishes of the Uniats were suppressed, and theirproperty confiscated. A systematic course of oppression compelled them to adopt theschism.Austria andPrussia, in their turn, sought to repress the Polish national spirit; in particular, colonization of Polish territory with German colonists was begun systematically, and on a vast scale. The Poles were excluded from all official positions, which were now filled by Germans imported for that purpose in large numbers. The stateschools became wholly German.

Such treatment by the neighbouring states roused all Poland to energetic action, so as to prevent a second partition. The Poles now learned the value of populareducation, and their ablest menzealously applied themselves to improve theschools. The Four Years Diet (so called because its deliberations lasted four years without interruption) busied itself with reform, on 3 May, 1791, the Constitution was proclaimed. According to this fundamental law theCatholic remained the dominant religion, but the dissidents were granted complete civil equality and the protection of thelaw. The new ordinances curbed licentiousness, and thus caused dissatisfaction, especially among the higher nobility, who formed the Confederation of Targowitz for the purpose of annulling the Constitution which had just been granted, and called Russian troops to their assistance. The king sided with this deluded faction. ThusRussia andPrussia had another opportunity of making annexations; once more they both seized large tracts of Polish territory and thus was consummated the second partition of Poland (1793). The Poles, resolved to defend their independence, rose, under the leadership ofTadeusz Kosciuszko, againstRussia andPrussia. Victorious over the Russians at Raclawice (4 April, 1794), he occupied Warsaw, but was defeated and takenprisoner at Maciejowice (10 October, 1794). The revolt had miscarried:Russia,Prussia, andAustria divided among them the rest of the Polish kingdom. The king abdicated. And thus the third and last partition of Poland was effected (1795). The occupation by hostile armies of the territory thus divided proceeded without resistance on the part of the inhabitants. The Polish people were exhausted bywars and so humbled by numerous defeats that they seemed to look on with unconcern.

After Poland had disappeared from the political map ofEurope, each of the three states which had absorbed it began to carry out its own policy in the annexed territory. InPrussia all church lands were confiscated just as after the first partition, and theclergy as a body were made answerable for the political crimes ofindividuals. InAustria likewise, the policy of germanization prevailed. Under Russian rule official hostility to the Polish national spirit was not entirely open, but thepersecution of the Uniats continued. In 1796 all theUniatdioceses, except Plotsk andChelm, were suppressed. Poland had lost its independence, but liberty-loving patriots did not losecourage, for they counted on foreign aid. Dabrowski and Kniaziewicz organized inItaly a force composed of Polish emigrants, the "Polish Legions", which servedNapoleon in the hope that, out of gratitude, he would re-establish the Polish Kingdom. These expectations came to naught.Napoleon did not reestablish the Kingdom of Poland, but, after the defeat ofPrussia, he created the independent "Grand duchy ofWarsaw" which continued in existence from 1807 to 1815 out of the Polish territories that were affected by the second and third partitions. This small state had an area of 1860 square miles, with 2,400,000 inhabitants. Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony, became grand-duke. After .thewar withAustria in 1809, the Grand-duchy ofWarsaw became a factor which theEuropean diplomats could not afford to overlook in their calculations.

After the fall ofNapoleon, the Czar Alexander, in the Congress ofVienna, claimed the grand duchy for himself. At first there was some opposition to this demand, but an agreement was finally reached, with the result that the grand-duchy was divided: the westerly part, with Posen, fell toPrussia; Cracow, with the territory under itsjurisdiction, became a free state, and the rest of the grand-duchy, with Warsaw, as the autonomous Kingdom of Poland, came under Russian dominion. The new Kingdom of Poland (or Congress Poland) was taken by the Czar Alexander I, who had himselfcrowned as its king in the year 1815. In the territory annexed toPrussia the Poles received complete equality ofrights, and Polish was recognized as the official language. But from the very beginning a difference was apparent in the treatment accorded to districts whose inhabitants were Poles and those in which the population was mixed. In the latter regions German officials were appointed;schools and courts were conducted in German, and the process of germanizing the Polish minority was begun. A policy similar to that ofPrussia was adopted by the Russian Government in Congress Poland, where Polish culture was in a particularly flourishingcondition. The new Kingdom of Poland was connected withRussia only through its rulers, who belonged to the reigning dynasty of the latter state. The governor was the king's brother, the Grandduke Constantine. His government of Poland was despotic in the extreme; he paid not the slightest regard to the Constitution, which had been confirmed by the king, but ruled as in a barbarian country. This despotism growing still worse after the death of Alexander I, when Nicholas I succeeded him upon the Russian throne, provoked, on 29 November, 1830, an insurrection in Congress Poland, which was put down, however, by the overwhelming military force ofRussia (end of October, 1831). Thereupon the Czar Nicholas abolished the Diet and the Polish army, and assigned the government of Poland toRussia, whose administration was characterized by harshpersecution of theCatholicfaith and the Polish nationality. While the Russian Government preserved at least the semblance ofjustice in Congress Poland, it did not deem itnecessary to restrict itself in this respect inLithuania and LittleRussia. All the Polishschools were closed, and Russianschools founded in their stead. Even theclergy were subjected to manifold restraints: the church lands were confiscated, admittance to theseminaries for the training ofpriests was made more difficult, and communication withRome forbidden.

The suppression of the revolt in Congress Poland involved a severe defeat of Polish nationality in all the three neighbouring states. In Galicia the system of germanization grew more and more oppressive. In the Grand-duchy of Posen the use of the Polish language was restricted, German teachers were appointed in theschools, and the prerogatives of the Poles were curtailed. In 1833 provision was made for the purchase of Polish lands, the money for this purpose being supplied from a special public fund. At this time also the last of the survivingconvents were suppressed, and their revenues applied to the support of religiousschools. ThePrussian Government ventured even to lay violent hands upon theclergy. In the year 1838 the government engaged in a dispute withArchbishop Dunin concerningmixed marriages, and thearchbishop, fearlessly defending the position of theChurch, wasimprisoned. In Congress Poland Russian became the official language; a large number ofschools were closed. At the same time an attempt was made to introduce Russian settlers into Poland, butproved a complete failure. In Lithuania thepersecution of the Uniats had indeed the desired effect, but it brought discredit upon the Russian Government: in 1839, at the instance of Bishop Siemiaszko, 1300Uniatpriests signed a document announcing their desertion to theschism. The Polish nation, unable to accomplish anything by fair means, had recourse to conspiracies. A national uprising in all the territories that had been Polish was planned for February, 1846, but the insurrection was not general, and wherever it made its appearance it was promptly crushed. Cracow, where the manifesto of the insurrection was published, was permanently occupied by the Austrians; theAustrian Government incited the peasants against the insurgents, and, as a bounty was furthermore offered for every corpse, the peasants attacked the residences of the nobility, set them on fire, and inhumanly massacred "the lords" (altogether 2000 nobles).

