 |
|
| A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z |
ARCHDIOCESE OF PARIS (PARIBIENSIS)
See alsoUNIVERSITY OF PARIS.
Paris comprises the Department of the Seine. It was re-established by the Concordat of 1802 with much narrower limits than it had prior to theRevolution, when, besides the city of Paris and its suburbs, it comprised the archdeanery of Josas (including the deaneries of Châteaufort and Montlhéry) and the archdeanery of Brie (including the deaneries of Lagny and Vieux-Corbeil). The deanery of Champeaux, enclosed within the territory of theDiocese of Sens, was also dependent on the Archdiocese of Paris, which had then 492parishes. The Concordat gave to thedioceses ofVersailles and Meaux the archdeaneries of Josas and Brie, which had nearly 350parishes, and reduced the Archdiocese of Paris to 42 urban and 76 suburbanparishes. According to the Concordat it had eight suffragans: Amiens,Arras,Cambrai,Orléans, Meaux,Soissons,Troyes andVersailles. The re-establishment under the Restoration of theArchdioceses ofReims and Sens removed the Dioceses ofTroyes,Amiens, andSoissons from thejurisdiction of Paris, but the Dioceses ofBlois and Chartres, created in 1882, were attached to the Province of Paris. In 1841 Cambrai, having become ametropolitansee, ceased to be a suffragan of Paris, Arras being made its suffragan.
The Gaul Camulogenus burnt Lutetia in 52 , while defending against Cæsar the tribe of theParisii, whose capital it was. The Romans erected a new city on the left slope of Mt. Lucotilius (later Mont Ste-Geneviève). That the Romanization of Paris was very quickly accomplished isproved:
At the end of the third century Lutetia was destroyed by the barbarians, but an important military camp was at once installed in this district. Cæsar Julian, later emperor and known asJulian the Apostate, defended Lutetia against fresh invasions from the north over the road from Senlis to Orléans. There, in 360, he was proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, and Valentian I also sojourned there. The ruins found in the garden of the Musée de Cluny have, since the twelfth century, been regarded as the ruins of theThermœ, but in 1903-04 otherthermœ were discovered a little distance away, which must be either those of the palace ofJulian the Apostate, or, according to M. Julian, those of the communal house of theNautœ Parisiaci. Ruins have also been discovered of an arena capable of holding from 8000 to 9000persons.
Paris was aChristian centre at an earlydate, its first apostles being St. Denis and his companions, Sts. Rusticus and Eleutherius. Until theRevolution the ancient tradition of the Parisian Church commemorated the seven stations of St. Denis, the stages of his apostolate andmartyrdom:
The memorials of thesaint's activity in Paris have thus survived, but even thedate of his apostolate is a matter of controversy. The legend stating St. Denis came to Gaul in the time of St. Clement, dates only from the end of the eighth century. It is found in the "Passio Dionisii", written about 800, and in the "Gesta Dagoberti", written at the Abbey of St-Denis at the beginning of the ninth century. Still later than the formation of this legend Abbot Hilduin identified St. Denis of Paris with Denis the Areopagite (seeDIONYSIUS THE PSEUDO-AREOPAGITE), but this identification is no longer admitted, and history is inclined to accept the opinion ofSt. Gregory of Tours, who declares St. Denis one of the sevenbishops sent by Pope Fabian about 250. It iscertain that theChristian community of Paris was of some importance in the third century. Recent discoveries seem to prove that thecatacombs of the Gobelins and of St. Marcellus on the left bank were the oldestnecropolis of Paris; here have been found nearly 500tombs, of which the oldest date from the end of the third century. Doubtless in this quarter was situated the church spoken of bySt. Gregory of Tours as the oldest in the city; here was the sarcophagus of the virgin Crescentia, granted that our hypothesis agrees with a legend referring to this region the foundation of thechapel under the patronage of Pope St. Clement, in which Bishop St. Marcellus was buried in the fifth century. Thisbishop, who was a native of Paris, governed theChurch of Paris about 430; he is celebrated in popular tradition for his victory over a dragon, and his life was written byFortunatus.
Paris was preserved from the invasion ofAttila through theprayers and activity ofSt. Genevieve, who prevailed on the Parisians not to abandon their city.Clovis, King of theFranks, was received there in 497 after hisconversion toChristianity, and made it his capital. The coming of theFranks brought about its great religious development. At the summit of the hill on the left bankClovis founded, inhonour of the Apostles Peter and Paul, abasilica to which thetomb ofSt. Genevieve drew numbers of thefaithful, and in which St. Clotilde, who died atTours, was buried. On the right bank were built as early as the fifth century two churchesconsecrated toSt. Martin of Tours — one near the present Notre-Dame, the other further in the country, in the place where theChurch of St-Martin-des-Champs now stands. Childebert (died 558), son ofClovis, having become King of Paris in 511, added to the religious prestige of the city. After his campaign inSpain, he made peace with the inhabitants of Saragossa on condition that they would deliver to him thesacred vessels and thestole of St. Vincent, and on his return, at the instance of St. Germain, built achurch inhonour of St. Vincent, which later took the name of Germain himself. The present church of St-Germain-des-Prés still preserves some columns from the triforium, which must date from the first building. After the death of Caribert, son of Clotaire I (567), Paris was not divided among the other sons of Clotaire, but formed a sort of municipal republic under the direction of St. Germain. Owing to this exceptional situation Paris escaped almost entirely the consequences of the civilwars with which the sons of Clotaire, and later Fredegunde and Brunhilde, disturbed MerovingianFrance. Mgr Duchesne concedes a certain authority to an ancient catalogue of thebishops of Paris, preserved in a sacramentarydating from the end of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth century. After St. Germain otherbishops of the Merovingian period were: St. Céran (Ceraunus, 606-21), who collected and compiled the Acts of the Martyrs, and during whose episcopate a council of seventy-ninebishops (the first national council ofFrance) was held at the basilica of Sts. Peter and Paul; St. Landry (650-6), who founded under the patronage of St. Christopher the first charityhospital (Hôtel-Dieu) of Paris, and who caused themonk Marculf to compile, under the name of "Recueil de Formules", the first French and Parisian code, which is a real monument of the legislation of the seventh century; St. Agilbert (666-80), who was the brother of St. Theodechilde, firstAbbess of Jouarre, and who had, during his youth inEngland, instructed inChristianity the King of the Saxons; St. Hugues (722-30), nephew ofCharles Martel, previouslyArchbishop ofRouen andAbbot of Fontenelle.
TheCarlovingian period opened with the episcopate of Déodefroi (757-75), who received Pope Stephen at Paris. Special mention must be made of Æneas (appointedbishop in 853 or 858; died 870), who wrote against Photius, under the title "Libellus adversus Græcos", a collection of texts from the Fathers on the Holy Ghost,fasting, and the Roman primacy. As the Carlovingians most frequently resided on the banks of the Meuse or the Rhine, thebishops of Paris greatly increased their political influence, though confronted by counts who represented the absent sovereigns. Thebishops were masters of most of theIle de la Cité and of a considerable portion of the right bank, near St-Germain-l'Auxerrois. As early as the ninth century theproperty of the chapter of Notre-Dame, established (775-95) by Bishop Erchenrade, was distinct from that of thediocese, while thecloister and the residences of the canons were quite independent of the royal power. Notre-Dame and the Abbey of St-Germain-des-Prés were then two greateconomic powers which sent through the kingdom their agents (missi negociantes), charged with making purchases. When the Normans entered Paris in 845 or 846, the body of St. Germain was hurriedly removed. They established themselves in theabbey, but left on payment of 7000 livres, whereupon thesaint's body was brought back with great pomp. Another Norman invasion in 850 or 856 again occasioned the removal of St. Germain's body, which was restored in 863. Other alarms came in 865 and 876, but the worst attack took place on 24 Nov., 885, when Paris was defended by itsbishop, the celebrated Gozlin, aBenedictine and formerAbbot of St-Germain-des-Prés, and by Count Eudes of Paris, later King ofFrance. The siege lasted a year, of which an account in Latin verse was written by themonkAbbo Cernuus. Gozlin died in the breach on 16 April, 886. His nephew Ebles,Abbot of St-Germain, was also among the valiant defenders of the city. The Parisians called upon Emperor Charles the Fat to assist them, and he paid the Normans a ransom, and even gave them permission to ascend the Seine through the city to pillageBurgundy; the Parisians refused to let them pass, however, and the Normans had to drag their boats around the walls. After the deposition of Charles the Fat, Eudes, who had defended Paris against the Normans, became king, and repelled another Norman attack, assisted by Gozlin's successor, Bishop Anscheric (886-91). After the death of Eudes the Parisians recognized his brother Robert, Count of Paris and Duke ofFrance, and then Hugh the Great.Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great, prevented Paris from falling into the hands of the troops of EmperorOtto II in 978; in 987 he founded the Capetian dynasty.