In the year 1848, when the long-expected revolution broke out in almost the whole of WesternEurope, the Poles underPrussian rule also revolted, but without success. In April, 1848, serfdom was abolished in Galicia (inPrussia as early as 1823), and suitable compensation out of the public treasury was granted to the nobility. After 1848 the Polish districts inPrussia andAustria received the Constitution, as did the other districts subject to those Governments. In Galicia conditions began to improve, especially after the year 1860, when it was granted a certain degree of autonomy and its own diet. InPrussia, too, the Constitution gave the Polish inhabitants opportunity to develop their national resources independently. Theeducatedclergy devoted themselves with wholeheartedzeal to elevating themorals of the people, and in this way helped to form a middle class that was both well-to-do and, from a national point of view, well instructed. The most unfortunately situated Poles were those under the Russian Government. Russian was the language heard in all the public offices, to fill which natives ofRussia were introduced into the country in ever-increasing numbers. Under these adverse conditions Congress Poland steadily declined; in ten years (1846-56), the number of inhabitants was diminished by one million. The Government, during the long-continued state ofwar (not suspended until 1856), was of a despotic character. Theclergy, however, constituted a force not to be neglected, for it amounted to 2218priests, 1808monks, and 521nuns, in 191convents, while the teachers and professors of every sort numbered 1800. Theclergy exercised a vast influence over the people, and all the more so because the long struggle between the Government and theCatholicChurch had given theclergy the character of an opposition party.

Conditions in Poland generally improved after the year 1856, afterRussia had been defeated in the Crimean War. The Government of Congress Poland was entrusted to the Pole Wielopolski, who, with the best intentions, attempted to check the revolutionary activity of the Polish youth by too severe measures. It was the purpose of the younger Poles to awaken the national spirit by means of pageants in commemoration of national events and by great parades of the people to give utterance to their protests. These manifestations acquired areligiouscharacter from their association with practices ofpiety, an association permitted by theclergy, who were hostile to the Government.Prayers were continually offered in the churches "for the welfare of the fatherland". Theclergy, with Archbishop Fijatkowski at their head, favoured these manifestations, upon the repetition of which Russian troops entered the churches and arrested, not withoutviolence, several thousands of the participants. By thebishops' orders, the churches were closed. In January, 1863, an insurrection broke out which was doomed to pitiful failure. About 10,000 men were involved, scattered in very small bands throughout the whole country, and wretchedly armed. Opposed to them was an army of 30,000 regular troops with 108 field-pieces. In March, 1864, to keep the peasants from joining the insurrection, the Russian Government abolished serfdom, and the uprising collapsed in May of the same year.

The Government now exerted all its energy to blot out Polish nationality, especially inLithuania and LittleRussia: Russian became the official language in allschools and public offices; Poles were deprived of their employments, and allsocieties were suppressed. Confiscated lands were distributed among Russians, and every pretext was seized to expropriate the Poles. Adecree was even issued forbidding the use of the Polish language in public places. Peculiarly energetic measures were taken against theCatholicChurch inLithuania. Obstacles raised by the Government to hinder vocations were so effective that in the seven years immediately following 1863 not more than tenpriests wereordained inLithuania. Public devotions, processions, the erection of wayside crosses, and the repair of places of worship were forbidden;convents were suppressed; large numbers of the people forced to accept theschism. An attempt was even made, though unsuccessful, to introduce the use of Russian in some of the popular devotions. To remove all traces of Polish nationality inLithuania and the Ukraine, the Polish place-names were changed to Russian; in the cities, inscriptions and notices in the Polish language were forbidden; the cabmen wereobliged to wear Russian clothing and drive Great-Russian teams. In the Kingdom of Poland conditions were the same. Pupils were forbidden to speak even a single Polish word inschool. In addition, Congress Poland was completely stripped of its administrative independence.

In 1865 diplomatic relations were interrupted betweenRussia andPius IX, who was favourably disposed towards the Poles. The Uniat Church was attacked, and then the Government sought to organize a national Polish Church independent ofRome. Thebishops were strictly forbidden to entertain relations of any kind withRome. A college of canons of the most variousdioceses was formed at St. Petersburg, to be the chief governing body of the Polish Church, in allRussia, but thebishops as well as the deans and chapters inLithuania and Poland opposed this measure. Recourse was then had toviolence and some of the high dignitaries of theChurch were deported toRussia. Theclergy, however,courageously held their ground and refused to yield. After the last defeat of 1863-64, a strong reaction set in among the Poles of all of the three neighbouring states. Theclergy were active in inspiring the people with newcourage. InPrussia the Polishclergy worked diligently to establish and maintain social and agricultural organizations, as well associeties and loan offices for artisans and labourers, industrial associations, etc.

The oppression of the Poles continued, especially after Bismarck became chancellor. Theschools had to serve as instruments in the process of germanization; the Polish towns and villages received German names. Bismarck also began his conflict with theCatholicChurch (seeKULTURKAMPF). On the motion ofBismarck, thePrussian Diet, in the year 1886, granted the Government one hundred million marks for the purpose of buying up Polish lands and colonizing them with German peasants and labourers. In 1905 Congress Poland was again the scene of an insurrection, which was set on foot largely by workingmen, and the Government, compelled by necessity, somewhat mitigated the existing hardships.

Ecclesiastical history

Even before Poland becameChristian under Prince Mieczyslaw I (962-92), there wereChristians in Polish territory. This explains the comparatively peaceful acceptance by the people of a newfaith and a new code ofmorals. It may be assumed that the Faith reached Poland from the neighbouring country ofMoravia when, after the Hungarian invasion, numerousChristians found a refuge in Poland, so that there must have been a certain number ofChristians among theheathen Poles, though no organized Church existed. Definite conclusions, however, as to the progress ofChristianity before the accession of Mieczyslaw I are impossible. This prince, having married theCatholic Dabrowka, a daughter of the King ofBohemia, embracedChristianity, with all his subjects, in 966. He did this partly because he wished to protect himself against theGermans. Priests for the newChristian parishes were obtained fromBohemia andGermany. As early as 970 a Polishbishopric was established at Posen, under thejurisdiction of theArchbishop ofMagdeburg. In 1000 the EmperorOtto III and Pope Sylvester II erected themetropolis ofGnesen for thebishoprics of Posen, Plotsk,Cracow, Lebus,Breslau, and Kolberg.

The formation of thisecclesiastical hierarchy for Poland was effected by a clever political move on the part of Boleslaw the Great (992-1025), and had important results. For since that time theChurch of Poland has ceased to be dependent onGermany, and has been under the protection and patronage of the Polish princes, with whose history its own is most intimately connected. The Polish ruler thus obtained theright to found and endow churches, to take the same important part in the establishment ofdioceses and the appointment ofbishops as the emperor took inGermany. Poland did not cease to be a German fief, but inecclesiastical matters it became absolutely independent. Henceforth Boleslaw the Great assumed the supervision of the Polish church, and theChurch, founded and organized with the co-operation of the rulers, was placed in the service of the State. Although Boleslaw exercised his right of supervision rather arbitrarily, he nevertheless always entertained a great respect for theclergy. The firstbishops were appointed by thepope; canons regular were appointed to assist them. TheCamaldolese Order also came (997) and settled in Great Poland, but being attacked by robbers, who expected to obtain a large amount of booty from them, they came to a terrible end in 1005. In 1006 theBenedictines came to Poland and settled in three places. They cleared forests and spread religion and civilization. Boleslaw granted the churchestithes, which the nobility were unwilling to pay; the resulting disturbances (1022) were soon suppressed. The king also procured for the churches valuable gifts, such as vessels of silver and gold. After the death of his son Mieczyslaw II (1025-34), a strong feeling againstChristianity and its teachers manifested itself among the people; many even relapsed intopaganism. The nobility discontinued the payment oftithes, and the masses attacked the churches and the estates of the aristocracy. Bishops andpriests were massacred, and thecathedrals ofGnesen and Posen were destroyed.

After six years of such disturbances Casimir I (1040-58), having ascended the throne, restoredChristianity and respect for theclergy; he also built churches andconvents. His activity was continued by Boleslaw II the Bold (1058-80), so persistently that the number of Polishbishoprics had risen to fifteen by the year 1079. As early as this reign native Poles attained the episcopal dignity. The question ofheathenmarriages, which were condemned by BishopStanislaus of Cracow, gave rise to a quarrel between the king and thebishop. The latter, having formed a conspiracy with the magnates, who were incensed at the despotic rule of the king, was slain by the king himself. A revolt, caused by this act, drove Boleslaw to seek an asylum inHungary. The church thereupon gained in esteem and influence even in political matters. Bishops were elected by the chapters, andconsecrated by thearchbishops ofGnesen asmetropolitans. Under the next ruler, Wiadislaw Herman (1080-1102), theclergy took a lively interest in public affairs. Boleslaw Krzywousty (1102-39) showed his great concern for the welfare of Church andclergy by various benefactions, founding newconvents and embellishing those already in existence. At this period, too, Count Piotr Wlast Dunin (d. 1153) is said to have built forty places of worship. All of these works perished when Boleslaw's will stirred up a series of terriblewars that raged for almost two hundred years throughout Poland. (See above: II.) During these struggles theChurch alone preserved the national homogeneity, and this circumstance, more than any other, increased the influence of theclergy in political matters. It was at this time that Henry, Duke ofSandomir, with a numerous retinue of Polish nobles undertook acrusade to the Holy Land and spent an entire year there. Upon their return to Poland thesepilgrims introduced the knightly orders of theTemplars, ofSt. John, and of theHoly Sepulchre. Theclergy, now more numerous, heldsynods in which, among other matters,education was dealt with. At the instance of thebishops,schools were established in connexion with the churches andconvents. The first provincial synod of this kind, at Leczyca (1180), decreedexcommunication as the punishment for therobbery ofchurch property.

Theclergy now began more and more to carry into effect the plans of themurdered Bishop Stanislaus by their efforts to secure the supremacy of theChurch. TheChurch succeeded in freeing itself from the fetters with which the temporal rulers had bound her. For the reform for whichGregory had striven had not been carried out in Poland. While it had long been customary in the West forcathedral chapters to elect thebishops, so that theChurch was in this respect no longer dependent on the temporal power, in Poland thebishops were still appointed by the sovereign, who furthermore claimed for the state treasury certain fees from the lands held by theclergy. Thepope's demand for thecelibacy of the clergy had also been disregarded.Pope Innocent III first undertook to free the Polishclergy from dependence upon the temporal sovereign; he found an active supporter in theArchbishop ofGnesen, Henry Kietticz. The latter enforced thecelibacy of the clergy under him and obtained for the decrees of theecclesiastical courts both force and validity; he alsoexcommunicated the senior prince, Wiadislaw Laskonogi (1202-06), for trying to keep theChurch in its condition of dependence and refusing to give up the old royal prerogatives of appointment ofbishops,jurisdiction over the church lands, and the exaction of fees and other payments from them. From that time a growing movement for the deliverance of theChurch from oppression by the State is manifest, a relief which had already been secured in the neighbouring kingdoms to the west. TheChurch, now freed from the guardianship of the State, made an energetic stand against the encroachments of the princes and the immorality of the people. At thesynods held at this time severe penalties were imposed, by the direction of thepapal legates, upon thoselaymen who claimed for themselves the right of grantingbenefices. From that timebishop and prince were considered titles of equal rank in Poland.

In 1210 two Polish princes jointly conferred privileges upon theclergy, thereby recognizing the independence of theChurch, not only within its own organization, but also (within the confines of church lands) over all its own subjects, together with exemption from taxation. TheChurch of Poland was now organized in conformity with the canon law; itsjurisdiction covered, not only theclergy, but also the inhabitants domiciled on the church lands and, in many matters, the wholeCatholic community as such. TheChurch wielded the powerful weapons ofinterdict andexcommunication. Church andclergy together formed an independent political division of the population, endowed with complete power of self-government. Not only had the dependence of thebishops on the princes ceased, but the lesserclergy, too, no longer sought the favour of the prince: it was well known to them that, if they preserved the spirit of theChurch and guarded its interests, distinction and honours awaited them within its domain. Thanks to their really enormous financial resources and their influence in the domain ofmorals, theclergy represented a power with which temporal rulers had to reckon. The highest legislative bodies of theCatholicChurch in Poland, thesynods, provided for the independence of theChurch, and occupied themselves in strengthening its influence over thelaity. Literature and all that pertained toeducation were wholly in the hands of theclergy, the members of the variousreligious orders, in particular, rendering great service in this direction.

In this period, also,religious life developed to a high degree among the people, as a result of the severe afflictions caused by thewars and invasions of the Tatars (1241, 1260, 1287). The horrors of the time acted as a powerful stimulant upon the generalpiety, which revealed itself in religious endowments and privileges conferred upon theclergy. In the next period (from the beginning of the fourteenth to the end of the fifteenth century) churches andconvents were especially numerous. Theclergy added to its popularity by striving for the union of the Polish principalities into a great kingdom. Archbishop Pelka, for instance, in 1257 ordered that the people should learn theLord's Prayer in Polish, and the synod under Archbishop Swinka (1285) forbade the granting ofbenefices to foreigners or the appointment as teacher of anyperson who was not master of the national tongue. The consolidation of Poland having been effected under Lokietek (1306-33), theclergy were dissatisfied with him because he would not exempt them from taxation. This grievance gave rise to a quarrel between theclergy and Lokietek's successor, Casimir the Great (1333-79). Casimir's life was far from faultless, and Bodzanta,Bishop ofCracow, after admonishing him without effect, placed him underexcommunication. Thecathedral vicar, Martin Baryczka, notified Casimir of this censure, and the king had him drowned in the Vistula (1349). Casimir sought to make amends for themurder by lavishalms giving,pious bequests, and privileges granted to theclergy. At Cracow he founded, under the patronage of thebishop, a more advancedschool oruniversity — the first in NorthernEurope (1364) — which was approved byPope Urban V. He also brought order intoecclesiastical affairs in LittleRussia by establishing the archiepiscopal See of Halicz, in 1367, withChelm, Turow, Przemysl and Wlodzimiesz for its suffragans. The Archbishopric of Halicz was afterwards transferred to Lemberg. Thearchbishops ofGnesen became the foremost princes of the realm, and theclergy were hereafter relieved of all taxes. This displeased the nobility, who, moreover, had to pay thetithes to theclergy, with the alternative of exclusion from theChurch.