"To form a conception of Paris in the tenth and eleventh centuries", writes M. Marcel Poète, "we must picture to ourselves a network of churches andmonasteries surrounded by cultivated farm-lands on the present site of Paris." Take, for example, themonastery of St. Martin-des-Champs, which in 1079 was attached to the Order of Cluny; about thismonastery and its hospice was grouped a real agricultural colony, while all trades were practised in themonasticschool. The same wastrue of themonastery of Sts. Barthélemy and Magloire, which was celebrated at the beginning of the Capetian period, and was dependent on the Abbey of Marmoutiers (seeTOURS). But a still more famous monastic establishment was the Abbey of St-Germain-des-Prés. Its estates of Issy and of Celle-St-Cloud were vast possessions, and the polyptych (record of the monastic possessions), drawn up at the beginning of the ninth century under the direction of Abbot Irminon, shows how these estates, which extended into Indre and Normandy, were administered and cultivated. The first Capetians generally resided at Paris. Louis the Fat quarrelled with Bishop Etienne de Senlis (1124-42). Thebishop placed the royal domain underinterdict, whereupon the king confiscated the temporalities of thediocese, but the intervention of thepope and ofSt. Bernard put an end to the difference, and to seal the reconciliation, the king invited thebishop to thecoronation of his son, Louis VII. The episcopal court ofPeter Lombard (1157 or 1159 to 1160 or 1164) contributed to the scholarly reputation of theChurch of Paris. TheUniversity of Paris did not yet exist, but, from the beginning of the twelfth century, themonasticschools of Notre-Dame were already famous, and the teaching ofPeter Lombard, known as the Master of the Sentences, added to their lustre. Louis VI declared in a diploma that he had passed "his childhood in theschools of Notre-Dame as in the maternal bosom". At Notre-DameWilliam of Champeaux had taught dialectics, been a professor, and become anarchdeacon, and hadAbelard as a disciple before he founded theschool of St-Victor in 1108. Until about 1127 the students of Notre-Dame resided within the chapter enclosure. By a command ofAlexander III the principle of gratuitous instruction was asserted. In a letter written between 1154 and 1182 Philippe de Harvengt says: "There is at Paris such an assemblage and abundance ofclerics that they threatened to outnumber thelaity. Happy city, where the Holy Books are so assiduously studied and their mysteries so well expounded, where such diligence reigns among the students, and where there is such aknowledge of Scripture that it may be called the city of letters!" At the same period Peter ofBlois says that all who wish the settlement of any question should apply to Paris, where the most tangled knots are untied. In his letter to ArchbishopWilliam of Sens (1169), St. Thomas à Becket declares himself ready to submit his difference with the King ofEngland to the judgment of the scholars at Paris.
The long episcopate ofMaurice de Sully (1160-96), the son of a simple serf, was marked by theconsecration of theCathedral of Notre-Dame (see below) and the journey to Paris ofPope Alexander III (1163). Hughes de Monceaux,Abbot of St-Germain, requested thepope toconsecrate themonastery church.Maurice de Sully,Bishop of Paris, having accompanied thepope to theceremony, was invited by theabbot to withdraw, andAlexander III declared in a sermon, afterwards confirmed by aBull, thenceforth theChurch of St-Germain-des-Prés was dependent only on theRoman pontiff, and subsequently conferred on theabbot a number of episcopal prerogatives. In time the Abbey of St-Germain became the centre of a bourg, the inhabitants of which were granted municipal freedom by Abbot Hughes de Monceaux about 1170. Eudes de Sully (1197-1208), the successor of Maurice,courageously opposed King Philip II, when he wished to repudiate Ingeburge and wed Agnes de Méran. Philip II was a benefactor of Paris, and theuniversity was founded during his reign (1215). (SeeUNIVERSITY OF PARIS.) The thirteenth century, and especially the reign of St. Louis, was a period of great industrial and commercial prosperity for Paris, as is shown by the "Livre des Mestiers" of Etienne Boileau and the invectives ofPetrarch. Bishop Guillaume d'Auvergne (1227-49) received from St. Louis the Crown of Thorns, which was borne in procession to Paris on 18 August, 1239. Under St. Louis the Parliament was permanently established at Paris and theBishop of Paris declared aconseiller-né. UnderPhilip the Fair occurred at Paris the trial of theTemplars which ended (1314) with the execution of Jacques de Molai.
The troubles of the Hundred Years' War throw into relief the character of Pierre de la Forest,Bishop of Paris (1350-2), laterArchbishop ofRouen andcardinal. After the Battle ofPoitiers (1356), at which John II was takenprisoner, the dauphin Charles (afterwards Charles V) convoked at Paris the States General of 1356, 1357, and 1358. At these assemblies theprovost of merchants, Etienne Marcel, and Robert Le Coq,Bishop of Laon, were the leaders of a violent opposition to the royal party. The result of the assassination of Etienne Marcel was the dauphin's victory. Having become king as Charles V, the latter made himself a magnificent residence at the Hôtel St-Paul, rebuilt the Louvre, and began the construction of the Bastille. During his reign thecardinalitial purple was first given to thebishops of Paris. Etienne de Paris (1363-8) and Aimeri de Maignac (1368-84) received it in turn. The revolt of the Maillotins (1381) and thewars between theBurgundians and Armagnacs during the first twenty years of the fifteenth century filled Paris with blood. After the Treaty of Troyes (1420) Paris received an English garrison. Because of his sympathy with Charles VI, John Courtecuisse, atheologian of Gallican tendencies who becamebishop in 1420, was compelled to go into exile atGeneva, where he died in 1423. The attack ofJoan of Arc on Paris in 1430 was unsuccessful. The Treaty of Arras between Philip the Good, Duke ofBurgundy, and Charles VII, restored Paris under the dominion of the kings ofFrance. Louis XI (q.v.), successor of Charles VII, was much beloved by the citizens of Paris. The poet Jean du Bellay, friend ofFrancis I and several times ambassador, wasBishop of Paris from 1532 to 1551, and was madecardinal in 1535. With him theRenaissance was established in thediocese, and it was at his persuasion thatFrancis I founded for the teaching of languages and philology the Collège Royal, which later became the Collège de France (1529). In 1533 du Ballay negotiated betweenHenry VIII andClement VII in an attempt to preventEngland's break with theHoly See, and, when in 1536 the troops ofCharles V threatened Picardy and Champagne, he received fromFrancis I the title of Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom and placed Paris in a state of defence. Du Bellay was a typicalprelate of theRenaissance, and was celebrated for his three books of Latin poetry and his magnificent Latin discourses. For a time he had for his secretary, Rabelais, whom he is said to have inspired to write "Pantagruel". He was disgraced under Henry II, resigned hisbishopric in 1551, and went toRome, where he died. The consequences of the rise ofProtestantism and of thewars of religion in regard to Paris are treated underSAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY;THE LEAGUE;FRANCE.
With Cardinal Pierre de Gondi (died 1598), who occupied the See of Paris from 1568, began the Gondi dynasty which occupied thesee for a century. As ambassador toPius V,Gregory XIII, andSixtus V, Pierre de Gondi always opposed the League and favoured the accession ofHenry of Navarre. After the episcopate of his nephew Cardinal Henri de Gondi (1598-1622), Paris became anarchiepiscopal see, and was given to Jean François de Gondi. As early as 1376 Charles V had sought the erection of Paris toarchiepiscopal rank, but, out of regard for thearchbishops ofSens, theHoly See had then refused to grant the petition. Louis XIII was more successful, and by aBull of October, 1622, Paris was made ametropolitansee with Chartres, Meaux, and Orléans as suffragans. Jean François de Gondi did much to further the development of religious congregations (see PIERRE DE BÉRULLE;FRENCH CONGREGATION OF THE ORATORY;JEAN-JACQUES OLIER;SOCIETY OF ST-SULPICE;SAINT VINCENT DE PAUL), and, during the civil disturbances of the Fronde, laboured for the relief of the suffering populace, whose tireless benefactor wasSt. Vincent de Paul. Thearchbishop's coadjutor was his nephew Jean François Paul de Gondi, Cardinal de Retz, who often played the part of a political conspirator. In 1662 the See of Paris was for a very brief period occupied by the Gallican canonist Pierre de Marca, earlierArchbishop ofToulouse. He was succeeded byHardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont (1662-71), during whose episcopate began the sharp conflicts evoked byJansenism. He had been tutor toLouis XIV and was the biographer ofHenry IV. Harlay de Champvallon (1671-95) is the subject of a separate article.Louis Antoine* de Noailles (1695-1729), madecardinal in 1700, played an important part in the disputes concerningQuietism andJansenism. After an attempt to reconcileBossuet andFénelon he took sides against the latter, successively approved and condemnedQuesnel's book, and did not subscribe to theBull"Unigenitus" until 1728. In the eighteenth century the See of Paris was made illustrious by Christophe de Beaumont (1746-81), earlierBishop ofBayonne andArchbishop of Vienne, who succeeded in putting an end to the opposition lingering among some of theclergy to theBull"Unigenitus". The parliamentarians protested against the denial of thesacraments to impenitentJansenists, and Louis XV, after having at first forbidden the Parliament to concern itself with this question, turned against thearchbishop, exiled him, and then endeavoured to secure his resignation by offering him tempting dignities. But it was especially against thephilosophes that thisprelate wagedwar; pamphlets were written against him, among them the "Lettre de Jean Jacques Rousseau à monseigneur l'archévêque de Paris". Antoine* Le Clerc de Juigné (died 1811), who succeeded Beaumont in 1781, was president of theclergy at the States General of 1789. He went into exile during theRevolution, and at the Concordat resigned hissee at thepope's request.
Within the present boundaries of the archdiocese the number ofpriests forming the activeclergy at the time of theRevolution was about 1000, of whom 600 were in Parisianparishes, 150 in those of the suburbs, and 250 werechaplains. There were 921 religious, belonging to 21 religiousfamilies divided among 38convents. Immediately after the adoption of the Civil Constitution of theclergy 8 newparishes were created in Paris and 27 were suppressed. Out of 50 Parisianpastors 26 refused to take theoath; out of 69 first or secondcurates 36 refused; of the 399 otherpriests having spiritual powers, 216 refused. On the other hand among thepriests who, not exercisingparochialduties, were not called upon to swear, 196 declared that they would take theoath and 14 refused. On 13 March 1791, Gobel (born 1727),Bishop ofLydda, CoadjutorBishop of Basle, and a member of the Constitutional Assembly, was electedbishop by 500 votes. Loménie de Brienne,Archbishop ofSens, and Jarente,Bishop ofOrléans, though both had accepted the civil constitution of theclergy, refused to give Gobelcanonical institution, and he received it from the famous Talleyrand,Bishop ofAutun. Gobel surrounded himself with marriedclerics such as Louis de Saint Martin, Colombart, and Aubert, and through the Marquis of Spinola, Minister of the Republic ofGenoa, endeavoured to obtain from theHoly See a sum of money in exchange for his submission. At the beginning of 1793 he was at the head of about 600 "sworn"priests, about 500 of whom were employed inparishes. On 7 November, 1793, he solemnly declared before the Convention that his subordinates and he renounced theduties ofministers ofCatholic worship, whereupon the Convention congratulated him on having "sacrificed the grotesque baubles ofsuperstition". On the same day Notre-Dame was dedicated to the worship of Reason, Citizeness Aubry, acomédienne, impersonating that goddess and Gobel presiding at theceremony. Finally, the Commune of Paris decided that all churches should be closed, and that whosoever requested that they be reopened should be regarded as a suspect. In March, 1794, Gobel was condemned todeath as anatheist by the followers of Robespierre, and was executed after lengthy spiritual interviews with the Sulpician Emery and after he had addressed to Abbé Lothringer a letter in which he declared his repentance. In the absence of Juigné, the legitimatebishop, theCatholic faithful continued to obey a council formed of the Abbéss de Malaret, Emery, and Espinasse, under the leadership of the formervicar-general, Charles Henri du Valk de Dampierre, who was in hiding. Public worship was restored by the Law of Ventose, Year III, and by thelaw of 2 Prairial, Year III (30 March, 1795), fifteen churches were reopened. As early as 1796 about fifty places of worship had been reopened in Paris; sixteen or seventeen, of which eleven wereparochial churches, were administered bypriests who had accepted the Constitution. More than thirty others of which three wereparochial churches, were administered bypriests who were in secret obedience to the legitimatearchbishop, and the number of Constitutionalpriests had fallen from 600 to 150.
The Archdiocese of Paris became more and more important inFrance during the nineteenth century.Jean Baptiste de Belloy, formerBishop ofMarseilles, who was appointedarchbishop in 1802, was then ninety-three years old. On 18 April, 1802, he presided at Notre-Dame over theceremony at which the Concordat wassolemnly published. Despite his great age he reorganized worship in Paris, and re-establishedreligious life in its forty-twoparishes. In a conciliatory spirit he appointed to about twelve of theseparishespriests who had taken theoath during theRevolution. He becamecardinal in 1803 and died in 1808. The conflict betweenNapoleon andPius VII was then at its height.Napoleon attempted to makeFesch accept the See of Paris, while the latter wished to retain that ofLyons. Cardinal Maury (1746-1817), formerly a royalist deputy to the Constitutional Assembly, also ambassador to theHoly See from the Count of Provence, but who went over to the Empire in 1800 and in 1810 becamechaplain to King Jerome, was namedArchbishop of Paris byNapoleon on 14 Oct., 1810. The chapter at once conferred on him the powers ofvicar-capitular, until he should bepreconized by thepope, but, when it became known thatPius VII, by aBrief of 5 November, 1810, refused to recognize thenomination, Maury was actively opposed by a section of the chapter and theclergy. The emperor took his revenge by striking at thevicar-capitular,Astros. At the fall ofNapoleon, despite hiszeal in persuading it to adhere to the deposition of the emperor, Maury was deprived of his faculties by the chapter. In agreement withRome, Louis XVIII named asArchbishop of Paris (1 Aug., 1817) Alexandre Angélique de Talleyrand-Périgord (1736-1821), who, despite the Concordat, chose to retain his title ofArchbishop ofReims until 1816 and who was createdcardinal on 28 July, 1817. Talleyrand-Périgord did not take possession of hissee until Oct., 1819. He divided the diocese into three arch-deaneries, which division is still in force.
On the death of Talleyrand-Périgord in 1821, his coadjutor Hyacinthe Louis de Quélen (1778-1840), courtchaplain, succeeded him. A member of the Chamber of Peers under the Restoration, Quélen, as president of the commission for the investigation of theschool situation, vainly endeavoured to prevent thepromulgation of the Martignac ordinances against theJesuits in June, 1828. His friendly relations with Louis XVIII and Charles X drew upon him in 1830 the hostility of the populace; his palace was twice sacked, and the Monarchy of July regarded him with suspicion, but the devotion he showed during a terrible cholera epidemic won many hearts to him. Assisted byDupanloup he converted the famous Talleyrand, nephew of his predecessor, on his death-bed in 1838. Quélen died 8 Jan., 1840, and was succeeded byDenis-Auguste Affre, (1793-1848), who was slain at the barricades in 1848.Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour (1792-1862), formerlyBishop ofDigne, succeededAffre; among theprelates consulted byPius IX with regard to the opportuneness of defining the Immaculate Conception, he was one of the few who opposed it. He was killed in the church of St-Etienne-du-Mont on 3 Jan., 1857, by a suspendedpriest. After the short episcopate of Cardinal Morlot (1857-62) thesee was occupied from 1862 to 1872 byGeorges Darboy, who wasslain during the Commune. Joseph-Hippolyte Guibert (1802-86), previouslyBishop ofViviers andArchbishop ofTours, becameArchbishop of Paris on 27 Oct., 1871. His episcopate was made notable by the erection of the basilica of Montmartre (see below), and the creation of the Catholic University, at the head of which he placedMgr d'Hulst. His successor was François-Marie-Benjamin Richard (1819-1907), formerBishop ofBelley, who had been coadjutor of Paris since July, 1875, becamecardinal 24 May, 1889, and was active in the defence of the religious congregations. Mgr Léon Amette (born at Douville, in theDiocese of Evreux, 1850), coadjutor to Cardinal Richard since February, 1906, succeeded him in the See of Paris, on 28 Jan., 1908.
On the site now occupied by the courtyards of Notre-Dame de Paris there was as early as the sixth century a church of Notre-Dame, which had as patrons the Blessed Virgin, St. Stephen, and St. Germain. It was built by Childebert about 528, and on the site of the presentsacristy there was also a church dedicated to St. Stephen. The Norman invasions destroyed Notre-Dame, but St-Etienne remained standing, and for a time served as thecathedral. At the end of the ninth century Notre-Dame was rebuilt, and the two churches continued to exist side by side until the eleventh century when St-Etienne fell to ruin.Maurice de Sully resolved to erect a magnificentcathedral on the ruins of St-Etienne and the site of Notre-Dame. Surrounded by twelvecardinals,Alexander III, who sojourned at Paris from 24 March to 25 April, 1163, laid thecorner-stone. Henri de Château-Marçay,papal legate,consecrated thehigh altar in 1182; Hierarchus,Patriarch ofJerusalem, officiated in 1185 in the completed choir; thefaçade was finished in 1218, the towers in 1235. Jean and Pierre de Chelles completed the work, and, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, thecathedral was as it is now. The following are among the noteworthy events which took place at Notre-Dame: the depositing by St. Louis (10 Aug., 1239) of the Crown of Thorns, a portion of theTrue Cross, and a nail of the Passion; the obsequies of St. Louis (21 May, 1271); the assembling of the first States-General (10 April, 1302); thecoronation of Henry VI ofEngland as King ofFrance (17 Nov., 1431); thecoronation ofMary Stuart (4 April, 1560); the funeral oration of the Duc de Mercœur bySt. Francis de Sales (27 April, 1602); thevow of Louis XIII, making the Assumption a feast of the kingdom (10 Feb., 1638); theabjuration of the Ambrose Maréchal de Turenne (23 Oct., 1668); the funeral oration of the Prince de Condé byBossuet (10 March, 1687).