Under Louis ofHungary (1370-82) theclergy received new privileges, but in the same reign thebishops of Poland began to be nominated by the State: the kings, having established thebishoprics, believed that they had the right of patronage. Beginning with the reign of Jagiello (1386-1434), theChurch of Poland worked in a new field, spreading religion among the neighbouringheathen peoples. The Lithuanians acceptedChristianity, and Jagiello caused manychurches to be built. But themorals of theclergy were declining. TheChurch of Poland took part, it istrue, in theSynod of Constance, at whichHus was burnt, but had not the strength to oppose effectively the reactionary tendency of the nobility, which sought to useheresy as a counterpoise to the influence of theChurch. That influence, attaining its maximum when theCardinalBishop ofCracow,Zbigniew Olesnicki, wielded political power at Court, roused the emulation of the secular lords. With the appearance ofHus inBohemia there arose in Poland an anti-church party composed ofHussites. Theecclesiasticalsynods issued severe decrees against theseheretics, whom Jagiello, in 1424, also adjudged guilty of high treason. TheInquisition became active against them.

It wasclerical influence, too, that led King Wladislaw III (1434-44) to take the field against theTurks in defence ofChristendom. During the reign of his brother, Casimir the Jagellon (1446-92), theChurch of Poland produced a number of saintly men, and was so highly esteemed, even inBohemia, that it was the general wish there that the Pole Dlugosz should be made theirarchbishop. Nevertheless, the temporal power sought to free itself from the domination of the spiritual. The nobility insisted more and more on the taxation of theclergy. With the death ofCardinal Olesnicki the political power of theChurch in Poland was at an end. During the succeeding periods theReformation made ominous progress. It found a soil prepared for it by the moral decline of theclergy and the indifference of thebishops. In 1520 aDominican named Samuel rose against theRoman Church at Posen; in 1530 Latatski,Bishop of Posen, appointed aLutheran preacher; in 1540 John Laski, apriest ofGnesen, renounced theCatholicfaith and openly married, as did many others; under Modrzewski efforts were made to establish an independent state church. King Sigismund I the Old (1506-48), azealousCatholic, was opposed to a reformation of that nature; he issued rigorous edicts against the preaching of the new doctrines and the introduction ofheretical writings (1523, 1526). The populace remained indifferent to theReformation, only the nobility took part in it. Theclergy adopted precautionary measures: theprimate put all sectarians under the ban of theChurch, and it was decided to establish anecclesiastical court of inquisition.Catholic congresses were also assembled. But all these means were ineffectual to check theReformation, winch was, in fact, favoured by some of thebishops.

In 1552, at the Diet of Piotrkow, it was proposed to summon a Polishnational synod both forCatholics and forheretics, and in 1555 a resolution was adopted, by whichheretics were not to be prosecuted on account of theirbelief until the holding of this synod. TheProtestant preachers returned to Poland and the sectarians formed a union againstCatholicism. Religiouswar first broke out in all itsviolence under Sigismund Augustus (1548-72), who did not defendCatholicism with the same conviction and firmness as hisfather. His vacillating conduct inspired theheretics withcourage. In 1550 demands were made for the abolition ofcelibacy, celebration of Mass in the vernacular, and communion under both forms. Bishops were deprived of theright to sit in judgment onheresy. Monks were expelled; churches were seized. The confusion in the land grew steadily worse. Theheretics, themselves of the most varied creeds, quarrelled with one another. Alarmed by the progress of theReformation in Poland,Rome sentLuigi Lippomano thither asnuncio. At this time too, the firstJesuits came to Poland. Thepapal legate,Commendone, carried out the reform of theCatholicChurch, and in this way deprived theReformers of their pretext. He was also able to secure from the king two decrees (1564): one against non-Catholic aliens, the other against native Poles who sought in any way to injure theCatholicChurch.

TheJesuits, introduced into Poland in 1564 byHosius,Bishop ofErmland, opened theirschools in many places, successfully conducted debates with theheretics, and energetically contended againstheresy both from thepulpit and in writing. Under their influence thefamilies of the magnates began to return to theCatholicChurch. In 1571 — the year when the Conference ofWarsaw secured freedom ofbelief for the dissidents — theJesuit houses in Poland were organized into a separate province. Theheretics still continued to cause disturbances, but fortune deserted them. After the short reign of Henry of Valois (1574-75) Stephen Báthori succeeded to the throne (1576-86). The latter openly supported theJesuits in their endeavours, and under his protection they founded a very large number of newschools. The next king, also, Sigismund III Vasa (1588-1632), gave no support to the dissidents; on the contrary, he confirmed therights of theCatholicChurch (1588) and, as a goodCatholic, so influenced many of his magnates by hispious life that they returned to the religion of their fathers. The reconciliation of theRuthenian Church was effected in 1595; and theArmenians, who were domiciled here and there in Poland, also united with theCatholicChurch. Wiadislaw IV (1632-48) introduced into Poland thePiarists, who established numerousschools. In his dealings with the mutually hostilesects this king pursued a policy of duplicity, by which a horriblewar was brought upon a later generation. At this time there were in Poland 750convents, representing 20 male and 15female orders. He was succeeded on the throne by John Casimir (1648-68), who had previously been aJesuit (1643) and then aCardinal (1645). To the general distress of this reign the dissidents contributed not a little. For this reason, theSocinians (1658), theArians (1661), and othersects were driven out of Poland. In return the king received from thepope the titleRex Orthodoxus. Bowed down by his misfortunes, he resigned the crown and took up his residence inParis, where he lived until 1672 as titularAbbot of St. Germain. Under his successors upon the Polish throne, Michael Wisniowiecki (1669-72) and John III Sobieski, the solicitude of the people for the Faith and their efforts to repressheresy steadily increased.

When, after the death ofJohn Sobieski,Frederick II, Elector of Saxony, assumed the Government (1697-1733), he affirmed in hiscoronationoath that he would not confer any high offices on the dissidents, although toleration was assured them. This king had abandonedProtestantism and become aCatholic; although a lukewarmCatholic, and leading a reprehensible life, he nevertheless restricted the liberties of theheretics (1716), and they were removed from public office (1743). At the same time violent disputes were carried on with theclergy over appointments tobishoprics,ecclesiastical courts, payment of taxes, etc. The endlesswars during the reign of this king led to the oppression of theclergy, impoverishment and deterioration of the churches, and, among the nobility, to demoralization and lack of sympathy for the common people in their distress. Thepriests in their sermons defended the peasants against the tyranny of the nobility and finally succeeded in obtaining a legal decision (1764) which made noblemen liable to thedeath penalty for killing a peasant. Frederick Augustus III (1733-63) confirmed the decrees issued during the lifetime of hisfather against the dissidents, but beyond this he was wholly unconcerned about church and state.

The next ruler, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski (1764-95), was a man of culture and actively promoted populareducation, but theevil conditions had grown beyond his control. During his reign the bonds of matrimony, the very basis of allsociety, became so loosened, and the number ofdivorces reached such an alarming total, thatBenedict XIV was compelled to address the Polishbishops in threeBulls (1741, 1743, 1748) in reference to thisevil. In addition to this the neighbouring states began to interfere in behalf of the non-Catholics in Poland, demanding that they should be given the samerights asCatholics (1766); this, however, was denied. Thereupon the dissidents formed a confederation at Radom (1767), and the Diet was compelled to grant them all therights enjoyed byCatholics except theright to the Crown. Independently of this, theright to convokesynods was granted them; mixed courts, generally with a majority of non-Catholic members, were appointed to decide questions involving religion. Inmixed marriages the sons were to follow the religion of the father, the daughters that of the mother. Unrestricted permission was also granted the dissidents to build places of worship. MeanwhileRome reminded the Poles that, asknights in the service ofChrist, it was theirduty to break a lance forCatholicism. In defense of the Faith the Confederation of Bar was formed (1768-72), but it only added to the confusion and misfortune of the country. Coming fromFrance to Poland,freemasonry spread especially in the higher circles ofsociety, where French literature had done its work of corruption.Atheism was preached openly and acknowledged. New palaces arose while the churches fell into decay; theTheatines left the country (1785); at this time too theSociety of Jesus was suppressed (1773), and its possessions converted to the use of populareducation; a commission oneducation was created. With the consent ofPius VI, several church holydays were abolished, the number of those retained being only seventeen, besidesSundays. Further attacks on theproperty of thebishops, and especially of the richly endowed orders, followed.