During theFrench Revolution, in the period following 1790, the treasury was despoiled of many of its precious objects, which were sent to the mint to be melted down. The Crown of Thorns was taken to the cabinet of antiquities of the Bibliothèque Nationale and thus escaped destruction. Thestatues of the kings, which adorned theporch, were destroyed in October, 1793, by order of the Paris Commune. The feast of Reason was celebrated in Notre-Dame in November, 1793; in December of the same year Saint-Simon, the future founder of the Saint-Simonian religion, was about to purchase the church and destroy it. From 1798 it contained the offices of the Constitutionalclergy, and from 5 March to 28 May, 1798, it was also the meeting-place of theTheophilanthropists.Catholic worship was resumed on 18 April, 1802, and thecoronation ofNapoleon took place there on 2 December, 1804. By the preface of his novel "Notre Dame de Paris" (1832) Victor Hugo aroused a strong public sentiment in favour of thecathedral. In April, 1844, the Government entrusted Lassus and Viollet le Duc with a complete restoration, which was completed in 1864. On 31 May, 1864,Archbishop Darboy dedicated the restoredcathedral. The marriage ofNapoleon III (30 January, 1853), the funeral services of President Carnot (1 July, 1894), the obsequies of President Félix Faure (23 Feb., 1899), took place at Notre-Dame. Notre-Dame has been a minor basilica since 27 Feb., 1805. As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century at least two churches were copied entirely from thecathedral of Paris, viz, the collegiate church of Mantes (Seine-et-Oise.) and thecathedral ofNicosia in theIsland of Cyprus, thebishop of which was a brother of the cantor of Notre-Dame. TheIle de la Cité, where Notre-Dame stands, also contains the Sainte-Chapelle, in the Palais de la Justice, one of the most beautiful religious buildings in Paris. It was built (1212-47) under St. Louis by Pierre de Montereau, with the exception of the spire. Itsstained-glass windows are admirable. In former times the king, from an ogival baldachin, displayed to the people therelics of the Passion.
The Church of St-Germain-l'Auxerrois was built between the thirteenth and the sixteenth century on the site of abaptistery built by St. Germain, wherebaptism was administered on fixed dates. At other times thepiscina was dry, and thecatechumens came and seated themselves on the steps whilecatechetical classes were held. Three tragic recollections are connected with this church. On 24 August, 1572, its bells gave the signal for the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; in 1617, the body of Concini, Ambrose Maréchal d'Ancre, which had been buried there, was disinterred by the mob and mutilated; on 14 Feb., 1831, the people sacked the church under the pretext that an anniversary Mass was being celebrated for thesoul of the Duc de Berry. TheChurch of St-Eustache, built between 1532 and 1637, was the scene of the First Communion ofLouis XIV (1649), the funeral oration of Turenne preached byFléchier (1676), andMassillon's sermon on the small number of theelect (1704).Massillon preached theLenten sermons in the church of St-Leu (fourteenth century), and the conspirator Georges Cadoudal hid in itscrypt from the police ofBonaparte. In theChurch of St-Gervais (early sixteenth-century), where the League was established,Bossuet preached the funeral sermon of Chancellor Michel Le Tellier. Its doorway, of which Louis XIII laid the first stone in 1616, is a very beautiful work of Salomon de Brosse. Blessed Marie de l'Incarnation wasbaptized at Saint-Merry (1520-1612). In Saint-Louis-en-l'Ile (rebuilt 1664-1726)St. Vincent de Paul presided over the meetings at which the charity bureaux were organized. Charles VI, Charles VII, andOlier werebaptized in theChurch of St-Paul, destroyed during theRevolution. TheChurch of St-Louis (seventeenth-century), formerchapel of theJesuit professed house, whereBourdaloue preached the funeral sermon of Condé and where he was buried, was chosen at the Concordat to replace theparish of St-Paul, and took the name of St-Paul-St-Louis. The Madeleine (begun 1764 and finished 1824), of whichNapoleon I wished to make a Temple of Glory, had within less than a century twopastors, who weremartyred, Le Ber, butchered in 1792, and Deguerry, shot in 1871. TheChurch of St-Lawrence (fifteenth-century) was often visited bySt. Vincent de Paul, who lived in theconvent of St-Lazare within the confines of theparish. Here was buriedVenerable Madame Le Gras, foundress of the Sisters of Charity. During theRevolution it was given to theTheophilanthropists who made of it the "Temple of Hymen and Fidelity". With regard to Notre-Dame-des-Victoires see below under FAMOUS PILGRIMAGES. St-Denys-de-la-Chapelle (thirteenth-century) stands whereSt. Genevieve and her companions rested, when they were making apilgrimage from Paris to thetomb of St. Denis.Bl. Joan of Arc, who had come to besiege Paris, stopped here topray.
St-Nicholas-du-Chardonnet (1656-1758) is famous for theseminary which Bourdoise founded in the vicinity, for the Forty Hours preached there by St. Francis de Sales, and for the funeral oration ofLamoignon preached there byFléchier. St-Sulpice (1646-1745) is famous for itspastorOlier; in 1793 it was atemple of Victory, under the Directory it was used by theTheophilanthropists, and therePius VIIconsecrated thebishops ofLa Rochelle andPoitiers. To thearchitectural importance of St-Germain-des-Prés was added in the nineteenth century the attraction ofFlandrin's frescoes. St-Médard (fifteenth-sixteenth-century) became celebrated in the eighteenth century owing to the sensation caused by theJansenists with regard to the wonders wrought at thetomb of thedeacon Paris. St-Séverin (fourteenth-fifteenth-century), one of the most remarkable Gothic edifices of Paris, replaced an older church in whichFoulques de Neuily preached theFourth Crusade in 1199;St. Vincent de Paul,Bossuet,Massillon,Fléchier,Lacordaire, andRavignan preached in this church. Originally dedicated to St. Severinus, a Parisianhermit, who was buried there in 555, it was dedicated to St. Severinus of Agaune from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, and since 1753 has had both thesesaints as patrons. Ste-Clotilde (1846-61) was made a minor basilica on 19 April, 1897, at the time of the fourteenth centenary ofClovis. St-Lambert-de-Vaugirard had aspastorOlier, who founded the Society of St-Sulpice, andSt. John Baptist de la Salle opened his firstschool in thisparish; its name of Vaugirard (Vallis Gerardi) recalls the charitableAbbot of St-Germain-des-Prés, Gerard de Moret, who built dwellings for sick religious in the locality. The church of theSorbonne, where religious services are no longer held, was begun in 1635,Richelieu laying its foundation stone, and completed in 1646.Richelieu'stomb in this church was violated during theRevolution; thecardinal's head, which was taken away on this occasion, was restored to this church in 1866. Thechapel of Val-de-Gârce, a very beautiful specimen of theJesuit style and famous for itscupola whereinMignard has depicted the glory of the blessed, was built in fulfillment of avow made by Anne of Austria.Mansart was its first architect, and thecorner-stone was laid in 1645 byLouis XIV at the age of seven. Here was buried Henrietta ofFrance, wife of Charles I ofEngland, and hereBossuet preached theLenten sermons of 1663. It is now thechapel of the Paris militaryhospital. Thechapel of St-Louis-des-Invalides contains thetomb ofNapoleon I. In thecrypt of theChurch of St-Joseph-des-Carmes, built by theCarmelites between 1613 and 1625 and now the church of the Institut Catholique, are thetomb ofOzanam and the remains of the 120priests massacred in this church on 2 Sept., 1792, after fifteen days of captivity. In thiscryptLacordaire remained attached to a cross for three hours.
TheBenedictine Abbey of St-Germain-des-Prés, the foundation andmedieval splendour of which have been described above, was long famous for the fair which it held. During the seventeenth century its importantlibrary made it a centre of learning, and Luc d'Achéry,Mabillon, and Montfaucon rendered it illustrious. Abbé Prévost, author of the famous romance "Manon Lescaut", was for a time aBenedictine at St-Germain-des-Prés, where he worked on "Gallia Christiana". John Casimir, first aJesuit and later King ofPoland, died asAbbot of St-Germain-des-Prés in 1672. Theabbeyprison was the scene of the September massacres in 1792.
The origin of the Abbey of St-Victor was a hermitage, to whichWilliam of Champeaux retired in 1108. Theabbey was founded by a royal charter in 1113, and had as firstabbot Gilduin, confessor of Louis the Fat. Theabbey governed thepriories of Corbeil, Château-Laudon, Etampes, Mantes, Poissy, Dreux, and even thecathedral ofSéez. During the first century it was rendered illustrious by Richard of St-Victor, Hugh of St-Victor, and theliturgical poet, Adam of St-Victor. Grave abuses having crept into the Congregation of the Canons ofSt. Genevieve,Pope Eugenius III andSuger in 1148 introduced theCanons Regular of St. Augustine from the Abbey of St-Victor. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century theabbey passed through a period of decadence, and in 1498 two strangemonks, John Standonck,rector of the College of Montaigu, and John Monbaer of Windesheim near Zwolle, spent nine months at theabbey to effect its reform. With the sixteenth century began a series of commendatoryabbots, one of whom, Antonio Caracciolo, became aProtestant. The canons of St-Victor took a very important part in the League. The first half of the seventeenth century was characterized by a conflict between Jean deToulouse,prior of St-Victor, and the Genovéfains; a decision of theofficial (28 June, 1645) declared St-Victor autonomous.Jansenism found its way into St-Victor, and was combatted by Simon Gourdan, who waspersecuted. In the eighteenth century itslibrary was celebrated, and was open to the public three times a week. The librarian Mulot, who was also grand prior, published a translation of "Daphnis and Chloe". Theabbey's end was sad. When theRevolutionary commissaries questioned the twenty-one religious present, only one, aged 81, affirmed his desire to remain; nine did not reply, eleven left themonastery, and the librarian Mulot became a deputy of the Legislative Assembly. Theabbey was destroyed in November, 1798.
The early history of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, near Paris, is very obscure. In the second half of the fifth century theclergy of Paris erected at the instance ofSt. Genevieve in the village of Catulliacus where thesaint was buried, abasilica, administered by a community ofmonks. Pilgrims flocked thither, and, as early as 625, a charter of Clotaire II authorized theabbot to receive a legacy. Nevertheless, tradition regards Dagobert I (628-38) as the real founder. According toMabillon, Félibien, and M. Léon Levillain, he merely decorated and embellished the already existing basilica; according to Julian Havet, this early basilica stood at the place called Saint-Denis-de-l'Entrée, west of the present church, and between 623 and 625 Dagobert founded the newabbey church, to which therelics were removed in 626. Whatever the solution of this problem, with which scholars have occupied themselves since the seventeenth century, Dagobert was theabbey's signal benefactor: the altar ornaments, thetomb containing the body of St. Denis, the golden cross set with precious stones which stood behind thehigh altar were the work of the goldsmith,St. Eligius (Eloi), the king's friend. Dagobert himself desired to be buried atSaint-Denis. At the instance of Abbot Fulrad (died 784) Pepin the Short had theabbey rebuilt, and here on 28 July, 754,Pope Stephen II solemnly administered the royal anointment to Pepin, QueenBertha, and their two sons, andconsecrated an altar. The new edifice was dedicated on 24 Feb., 775, in the presence ofCharlemagne. Hilduin, who becameabbot in 814, wrote the life of St. Denis, and identifies him with St. Denis the Areopagite; During the ninth century the Normans several times levied tribute on and pillaged themonastery. During the siege of Paris in 886, themonks sought refuge with Archbishop Foulques ofReims, taking with them the body of St. Denis. After these disasters theabbey was restored and perhaps, as some scholars maintain, entirely rebuilt. St. Gerard, of a noblefamily of the Low Countries, was amonk at St-Denis previously to founding the Abbey of Broglie in 1030. In 1106 Paschal II visited theabbey, and for a timeAbelard was amonk there.Suger, minister of Louis VI and Louis VII, who becameAbbot of St-Denis in 1122, wished to erect a sumptuous new church; hisarchitectural work is known to us through two of his writings, the "Book of his Administration" and the "Treatise on the Consecration of the Church of St. Denis". St-Denis then attracted numerouspilgrims, whomSuger describes as crowding to the doors, "squeezed as in a press". By a charter of 15 March, 1125,Suger released frommortmain the people of St-Denis, who in gratitude gave him the money for the reconstruction of the church. The work began doubtless about 1132; the choir wasconsecrated on 11 June, 1144, in the presence of Louis VII, fivearchbishops, and fourteenbishops, and the translation of therelics took place the same day. The alliance of the Capetians with themonastery of St. Denis was thenceforth sealed. Odo of Deuil,Suger's successor asabbot, waschaplain to Louis VII during theSecond Crusade, of which he wrote a chronicle. The Abbey of St-Denis was the repository of the royal insignia — the crown, sceptre,main dejustice, and the garments and ornaments used at thecoronation of the kings. For eachcoronation theabbot brought them toReims. Theoriflamme was also kept there, and thither repairedBl. Joan of Arc after thecoronation of Charles VII atReims.
The new Church of St-Denis has an extreme importance for the history ofmedieval architecture. It was the earliest important building in which the pointed arch (croisée d'ogive) was used in thechapels of the deambulatory, thus inaugurating this wonderful invention of theGothic style. The church exercised also a great influence on the development of the industrial arts: the products of the goldsmith's and enameller's art ordered bySuger formed one of the most beautiful treasures ofChristianity, some remnants of which are still preserved in the Gallery of Apollo at the Louvre. As regards monumentalsculpture M. André Michel, the art historian, writes that "the grandchantry of St-Denis was the decisive studio in the elaboration and, if we may so speak, the proclamation of the new style." In 1231 the religious of St-Denis resolved to reconstruct the basilica, and the chroniclerGuillaume de Nangis, amonk at theabbey, says that St. Louis, a friend of theirabbot Mathieu de Vendôme, advised them to do so. It may be that portions of the edifice built bySuger had fallen to ruin, or perhaps St. Louis's plan to erecttombs to his predecessors was the origin of the plan. OfSuger's building the westernfaçade, the deambulatory, thechapels of theapse, and thecrypt were retained, the remainder being rebuilt. The work was directed by the architect Pierre de Montereau, thanks to whose genius thenave andtransept form a glorious example of the splendid Gothic art of the thirteenth century. St-Denis was the historical laboratory of the old French monarchy: theabbot selected a religious who followed the court as historiographer to the king, and, on the death of each king, the history of his reign, after having been submitted to the chapter, was incorporated in the "Grandes Chroniques". Especially important, as historical sources, are the works of themonk Rigord onPhilip Augustus and that ofGuillaume de Nangis on St. Louis. On the invention of printing the "Grandes Chroniques" were put in order by Jean Chartier, who completed them with the history of Charles VII and published them in 1476, this being the earliest book known to have been printed in Paris.
From 1529 St-Denis had commendatoryabbots, the first of whom was Louis Cardinal de Bourbon. The Religious Wars were a disastrous period for theabbey. In 1562 and 1567tombs were destroyed, the archives ravaged, and thereliquaries of thesaints stripped of their plates of gold and silver.Catherine de' Medici planned to erect beside the church achapel for Henry II and herself; François Primatice, Jean Bullant, and Androuet de Cerceau in turn supervised the work on this great mausoleum, which, owing to the civil disturbances, was never finished and was demolished in 1719. The troubles of the League brought about fresh pillages. Here on 25 July, 1593,Renaud de Beaune,Archbishop ofBourges, received theabjuration ofHenry IV. In 1633 theBenedictines of the Congregation of St. Maur reformed theabbey, and for a time the celebratedMabillon (1632-1707) was guardian of the treasury. In 1686Louis XIV transferred the abbatial revenues to the recently founded royal house of St-Cyr. In 1691 the title and dignity of itsabbot were suppressed, and thenceforth theabbey was directed by grandpriors, dependent on the superior-general of the congregation who resided at the Abbey of St-Germain-des-Prés. These grandpriors were of right vicars-general of thearchbishops of Paris. In 1706 themonk Félibien (1666-1719) published the history of theabbey. In the eighteenth century theabbey buildings were entirely rebuilt by themonks, and they were about to change completely the Gothic appearance of the church itself when theRevolution broke out. St-Denis was then calledFranciade, the church became first atemple of Reason, and then a market-house. In August, 1793, the Convention, on the recommendation of Barère, ordered the destruction of thetombs of the kings. Immediately most of the Gothictombs were destroyed, and between 14 and 25 Oct., 1793, the ashes of the Bourbons were scattered to the winds. In 1795 Alexander Lenoir had all thetombs that had been spared removed to the Museum of French Monuments.Napoleon (20 Feb., 1805) decided that the church should be restored, re-established worship there, and decreed that thenceforth St-Denis should be the burial-place of the emperors. At the Restoration thetombs which had been removed to the Museum of French Monuments were restored to St-Denis, but in such a disorderly fashion thatMontalembert, in a discourse of 1847, called the Church of St. Denis "a museum of bric-A-brac". A truly artistic restoration was accomplished finally (1847-79) by Viollet le Duc.
Of the thirty-two Capetian kings fromHugh Capet to Louis XV only three were buried elsewhere than in St-Denis. The series of authentic portraits of the kings ofFrance at St-Denis opens with the sepulchralstatue of Philip III the Bold (died 1285). Until the sixteenth century the royaltombs at St-Denis maintained modest proportions, but in that century the church was filled with works of art. The monument of the Dukes ofOrléans, erected by Louis XII, was the work of fourGenoesesculptors; that of Louis XII (died 1515) and Anne of Brittany (died 1514), is the work of theJuste family,Italiansculptors residing atTours; the magnificent monument ofFrancis I and Claude ofFrance is the work of the great architect Philibert Delorme and of thesculptor Pierre Bontemps; that of Henry II andCatherine de' Medici, executed under the direction of Primatice, is admired for thesculptures of Germain Pilon. The only monument representing the art of the seventeenth century is that of Turenne. The episcopal chapter of St-Denis, created byNapoleon I to care for the basilica, was composed of ten canons whose head was the grand almoner. The canons had to be formerbishops more than fifty years of age. The Restoration created canons of a second order, who were not chosen from among thebishops, and the grand almoner received the title ofprimicier (dean) of the chapter. The empire and the Restoration claimed that this chapter, whichNapoleon had created without taking counsel withRome, should not be subject to thejurisdiction of the ordinary. This was the cause of conflict until 1846, when thepope issued aBull placing the chapter of St-Germain under the direct supervision of theHoly See; theprimate retained episcopal authority over the church and the house of the Legion of Honour annexed to the church, and theArchbishop of Paris had nospiritual jurisdiction over either of these buildings. The budget for the chapter of St-Denis was suppressed by the State in 1888. Thetheologian Maret, famous for his writings against the opportuneness of the definition ofinfallibility, was the lastprimate.