At the first Diet, after thecoronation of King Stanislaus Augustus (1764), the Polish Church was represented by twoarchbishops and fifteenbishops. The external splendour of theCatholicChurch in Poland had reached its zenith. But the political disturbances andwars, the repeated passage of armies, continued for perhaps a year without interruption, the conflict with the dissidents, were extremely disastrous to theChurch. After the three partitions (1773, 1793, 1795), the Government ofRussia strove to extirpate, not only Polish nationality, but also theCatholicChurch. After the insurrection of 1831, the Uniats were forced into apostasy;convents were suppressed, churches closed. Even harsher measures were adopted after 1863: by a cabinet order of 1864, theproperty of the Church was confiscated, theconvents still in existence suppressed; in 1867 theclergy were placed under the authority of a commission at St. Petersburg, without any regard to the wishes of theApostolic See. Theliturgical books and devotions of the schismatics were forcibly introduced into the churches of the Uniats. Peasants who tried to prevent theschismaticalpopes from entering the churches were simply shot down; the christening of children asCatholics and the solemnization of matrimony inCatholic churches were forbidden. Not until after thewar withJapan was an edict of toleration proclaimed inRussia, making it permissible for schismatics to be reconciled withRome. ThePrussian Government treated theCatholic Poles no better than did the Russian. TheCatholicclergy inPrussian Poland was subordinated to the temporal power. The election ofbishops,prelates, and superiors of religioussocieties, in view of the extensive right of veto, was made to depend upon the decision of an administrative council, which receives theoath of allegiance from theclergy and gives them instructions for the celebration of German national anniversaries. In civil and criminal proceedings, too, theclergy is subject to thecivil authorities. Theecclesiastical courts havejurisdiction only in matters of a purelyreligiouscharacter; but they have not theright to order temporary or permanentdivorce in the case ofmixed marriages. The properties of theCatholicclergy as such were confiscated; for the support of theclergy a part of the income of the confiscated estates and the interest on capital, which belongs toecclesiastical corporations, but had been lent to privateindividuals, was set aside. In addition to this the Government granted theclergy permission to accept payment at a fixed rate for the performance of services attached to their office. In Galicia (Austrian Poland) the patent of toleration ofJoseph II, granted in 1781, admittedProtestants,Calvinists and schismatics to official positions, secured for them freedom of religiousbelief, and even the permission, where there were about 100Protestantfamilies in a community, to build churches, etc. (but without steeples and bells, and with entrances at the side). AlthoughCatholicism was recognized as the dominant religion, theChurch was nevertheless subject to the control of the State. Without theplacet of the Statepapal Bulls and pastoral letters were invalid. The Government assumed the supervision and conduct ofseminaries for the training ofpriests, and prescribed the character and method of instruction intheology. In 1782 theconvents of the contemplative orders were suppressed, and theirproperty converted to the fund for religious purposes. At present, however, theChurch is free from state restrictions in the Polish provinces; and as a resultCatholicism is here making progress.

The religious orders in Poland

TheAugustinian Hermits were introduced into Poland in the second half of the thirteenth century, and at one time had more than thirty-fiveconvents there. At present there remains but one Augustinianconvent in all the territory that was Poland: that at the Church of St. Catherine, Cracow. Aconvent fornuns of the same order, connected with the same church since the seventeenth century, now serves for the training andeducation of girls.

TheBasilians (see RULE OF SAINT BASIL),persecuted by theGreek Iconoclasts, migrated in large numbers to theSlavic countries and foundedconvents andschools. In Poland, particularly, they rendered great services in the most varied fields ofecclesiastical activity. From them sprang excellentbishops,archbishops metropolitan, and their order was known as "the order ofprelates". From them, too, teachers in theschools,seminaries, anduniversities were recruited. Many of them became famous inscience as well as by their virtuous and self-sacrificing life. The common people held this order in high esteem and gladly frequented the devotions in theirconvents. TheBasilians devoted themselves to theschools with azeal that shrank from no sacrifice, especially after the reform of 1743. Everyconvent had its elementaryschool, but they also founded more advancedschools, particularly for students of divinity. Theirschools were attended for the most part by the children of the wealthy. In the middle of the eighteenth century it had as many as two hundredconvents in the Polish dominions. After the fall of Poland theseconvents were suppressed inRussia; only eleven of them survived in Galicia. TheBasiliannuns were established in Eastern Poland. They were suppressed at the same time as theBasilianmonks. At present only twoconvents are in existence in Galicia.

TheBenedictines began their activity in Poland during the period of the reorganization of Cluny. They were the first missionaries of Poland; whence they came it is impossible to determine, no historical records of the earliestBenedictines in Poland having come down to us. The first historically authenticated houses of the order date from the reign of Boleslaw I Chrobry (eleventh century). This ruler, desiring to free theChurch in Poland from German influence, introducedBenedictines fromItaly. The order soon exercised an incalculable influence upon theeducation of the Poles, as well as strengthening the position taken by the Polish Church within its own organization. With the twelfth century, however, their beneficent influence began to decline. Their manifold activities ceased in theschools, and became confined to the immediate interests of theconvents themselves. Among the causes of their decay were the enormous material wealth of the order, the consequent excesses of the layabbots, and the discord betweenabbots and subordinates within the order. A contributing cause was the arbitrary exemption ofabbeys from the supervision of the abbots-general of Tyniez. Five of the largestabbeys became absolutely independent of one another, both in finance and in internal organization. Prosperity brought tepidity and relaxation of monastic discipline. TheBenedictines allowed themselves to be outstripped in the social work of theChurch by the otherreligious orders that had been introduced into Poland. Several attempts at reform, undertaken at the beginning of the eighteenth century, did not achieve the desired result. The Partition of Poland undermined the existence of the PolishBenedictines. First the possessions of theabbots were confiscated and then theconvents suppressed. TheBenedictinenuns hadconvents in Poland in theMiddle Ages. Their rules were strict: they were permitted to eat only two meals a day; the entire day was spent inprayer, meditation, spiritual reading, and hearing two Masses, theDivine Office, and work. They made beautiful church vestments and also occupied themselves with the copying of books. Strict discipline prevailed in the congregation.

TheBernardines, made famous bySt. John Capistran (1386-1456), the pupil ofSt. Bernardine of Siena, were much sought everywhere. Convents were gladly built for them in Poland, where they were introduced by John Casimir andSbigniew Olesnizki. This order, the largest in Poland with members of Polish descent, rendered distinguished service to the fatherland. When theFranciscans established themselves in Poland about the year 1232, and later also, the Order of Tertiaries began to gain more and more members here. The Tertiary Sisters, members of thelaity, formed themselves into religious organizations forprayer andgoodworks. From thesesocieties there arose in Poland in the year 1514 an order ofwomen, the so-calledBernardine Nuns.