St. Genevieve is the patroness of Paris, but after the conversion of the church into a Pantheon ofFrance's great men thesaint had no church in Paris. Since 1803 hertomb has been at St-Etienne-du-Mont (built 1517-1620), the burial-place ofRacine andPascal. TherePius VII went topray on 10 January, 1805, and it was the scene of the assassination ofArchbishop Sibour on 3 January, 1857. The veneration ofSt. Genevieve is expressed in two feasts:
In consequence of the visions granted to Catherine Labouré (who six months previously had become a member of the Sisters of Charity), M. Aladel, assistant of theLazarists, with the approval of Mgr de Quélen, had struck the"miraculous medal" of Mary Conceived without Sin, more than 4,000,000 of which were distributed throughout the world within four years. In 1838 Desgenettes,pastor of Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, organized in that church the Association inhonour of the Holy and Immaculate Heart of Mary, whichGregory XVI made a confraternity on 24 April, 1838, and the badge of which was themiraculous medal. In virtue of anotherindult ofGregory XVI (7 Dec., 1838) the Diocese of Paris received theright to transfer to the secondSunday ofAdvent the solemnity of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. On 10 July, 1894,Leo XIII granted to theLazarists, and to thedioceses that should request it, the faculty of celebrating yearly on 27 November the manifestation of the Blessed Virgin through themiraculous medal. This feast was first celebrated at Paris in thechapel of Rue du Bac on 25, 26, and 27 November, 1894. On 27 July, 1897, thestatue of theBlessed Virgin in thischapel wassolemnlycrowned in virtue of aBrief ofLeo XIII (2 March, 1897). In 1899 the number of Masses celebrated by foreignpriests at Notre-Dame-des-Victoires was 3031; the number of Communions, 110,000; intentions 1,305,980, or an average of 3578 per day.
Prior to the ninth century there were two churches on the hill of Montmartre — one, half way up, stood on the traditional site of the martyrdom of St. Denis, while the other, on the summit, was said to replace a temple dedicated to Mars. In 1095 these two churches became theproperty of amonastery occupied first (1095-1134) by themonks of St-Martin-des-Champs, and from 1034 to theRevolution by theBenedictines. The church on the summit was rebuilt in the twelfth century, andconsecrated on 21 April, 1147, byPope Eugenius III withSt. Bernard of Clairvaux asdeacon, and Peter the Venerable,Abbot of Cluny, assubdeacon.Alexander III visited it in 1162; St. Thomas à Becket in 1170;St. Thomas Aquinas,Bl. Joan of Arc, St. Ignatius,St. Francis Xavier,St. Vincent de Paul,Olier, and Blessed John Eudesprayed there. During thewar of 1870-71 MM. Legentil andRohault de Fleury issued fromPoitiers an appeal in behalf of the erection at Paris of a sanctuary to the Sacred Heart to obtain the release of thepope and thesalvation ofFrance. On 23 July, 1873, the National Assembly passed a law declaring the construction of this sanctuary a matter of public utility. After a meeting in which seventy architects took part Abadie was charged with its construction, in Byzantine style. Cardinal Guibert laid thecorner-stone on 16 June, 1875, and said the firstMass in thecrypt on 21 April, 1881. Cardinal Richard blessed the church on 5 June, 1891, and on 17 October 1899, blessed the cross surmounting the maindome.
Pilgrimage to the Church of St. Francis inhonour of the famousMiracle des Billettes in 1290, when blood flowed from a Host which had been profaned by aJew and Christ appeared above the receptacle where theJew had thrown the Host.
APilgrimage inhonour of thestatue of Notre-Dame-de-Paix which the famousCapuchin Joyeuse, known asPère Ange, gave to hisconvent (sixteenth century).
APilgrimage at thechurch of Aubervilliers (dating from 1336), whither Louis XIII, St. Ignatius, Blessed John Eudes,St. Francis de Sales,St. Vincent de Paul,St. John Baptist de la Salle, andBossuet went topray.
A Pilgrimage at Saint-Maur, dating from the erection of achapel of theBlessed Virgin by the Abbot St. Babolein about 640. The futurePope Martin IV,Philip Augustus, St. Louis, Emperor Charles IV ofGermany, andOlierprayed there.
APilgrimage to theparish church of Clichy, built by thesaint.
A number ofsaints are especially connected with the history of the Diocese of Paris: Sts. Agoard and Aglibert,martyred at Cretil; St. Lucan,martyred at Paris; St. Eugene, who according to the legend was sent by Saint Denis toSpain, founded theChurch of Toledo, and wasmartyred at Deuil; St. Yon, a disciple of St. Denis; St. Lucian, companion of St. Denis,martyred atBeauvais (third century); St. Rieul, founder (c. 300) of theChurch of Senlis, visited and encouraged theChristian community of Paris; St. Martin (316-400),Bishop ofTours, while at Paris, cured aleper by embracing him; Sts. Alda (Aude) and Célinie, companions ofSt. Genevieve; thenun St. Aurea, disciple ofSt. Genevieve (fifth century); St. Germain (380-448),Bishop of Auxerre, whose name is linked with the history ofSt. Genevieve; St. Séverin,Abbot of Agaune (died 508), who was summoned to Paris to cureClovis of a serious illness; Queen St. Clotilde (died 545); St. Leonard, a noble ofClovis's court, who became ahermit in Limousin and died about 559; St. Columbanus (540-615), who performed amiracle during his stay in Paris; St. Cloud (died 560), grandson of St. Clotilde, who was made amonk by St. Séverin; St. Radegund (519-87), wife of Clotaire I; St. Eloi (Eligius, 588-659), founder of theconvent ofSt. Martial, minister of Clotaire II and of Dagobert;St. Bathilde, Queen ofFrance (died 680); St. Domnolus (sixth century),Abbot of St-Laurent, Paris, prior to becomingBishop ofLe Mans; St. Bertechramnus (Bertrand, 553-623),Archdeacon of Paris, laterBishop ofLe Mans; St. Aure, virgin (7th century), firstAbbess ofSt. Martial; St. Merry,Benedictine Abbot (died 700);St. Ouen (609-86), who was a friend ofSt. Eligius and diedArchbishop ofRouen; St. Sulpice (seventh century),chaplain of Clotaire II, died asArchbishop ofBourges; St. Doctrovée (seventh century), firstAbbot of St. Vincent; St Leu,Bishop ofSens (seventh century), who on his way through Paris released a number ofprisoners; St. John of Matha (1160-1213), who was a student of theUniversity of Paris, and, while saying his firstMass in thechapel of theBishop of Paris, had the vision which induced him to found the Trinitarians; St. William, canon of Paris, who died in 1209 asArchbishop ofBourges; Bl. Reginald (1160-1220), professor of canon law at theUniversity of Paris;St. Bonaventure (1221-74), student and afterwards professor at theUniversity of Paris;St. Thomas Aquinas (1227-74), successively student, professor, and preacher at theUniversity of Paris;Bl. Gregory X (pope 1271-6), doctor of theUniversity of Paris;St. Yves (1253-1303), who studiedlaw at theUniversity of Paris;Bl. Innocent V (pope 1276), who succeededSt. Thomas Aquinas as professor oftheology at theUniversity of Paris; St. Louis (1215-70), and his sister Bl. Isabelle (1224-70), foundress of the Abbey ofPoor Clares of Longchamps, who later called themselves Urbanists because their rule was confirmed byUrban V; Bl. Peter of Luxemburg (1369-87), canon of Paris before becomingBishop ofMetz; BlessedUrban V (pope 1362-70), sometime professor of canon law at theUniversity of Paris; Bl. Jeanne-Marie de Maille (1332-1414), who came to Paris to make known to the king her prophetical visions concerningFrance; Bl. Jeanne de Valois (1464-1505), daughter of Louis XI and wife of Louis XII, foundress of the Annunciades;St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556);St. Francis Xavier (1506-52), who studied at the Collège de St-Barbe and made hisvows as aJesuit at Montmartre;Mme Acarie,venerated as Bl. Marie de l'Incarnation (1565-1618), a Parisian by birth, who, under the protection of the Duchesse de Longueville, established at Paris theCarmelites of the Faubourg St-Jacques; St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), who waseducated at the Collège de Clermont, Paris, and later preached there on two occasions;St. Vincent de Paul (1576-1660), who, having received from Jean-François de Gondi the Collège des Bons Enfants, founded there theCongregation of the Mission; Bl. Louis Grignion de Montfort (seventeenth century), who studied at St-Sulpice and preached several times at Paris.
Thefeast of the Immaculate Conception was celebrated at Paris as early as the thirteenth century by the students of the English and Norman nations in theChurch of St-Séverin, and a confraternity was established there inhonour of the Immaculate Conception in the fourteenth century. Even in the last quarter of the twelfth century the poet Adam, canon regular of St-Victor, seems to have accepted thisdogma. TheUniversity of Paris opposed it until the arrival ofDuns Scotus, who came to debate the question with theDominicandoctors at Paris. Thebelief spread during the fourteenth century, and theDominican Jean de Montson, having maintained in 1387 that the theory was contrary tofaith, wasexcommunicated. Thedoctors of theuniversity were among those most eager to hasten at the Council of Basle the investigations preparatory to the definition of the Immaculate Conception, which this council, in the meantime becomeschismatical,promulgated in 1439. At last, on 9 March, 1497, theuniversity issued adecreeobliging all its members to promise onoath to profess and defend thedoctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and declaring the contrary opinionfalse, impious, anderroneous. In 1575 it took issue with the famousJesuitMaldonatus, who still regarded it as an optional opinion, but it refrained from formally branding asheretics those who did not admit thedoctrine, as laid down byBenedict XIV in his treatise, "De festis". The procession inhonour of the Assumption was inaugurated at Paris in 1638, when Louis XIII placed his kingdom under the protection of the Blessed Virgin. Devotion to the departedsouls is perhaps the most deeply rooted form of Parisianpiety. Even in the eighteenth century theclocheteurs of the dead traversed the streets at night, ringing their bells and calling:
Réveillez vous, gens qui dormez,
Priez Dieu pour les trépassés.
The Association of Our Lady of Suffrage for the Dead, founded in 1838 at the Church of St. Merry by Archbishop Quélen and raised to an archconfraternity in 1857 byPius IX, is still flourishing. Several expiatorychapels exist in Paris:
Prior to the application of the Law of Associations of 1901, there was a large number of religious congregations in Paris. Among those having their mother-house in the city were: theAssumptionists, who preserved in theirchapel astatue of Notre-Dame-de-Salut which, according to tradition, smiled onDuns Scotus in 1304 when he was about to preach on the Immaculate Conception; theEudists; the Missionary Priests of Mercy (founded in 1808 by Père Rauzau), who were the founders of theFrenchparish in New York; theOblates of Mary Immaculate (founded in 1816 byEugene de Mazenod), the apostles of Upper and LowerCanada, New Brittany,Oregon,British Columbia,Texas, and Mexico; theOratorians, founded in 1611 byPierre de Bérulle. the Priests of Picpus (founded in 1805 by Abbé Coudrin), the founders of missions in Oceania — four of its members weremartyred under the Commune (1871), Pères Radique, Tuffier, Rouchouze, and Tardieu; the Fathers of theBlessed Sacrament, founded by Père Eymard; theBrothers of the Christian Schools, founded bySt. John Baptist de la Salle; the Marianist Brothers founded atBordeaux in 1817 for theeducation of the young; the Nuns of the Assumption, founded in 1839 under the patronage ofArchbishop Affre for theeducation of young girls; the Sisters of Charitable Instruction of the Child Jesus (of St. Maur) for nursing and teaching, which was founded in 1666 by Père Barré, O. Minim., and has missions inJapan,Siam, and Malacca; the Sisters of Mary Help, founded in 1854 for the care of young working-women; theSisters of Our Lady of Charity of the Refuge (of St. Michael), founded in 1641 by Venerable Eudes to receivevoluntary penitents; the Religious of the Mother of God, a teaching order founded byOlier in 1648; theReligious of the Cenacle founded at Paris in 1826; the Religious of the Sacred Heart, founded in the beginning of the nineteenth century byMadame Barat. the Sisters of Picpus, a teaching and contemplative order founded atPoitiers and removed to Paris in 1804; the Sisters of Our Lady of Sion, a teaching order founded byPère Ratisbonne.
Prior to 1901 there were also at Paris:CarmelitesDominicans, several of whom weremartyred during the Commune (martyrs of Arcueil);Franciscans;Jesuits, five of whom weremartyred during the Commune (viz. PèresOlivaint, Clerc,de Bengy, Ducoudray, and Caubert);Marists; Priests of Mercy; Missionaries of the Sacred Heart; andRedemptorists. Importanteducational works brought to an end by thelaw of 1901 were the boarding-schools of the Abbaye aux Bois, Oiseaux, and Roule, conducted by theCanons Regular of St. Augustine, a congregation founded at the end of the sixteenth century bySt. Peter Fourier. The same law also terminated the existence of two greatCarmeliteconvents — the one, founded in 1604 in the Faubourg St-Jacques by Marie de l'Incarnation, had witnessed theLenten preaching ofBossuet in 1661, thevows of Mme de la Vallière in 1675, and the funeral oration of the Princess Palatine in 1685; the other, founded in 1664 and established in the Avenue de Saxe in 1854, possessed amiraculous crucifix, rescued intact from the flames at the capture ofBesançon byLouis XIV. Paris still possesses two Visitationmonasteries, which date respectively from 1619 and 1626. They were founded by St. Francis de Sales and St. Jane-Frances de Chantal, and in the middle of the nineteenth century one of them had as superior Venerable Marie de Sales Chappuis. The Sisters of Charity, instituted in 1629 bySt. Vincent de Paul and Venerable Mme Le Gras (née Louise de Marillac) and having their mother-house at Paris, still have theright to exercise their nursing activity, but are legally bound to discontinue gradually their work as teachers. Among the still existing congregations ofwomen are: the Congregation of Adoration of Reparation, founded in 1848 by Mother Marie-Thérèse of the Heart of Jesus; the Helpers of the Souls in Purgatory, founded in 1856; the Helpers of the Immaculate Conception, founded in 1859 by the Abbé Largentier for the care of the sick in their homes; theBenedictineSisters of the Blessed Sacrament, founded in 1653 by Catherine de Bar — a second house was founded in 1816 by the Princess Louise de Bourbon-Condé (Mother Marie-Joseph de la Miséricorde).
The Seminary of St-Sulpice, founded by Oiler in 1642, had been supplemented since 1814 by the house at Issy, in the suburbs of Paris, reserved for the teaching ofphilosophy. The Parisseminary was seized by the State in virtue of the recentlaws and the presenttheologicalschool of the Parisianclergy is located at Issy. Theseminary of Foreign Missions was founded in 1663. Twenty-eight houses were confided to it by theHoly See. Thisseminary belongs to theSociety of Foreign Missions and is still authorized by the State, as also is the Seminary of the Holy Ghost, located in the mother-house of the Congregations of the Holy Ghost and the Immaculate Heart of Mary — the former was founded in 1703 by Poullard Desplace, the latter in 1841 byVenerable Francis-Mary-Paul Libermann, and the two were merged in 1848. Thisseminary providespriests for the evangelization of thenegroes inAfrica and the colonies. Neither has the State disturbed the Congregations of the Mission of St-Lazarus (Lazarists), founded bySt. Vincent de Paul, with its mother-house at Paris. They devote themselves to the evangelization of the poor by means of missions and to the foreign missions. For a long time theirchapel held the body ofSt. Vincent de Paul, now removed toBelgium. TheLazarist Blessed Jean-Gabriel Perboyre,martyred inChina, isvenerated here. With regard to theIrish College in Paris see IRISH COLLEGES.
AS early as 1512Lefèvre d'Etaples, at the Collège du Cardinal Lemoine, and Briçonnet,Abbot of St-Germain-des-Prés and shortly afterwardsBishop of Meaux, spread at Paris certaintheologicalideas which prepared the way forProtestantism. In 1521Luther's book, "The Babylonian Captivity", was condemned by the Sorbonne. In 1524 Jacques Pavannes (or Pauvert), a disciple ofLefèvre, underwent capital punishment for having attacked theveneration of the Blessed Virgin,purgatory, andholy water; the same penalty was inflicted on Louis de Berquin in 1529. Until 1555 theProtestants of Paris had nopastor, but in that year they assembled at the house of one of their number, named La Ferrière. As he had a child tobaptize, the gathering elected aspastor Jean g Maçon, a young man of twenty-two years, who had studiedlaw. He exercised his ministry at Paris until 1562, when he took up his residence aspastor at Angers. The first general synod of the Reformed Church ofFrance was held at Paris from 26 to 28 May, 1558, and drew up a confession offaith — later called the Confession ofLa Rochelle, because it only received its final form at the eighteenthnational synod convened atLa Rochelle in 1607. In 1560 a number ofProtestants perished at Paris, among them the magistrate Anne du Bourg. It is estimated that the Reformed Church of Paris had 40,000 members in 1564. In 1572 took place the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The Edict of July, 1573, having authorized theProtestants of Paris to assemble at a distance of two leagues from the city, they held their meetings at Noisy le Sec. In 1606Henry IV permitted them to build a church at Charenton. During the seventeenth century the Reformed Church of Paris was administered by thepastors Dumoulin, Mestrezat, Durand, and Montigny. At the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) Pastor Claude was compelled to leave Paris; Pastors Malzac, Giraud, and Givry, who endeavoured despite the revocation to maintain aProtestant church at Paris, wereimprisoned in 1692. During the eighteenth century thechaplains attached to the embassies ofProtestant princes gave spiritual assistance to theProtestants of the city. Marron,chaplain at theDutch embassy, becamepastor in Paris when Louis XVIpromulgated the edict of toleration (1787). Adecree of 1802 gave over to theProtestantsect the old church of the Visitandines in the Rue St-Antoine (built byMansart); one of 1811 gave them the church of theOratorians in the Rue St-Honoré, while the July Monarchy gave them the old Church of Notre-Dame-de-Pentemont, which under the old régime had belonged to the Augustinian Sisters of the Incarnate Word of theBlessed Sacrament. At present the Reformed Church possesses nineteen places of worship in Paris and seventeen in the suburbs; theLutherans, eleven places of worship in Paris and eight in the suburbs; the Protestant Free Churches, four places of worship; theBaptists, four churches in Paris and one in the suburbs. The American Episcopal,Anglican,Scotch, Congregationalist, and Wesleyan Churches conduct services in English. There are in Paris about 50,000Jews.