The Brothers of Mercy were introduced into Poland in the seventeenth century. Many of them died in the odour ofsanctity. Whereas in other countries the care of the sick in general was entrusted to the religious, in Poland they devoted themselves to the care of the insane.

TheCamaldolese came to Poland in the year 1605 from the congregation of Monte Corona nearPerugia. They were dependent on the mother-house; not until after the partition of Poland did this dependence cease. Of the fiveconvents established in Poland only the hermitage at Bielany, nearCracow, is still in existence.

The Canons Regular of St. John Lateran, one of the oldest congregations in Poland, were suppressed in 1782 byJoseph II; there are, however, sixconvents at present inAustria.

TheCapuchins. — As early as 1596 King Sigismund had memorialized theApostolic See to introduce this order into Poland, but permission to introduce it there was first granted toKing John Sobieski. In 1681 someCapuchins came to Warsaw and Cracow. Gradually the number of foreigners in theconvents grew smaller; thenovices were mostly Poles, so that theApostolic See, in 1738, transferred the supervision of the PolishCapuchins to theBohemianprovincials. When the order had as many as 9convents, 129 fathers, 31novices, and 73 brothers,Benedict XIV established a separate Polish province. TheCapuchins in Poland, as elsewhere, won for themselves high esteem and exerted a wholesome influence upon the awakening of the religious sentiment among the people. In Galicia there are at present nineCapuchinconvents. In Russian Poland all theirconvents but one have been suppressed.

TheCarmelites (Calced) in Poland date from the latter part of the fourteenth century. Here, as elsewhere, some of theirconvents observed the milder rule ofEugene IV, while others observed the more severe rule of John Soreth. Before the partition there were 58Carmeliteconvents and 9 residences in Poland. After the partition those in the Polish provinces ofPrussia were all suppressed; this happened inRussia also, some being suppressed in 1832, the rest somewhat later. Under Austrian ruleJoseph II retained only sixconvents, which formed the Galician province of the order. There were also in Poland CalcedCarmelite Nuns.

TheCarmelites (Discalced) who, at thepope's request, went as missionaries toPersia, passed through Poland on their way. The Poles then for the first time saw members of this order, and it at once found general favour. In the next year it was introduced and in time became widespread. Severalconvents of the DiscalcedCarmelitenuns are still in existence.

TheCarthusians. — The time of their first settlement in Poland is unknown. It is probable that the first superiors were foreigners, possibly also the majority of themonks. Natives, however, were also received into theirconvents, and in this way they were gradually Polonized. They observed the general rule of the order, and devoted themselves toprayer and manual labor, especially to the copying ofmanuscripts.

TheCistercians, the most important offshoot of theBenedictines, were introduced into Poland about the year 1140, when the order had been sanctioned only about twenty years. From the very beginning theyproved themselves a contemplative order, devoted to manual labor, rendering great service to agriculture by clearing forests, bringing the land under cultivation, and encouraging the various industries. For this reason the order received the hearty support ofbishops and magnates. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it spread through Poland with extraordinary rapidity, and was richly endowed with landedproperty. TheCistercians having come to Poland fromGermany,France, andItaly, theirconvents as late as the sixteenth century preserved the individualities corresponding to the various nationality of their first inmates respectively. The Germans even introduced German colonists into theirconvent villages. Sigismund I was the first to forbid this seclusion by the decrees of 1511 and 1538. To the final Polonization of theCistercianconventsLutheranism was a contributing cause; for many Germanmonks, infected by the teachings ofLuther, left theconvents, while the rest cared little for the rules of the order or for propriety. The places vacated by Germans were filled by Poles. The reform of the order, accomplished in the year 1580, purified and elevated the fraternal spirit of the PolishCistercians. In the course of the eighteenth century they had to endure severe reverses of fortune; indeed, they lived in poverty and need, and at the time of the partition of Poland the Polish province of the order numbered 20convents with more than 500 male orfemale inmates. At present there remain only twoCistercianconvents in Galicia, while underPrussian and Russian rule they have all been suppressed.

TheDominicans were introduced into Poland by theBishop ofCracow, Iwo Odrowasch (1223). The had no great successes to record until the fourteenth century, in the reign of Casimir the Great, when they gained a firm footing in LittleRussia and to some extent also inLithuania. As an order intended to combatheresy, however, they were of no great importance in Poland, for the reason that most of them were Germans who did not understand the Polish character. As a result their missionary work was not very successful. The sixteenth century, the period of theReformation, was unfavourable to the further development of theDominican houses, and later, when the counter-Reformation began, notDominican butJesuit houses were founded expressly to combat theReformation. Not until the seventeenth century were any newDominicanconvents founded. The Polish province of the order, in the year 1730, had 43convents for men and 10 forwomen; the Russian province, 69 and 3, the province of Lithuania numbered 38convents and 4 so-called residences. But oneDominicanconvent now remains, at Cracow.

TheFelician nuns are an offshoot of thewomen'sSociety of St. Vincent de Paul, which is so highly esteemed today for its charitable work. In Warsaw there was formed in 1855 a purely Polish congregation, under the patronage of St. Felix and the rule of St. Francis. (SeeFELICIAN SISTERS, O.S.F.)

TheFranciscans have left comparatively few traces of their activity in the Polish countries. The time of their introduction into Poland is uncertain; the year is probably 1231. Certain it is that theFranciscans were in Cracow in 1237. Kindly received, they soon obtained recognition from the Polish people, for most of them were Poles by birth. Conformably with the rule of their order, they developed great activity in the missionary field among the Lithuanians andRuthenians. Thanks to their labours the subsequent organization of theCatholicChurch inLithuania and LittleRussia was made possible. In 1832 twenty-nineFranciscanconvents were suppressed in Lithuania; in 1864, all those in Congress Poland with the single exception of theconvent at Kaliach.

TheJesuits were introduced into Poland byCardinal Hosius, in 1564, to combatheresy. After their arrival, Poland, where 32Protestantsects had been committing all sorts of excesses, witnessed a return toCatholicism. To root outheresy public debates were arranged, which opened the eyes of many of theheretics. TheJesuits began their labours inLithuania, atVilna, which was most seriously threatened by theheretical teachings. In a short timeJesuit communities arose throughout the land. Because of their extraordinary successes in the missionary field,schools were founded for them by everyzealousbishop. The example of thebishops was followed by the kings and the magnates. After thesuppression of the Society, its possessions were devoted to the support of publiceducation. Of theJesuitpriests some retained their positions at the formerJesuitschools, the rest obtained employment infamilies of the higher nobility in the capacity ofchaplains, secretaries or tutors. They were also employed incathedral churches and in theparishes. In Poland, as everywhere, theJesuits foughtheresy with its own weapons — with sermons, disputations,education of the youth. The answered the polemical pamphlets of the dissidents wit polemical pamphlets; they appeared in public with systematic courses of excellently prepared sermons of a politico-dogmatic character. They also furnished distinguished confessors. They attracted many by means of devotions conducted with great pomp and by the organization of religious brotherhoods. For the pupils in theirschools they introduced the Sodality of the Blessed Virgin. They distinguished themselves particularly as preachers in theparochial missions. But they were also not unmindful of the sick, theprisoners and the soldiers. The position of militarychaplain was for the most part filled by aJesuit. There was no field of church-activity or ofscience in which theJesuits did not labour successfully for the benefit ofmankind. At present theJesuit Order does not exist in any of the Polish lands except Galicia, where it forms a separate province of the order, attached to the German Assistance. Part also of theJesuits, expelled from White Russia, came to Galicia in 1820. When, as a result of the Revolution of 1848, they were banished thence also, they went to Silesia and the Grand duchy of Posen, whence a part of them, in 1852, returned to their former homes, when the order was rehabilitated throughout the Austrian dominions. When again, in 1862, theJesuits were banished fromPrussia, some went to Galicia, others undertook missions toGermany,Denmark, and America. Since 1852 there has been a continuous development of the province of theSociety in Galicia; at the beginning of 1906 it numbered 473 members, among them 215priests, 119clerics, and 139 brothers.

The Priests of the Mission (Lazarists) were introduced into Poland by the wife of King John Casimir, Maria Ludwika Gonzaga, who had personally known and highly esteemed their founder,St. Vincent de Paul, inFrance. At her request he sent members of his congregation to Poland in 1651. Their introduction was at first resented by theJesuits, whose confessors at the royal court were replaced by members of the new order. Queen Maria Ludwika wished the Priests of the Mission employed not only for the instruction of the common people in the villages andparishes, but particularly for the organization and supervision of thediocesanseminaries and for the spiritual improvement of thepriesthood in the country. Devout Polish magnates were anxious to have them upon their estates. There is scarcely a spot anywhere in Poland where theLazarists have not conducted a mission. For this reason their services in the care ofsouls are truly extraordinary. During the first twenty-seven years the Priests of the Mission came fromFrance and native Poles entering the congregation had to go toFrance for probation and training, an arrangement which continued until the founding of aseminary atWarsaw. After the partition theconvents suffered many hardships: under Russian rule the congregation was disbanded in 1842 and 1864, theLazarist houses in Galicia were suppressed byJoseph II, and the same fate overtook the Priests of the Mission inPrussia at the beginning of theKulturkampf in 1876.

The Paulites came to Poland fromHungary in 1382, sixteen in number. Undoubtedly these Hungarianmonks were not unacquainted with the Polish nationality, for they were chosen from the Slovaks and Poles, who were at that time well represented in theconvents ofHungary. The firstconvent was that of Czentochowa on the Klarenberg (Clarus Mons, Jasna Góra), and the picture of the Blessed Virgin there, said to be the work of theEvangelistSt. Luke, at once became famous because of numerousmiracles, so that Czentochowa surpassed all other places ofpilgrimage to Poland. As a result, theconvent became very wealthy. In 1430 it was attacked by theHussites. In the part of Poland which fell toAustria after the first partition the Pauliteconvents were suppressed in 1783 by the Emperor Joseph. Only the Galicianconvents, which at the last partition came under the dominion ofAustria, survived. In other parts of Poland oneconvent after another went out of existence, and since 1892 the Paulite Order has had only twoconvents: Czentochowa and Cracow. The Paulites in Poland devoted themselves for the most part toparochial work. Parishes were connected with all theirconvents, and in theseparishes all the pastoral work was done by members of the order.

ThePiarists. — In 1642 the first thirteenPiarists came fromRome to Warsaw at the request of King Ladislaus IV. The Poles readily entered this order, and it soon spread through the whole country. The firstmonks wereBohemians,Moravians, and Germans by birth. Theschools founded by them were organized in accordance with the constitutions of St. Joseph Calasanctius. In the first hundred years theschools of thePiarists, so far as excellence is concerned, were in no way different from the others. Not until the reform ofKonarski was there an improvement in the instruction and training. Thismonk, during a journey throughItaly,France, andGermany, studied the foreigneducational systems and undertook the reform of thePiaristschools on a basis more in conformity with the requirements of the time. He carried out the reform not only by the living word in theschools, but by writingeducational treatises. The method of instruction as systematized by him stimulated every faculty of the mind, it made demands on the reason rather than on the memory, it led the pupil to a consideration of the main points and to clearness of expression. A further aim of hisschools was theeducation of the pupil's heart, in order that as men they might be useful members ofsociety and be qualified to bring up others to areligious life. This reform of thePiaristschools had its successes in otherschools as well, for theJesuits adopted the new method of instruction, and otherschools did the same. The beneficial efficacy of this school-reform at once became apparent in the general advance of culture. ThePiaristconvents were suppressed in Galicia after the partition of Poland, and in Russian Poland in 1864. Only one Polishconvent of this congregation, that of Cracow, is still in existence.

The order of the ReformedFranciscans was introduced into Poland at the time of thebeatification ofSt. Peter of Alcántara (1622 underGregory XV). The first members of this new order were recruited from theBernardines andFranciscans; they were at firstpersecuted and even banished. But when the news of theirpiety reached the Court, King Sigismund III himself made an appeal to thepope for permission to introduce the order into Poland. The Holy Father did not refuse him, and theBishop ofCracow had hardly issued thedecree of their admission (29 May, 1622), when foundations of Reformati were at once begun, the number rising to fifty-seven. The Reformati in Poland lived entirely onalms; they gave themselves up exclusively to religious exercises. Theirconvents were suppressed at various times: inAustria, partly between 1796 and 1809; in Congress Poland in 1834 and 1864, lastly in Russian Poland in 1875.

TheTemplars are supposed to have been introduced into Poland as early as 1155, but this date is not absolutely certain. However, the account of a Templar foundation atGnesen before 1229 is reliable. When the order was suppressed throughoutEurope, in 1312, all their possessions in Poland were transferred to the Knights of St. John.

TheTheatines were in Poland from 1696 to 1785; their place of residence was Warsaw. They had as pupils at their lectures the sons of the wealthiestfamilies, but their instruction was inadequate, and ignored the Polish tongue. There was no fixed curriculum, no advanced method of instruction, no system of classes, arranged according to the degree of progress of the pupils. The main subjects of instruction were the Latin, Italian, and French languages, with architecture,painting, and music. There were no class rooms, the teacher giving instruction in his own dwelling to one or more pupils in his own specialty. The subjects taught followed one another in accordance with no uniform plan, but in accordance with the wishes and choice of the teacher or pupil. When tired of teaching, the teachers not infrequently went visiting with their pupils to some acquaintance or relative. Not until later did they begin to pay any regard to the principles of pedagogy relative to joint instruction by classes. Failing in energy and in the ability to adapt themselves to the demands of their time, they were compelled to leave Poland in the year 1785.

TheTrappists, driven out ofFrance as the result of theFrench Revolution, stopped for a while in White Russia and Volhynia. The Russian Emperor Paul welcomed them within the boundaries of his empire and gave them refuge and support. The first eighteenTrappists came in 1798 and settled in White Russia. However, they did not remain there long, for as early as the beginning of the year 1800 they left their new homes and went toEngland and America.

The Trinitarians (Ordo Cælestis SS. Trinitatis de Redemptione Captivorum). —King John Sobieski, after the deliverance ofVienna (12 September, 1683), sent Bishop Denhof toRome toInnocent XI with the capturedTurkish flag, which thepope caused to be placed in the Lateran on 7 October of the same year. While inRome, Denhof frequently visited theconvent church of the Trinitarians, and this order pleased him so much that he decided to introduce it into Poland. He succeeded in doing this in April, 1685. The Trinitarians were installed atLemberg, because this city, being near theTurkish frontier, was more favourably situated than Warsaw for the negotiationsnecessary for the ransom ofprisoners. A secondconvent of the Trinitarians was atCracow; the third, at Stanislaw, was suppressed by theAustrian government in 1783; the fourth, in Volhynia (Beresczek), in 1832. The eighteenconvents in Poland constituted a separate province. InAustria they were suppressed in 1783 byJoseph II, in Russian Poland, in 1832 and 1863. The discalced Trinitarians led a rigorous life; no member of the order was permitted to have anyproperty, and as a result great poverty prevailed among them. In addition to the dailyprayer of theBreviary, they had meditations andprayers lasting two hours and a half; they kept silence andfasted on all days of the week except Sunday; furthermore, there were frequent disciplines. The Trinitarians in Poland regarded it as their chief task to ransomprisoners from theTurks and Tatars, for which purpose they devoted, according to the rule of their order, one-third of all they received. They also collected aims for the deliverance ofprisoners;ecclesiastical as well as secular lords contributed large sums of money for this purpose. Two years after their arrival in Poland (1688) the Trinitarians ransomed 8prisoners; 13 in 1690; 43 in 1691; 45 in 1694; 25 in 1695; 43 in 1699; 55 in 1712; 49 in 1723; 70 in 1729; 33 in 1743. Among those ransomed were not only Poles but also members of other nationalities, particularly Hungarians.

TheUrsulines entered Poland only in the nineteenth century, but they have rendered great service to the country by training and instructing the girls. Expelled by thePrussian Government, they found a refuge inAustria.

TheVincentian Sisters, or Sisters of Charity, observing the rule ofSt. Vincent de Paul, came to Poland during his lifetime (1660). Besides nursing the sick, they devoted themselves to the training oforphans and poor girls. They have survived in all the provinces of the former Kingdom of Poland, except Lithuania, where they were suppressed in 1842 and 1864.

Present position of the Church

At the present time the Polish people are closely bound to the heads of their Church by ties oflove and confidence. In Russian Poland it is not probable that any enemy could alienate theCatholic part of the population from thebishops; inAustria the relations between the Polish episcopate and the people under them in no way justify the hopes of the enemies of theChurch that exceptionallaws of any kind directed against the orders could be passed; inPrussian Poland the Polisharchbishop has not yet exhausted all his resources in his struggle for therights and the freedom of theChurch.

There are at present in Poland four ecclesiastical provinces: atGnesen,Lemberg,Mohileff, andWarsaw. In the year 1000 Poland had fivebishoprics; this number increased to thirty-three in 1818. The head of theCatholicChurch in Poland was theArchbishop ofGnesen,primate of the kingdom andlegatus nalus. In theecclesiastical hierarchy the following order of precedence was established: after theprimate came theArchbishop ofLemberg, then the Bishops of Cracow, Wladislaw (Lesslau), Posen,Vilna,Plock,Ermland,Lutzk, Przemysl, Samland, Kulm,Chelm, Kieff, Kamenets, Livonia, and Smolensk. The Uniats had twoarchbishops, at Kieff and Polotzk, besides theBishoprics ofLutzk,Chelm, Lemberg-Kamenets and Przemysl-Pinsk. At present Austrian Poland has a Latinarchbishop atLemberg and the Bishops of Cracow,Tarnow, and Przemysl, with about 4,000,000laity and about 2,000priests, besides anarchbishop of theGreek Rite atLemberg andbishops at Przemysl andStanislawow. InPrussian Poland theArchbishop ofGnesen has under him the suffragan Dioceses of Posen and Kulm, while the Bishops ofBreslau and Ermland areimmediately subject to theApostolic See. Russian Poland has the following sees: Warsaw (archbishopric),Plock,Kielce,Lublin,Sandomir,Sejny and Augustowo, and Wladislaw (Lesslau); in the districts ofLithuania and LittleRussia, Mohileff (archbishopric),Vilna, Samland,Minsk, and Lutzk-Zhitomir. These thirteendioceses number about 4,500priests and over 12,000,000Catholics. The Polishclergy is working in the forefront in every field, setting a splendid example; it unites Polish patriotism withCatholicism. Aninfallible sign of its powers of development is undoubtedly seen in the growth of religious literature in the Polish language. This movement clearly shows that the Polishclergy is receiving a thorougheducation and contributing much to the advancement of culture and religion in Polishsociety. Every Polish province has at least one periodical of a religious-social character. (SeeCATHOLIC PERIODICAL LITERATURE:Poland.) Theclergy everywhere enjoy an extraordinary esteem and large sections of the people are very religious.

One instance, however, must be recorded in which a defection from thetruefaith has taken place in the bosom of the Polish Church. In Russian Poland thesect of Mariavites, during the years 1905-08 attracted much attention. About 1884 Casimir Przyjemski, apriest, came toPlock, seeking to establish an association ofpriests in connexion with theThird Order of St. Francis, for mutual edification and the promotion of asceticism. After he had become acquainted with Felicya Kozlowska, a poor seamstress, and a tertiary, he informed her of his plan. On 2 August, 1893, Kozlowska claimed to have had a revelation fromGod, according to which she was to found an association ofpriests andpiouswomen under the name of Mariavites, and thus to regenerate the world. The association, which took its name from the words "Hail Mary", gathered a large number of followers. Kozlowska, generally called "mateczka" (little mother), placed herself at the head of both the male andfemale branches of the association; she was regarded as asaint, and her followers even ascribedmiracles to her. The Sacred Congregation of theInquisition, having decided that the alleged visions of Kozlowska were hallucinations, ordered thesociety to disband. The Mariavites refused to submit to this decision, and, moreover, continued to preach a body of blasphemous doctrines tending to exalt thepersonality of Maria Kozlowska. They were, accordingly, placed underexcommunication byRome. In 1906 the number of Mariavitepriests amounted to about 50 in some 20 oddparishes, claiming a following of 500,000souls. By the spring of the following year their numbers had already fallen to 60,000. Public opinion in all parts of Poland almost unanimously condemned the new body, which had been recognized by the Russian Government as areligioussect. It now (1910) numbers among its adherents 40priests and 22parishes, with, it is said, 20,000 adherents. The Mariavites have recently adopted an entirely Polish liturgy. Thesect appeared in Poland at a time when the country began to revive under the impulse of freedom, and when the hostility between Poles and Russians appeared to be on the point of dying out: a reconciliation of the two nations might possibly prepare the way for a religious union.

Emigration from Poland to theNew World did not begin to assume any considerable proportions until the middle of the nineteenth century. The impulse which resulted in this movement may be traced to the unfavourable conditions, not onlyeconomic, but also political and religious, which prevailed in Poland. TheUnited States,Brazil,Canada,Uruguay, and Australia have received an accession of population amounting to more than 3,000,000, chiefly from the labouring classes of the population. (SeePOLES IN THE UNITED STATES.)

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