Under the old régime, what is now called "Public Assistance" included several distinct departments:
TheRevolution effected a radical change in this system. The centralBureau des Pauvres was at first replaced by forty-eight beneficent committees (comités de bienfaisance); these were replaced in 1816 by twelve bureaux of charity, which in 1830 took the name ofbureaux de bienfaisance and number twenty since 1860. While in the communes ofFrance all thehospital departments are under an administration distinct from that of the bureau of beneficence, at Paris, in virtue of thelaw of 10 Jan., 1849, the General Administration of Public Assistance directs both thehospitals and the departments for relief at home. At present the Department of Public Assistance directs 31hospitals, 14 being generalhospitals, 7 special, 9 children'shospitals, and 1 insane asylum. At the laicization of thehospitals, thehospital of St. Joseph, conducted by the Sisters ofSt. Vincent de Paul, was opened in 1884 under the patronage of theArchbishop of Paris; that of Notre-Dame-de-Bon-Secours, in care of the Augustine., was founded by Abbé Carton,pastor of St-Pierre-de-Montrouge and bequeathed by him in 1887 to theArchbishop of Paris. Thehospital of Notre-Dame-de-Perpétuel-Secours at Lavallois is conducted by theDominican Sisters. The St-Jacques, Hahnemann, St-François, and St-Michelhospitals are also in the hands of congregations. The Villepinte Institution, in charge of the Sisters of Marie Auxiliatrice, cares for children and youngwomen suffering from tuberculosis. The Marie-Thérèse infirmary was founded for aged or infirmpriests by the wife of Châteaubriand. TheLittle Sisters of the Poor have nine houses in the diocese. The Brothers ofSt. John of God maintain a privatehospital and an asylum for incurable young men. The Institution of the Ladies of Calvary, founded atLyons in 1842 by Mme Gamier and established at Paris in 1874, is conducted bywidows for the care of the cancerous, and receives into its infirmaries patients whom no otherhospital will admit; it also has houses atLyons,Marseilles, St. Etienne, andRouen. TheLittle Sisters of the Assumption, nurses of thepoor, who have nine houses in thediocese, stay night and day without pay in the houses of the sick poor. The same is done by the Sisters of Notre-Dame of the Rue Cassini in the homes of poorwomen in their confinement. Other orders for the care of the sick in their homes are theFranciscan nursing sisters (7 houses) and the Sisters Servants of the Poor (4 houses).
Among the institutions now dependent on the State, the foundation of which was formerly the glory of theChurch, must be mentioned that ofQuinze Vingts for the blind. As early as the eleventh century there was a confraternity for the blind; St. Louis built for it a house and a church, gave it a perpetual revenue, and decreed that the number of theQuinze Vingts (300 blind) should be maintained complete. When the king wascanonized in 1297 the blind took him as their patron (seeEDUCATION OF THE BLIND). TheCatholic institutions of Paris for the relief of the poor and the uplifting of the labouring classes are very numerous. For theSociety of St. Vincent de Paul seeCONGREGATION OF PRIESTS OF THE MISSION. The Philanthropic Society, founded in 1780 under the protection of Louis XVI, established dispensaries, economical kitchens, night shelters, and settlement houses. The Central Office of Charitable Institutions investigates the condition of workmen and thepoor, and conducts employment and restoration bureaux. The Association of Ladies of Charity, established (1629) in theparish of St-Sauveur bySt. Vincent de Paul for the visitation of the sick poor and reconstituted in 1840, has given rise to the Society for the Sick Poor, the Society for the Sick Poor in the Suburbs, and the Society for the Visitation of the Poor in the Hospitals. Mostparishes have their organizations of charitablewomen who, under thepastor's supervision, distribute clothing and visit the poor. TheSociété de Charité Maternelle, which dates from 1784, when it was patronized byMarie Antoinette, assists marriedwomen in their confinement without regard to creed. In each quarter of Pariswomen visitors determine thefamilies deserving assistance. In 1898 thesociety assisted 2797women and 2853 children. TheAssociation des Mères de Famille, founded in 1836 by Mme Badenier, assists at childbirthwomen who do not meet the conditions required by theSociété de Charité Maternelle or who are numbered among the disreputable poor. TheŒuvre des Faubourgs, through a number ofwomen, visits 2000families and 8000 children in the Paris suburbs. TheŒuvre de la Miséricorde (Work of Mercy), founded in 1822, assists the disreputable poor. An organization founded in 1841 by Mgr Christophe, laterBishop ofSoissons, helps convalescent lunatics. The objects of theŒuvre de l'Hospitalité du Travail are to offer a free temporary shelter without distinction of creed or nationality to every homelesswoman or girl who has determined to work for an honourable livelihood, to employ its clients at useful tasks, to endeavour to revive the habit of working in those who have lost it, and to assist them in securing honourable employment which will also enable them to provide for the future. This organization, founded in 1881 under the direction of Sister St. Antoine, a member of the Order of Calvary, between 1881 and 1903 gave shelter to 70,240women. In 1894 Sister St. Antoine* annexed to it theŒuvre du Travail à Domicile pour les Mères de Famille (Association for procuring home-work for mothers offamilies) which between 1892 and 1902 assisted 7449 mothers. TheMaison de Travail for men, founded in 1892 by M. de Laubespin, performs the same service for unemployed and homeless men, and is also in charge of the Sisters of Calvary.
TheCatholics of Paris have taken part in the syndicate movement by the creation in 1887 of the syndicate of commercial and industrial employees, by the organization of theAiguille (a professional association of patronesses andwomen employees and workers on clothing), and by theUnion Centrale, made up of five professional syndicates of working-girls, business employees, seamstresses, servant girls, and nurses, with "La Ruche syndicale" as their organ. The great Society of St. Nicholas, founded in 1827 byMgr de Bervanger and Count Victor de Noailles and directed by a staff ofCatholiclaymen, has four houses (Paris, Issy, Igny, and Buzenval), where it gives a professionaleducation to boys whom it adopts as early as their eighth year. The Society of the Friends of Childhood, founded in 1828, is concerned with theeducation and apprenticeship of poor boys. TheEcole commerciale de Francs Bourgeois, created in 1843 by theBrothers of the Christian Schools, prepares pupils for commercial, industrial, and administrative professions. Numerous homes and restaurants for young working girls have been founded byCatholics. The Charitable Society of St. Francis Regis was founded in 1826 by M. Gassin to facilitate the religious andcivil marriage of the poor of thediocese and the legitimatization of their natural children. The day-nurseries, which care for children from 15 days to 3 years of age while their mothers are employed, date from M. Marbeau's foundation in 1844. The Sisters of St. Paul have founded in theparishes of St-Vincent-de-Paul and St-Séverin asociety for the relief of mothers who wish their children to remain at home. TheŒuvre de l'Adoption was founded in 1859 by Abbé Maitrias to gather as manyorphans as possible. Out of so many other associations, the following must be mentioned: the Association des Jeunes Economes which, under the direction of the Sisters ofSt. Vincent de Paul, uses the generous donations of a large number of youngwomen for the apprenticing and employment of poor girls; the Society of St. Anne, founded in 1824; the Society for Abandoned Children, founded in 1803; the Society for the Adoption of Abandoned Little Girls, founded in 1879 (all concerned with finding homes fororphans); the Society of the Child Jesus, which shelters during their convalescence poor girls who have been discharged fromhospitals.
There is a recent tendency towards the complete reorganization ofCatholic charity in a single quarter by the centralization of all charitable departments for the development and protection offamily life. For example the Fresh Air Society for Mothers and Children, founded by Mlle Chaptal in 1901, includes:
The Society of Ste-Rosalie also combines a number of admirable works which perpetuate the memory of the good done in the Faubourg St-Marcel during the July Monarchy by Sister Rosalie Rendu, who worked in collaboration with Vicomte Armand de Mélun. The Working Women's Society of Our Lady of the Rosary was the nucleus of a flourishingparish in a district previously deprived of all religious help. The Union Familiale, founded at Charonne by Mlle Gahéry in 1899, has completely transformed the district; it has established a Fröbelian nursery for the small children, and receives children afterschool hours; since 1904 it assemblesfamilies in afamilyeducational circle; it organizes groups of "little mothers," little girls of ten, who every Thursday take care of 3 or 4 children; it has gardening classes and a department for trousseaux, and since 1900 it has had vacation colonies, known as fresh airsocieties. The original congregation of the Blind Sisters of St. Paul, founded in 1851 by Abbé Juge and Anne Bergunion, looks after blind youngwomen.
According to the report of the Abbé Fonsagrives to the Diocesan Congress of 1908, the Archdiocese of Paris has 356Catholicpatronages, of which 63 are for magpupils of the freeschools, 79 for male pupils of the layschools, 101 forfemale pupils of the freeschools, 113 forfemale pupils of the layschools. At thatdate lay patronages were only 245. The Society for the Patronage of Young Working Girls, founded in 1851, receives young girls after their First Communion. The Sisters of the Presentation ofTours conduct the association andsociety for mutual relief for young businesswomen; the SistersServants of Mary and Sisters of the Cross secure situations for servants. The Sisters ofSt. Vincent de Paul havesocieties called "patronages internes", which shelter working-girls who areorphans or who live at a distance from theirfamilies. TheŒuvre des Petites Préservées et le Vestiaire des Petits Prisonniers, founded in 1892 by the Comtesse de Biron, looks after the preservation of young girls discharged fromprison. TheCatholic International Society for the Protection of Young Women, organized atFreiburg in 1897 after the Organization of the Protestant International Union of the Friends of Young Women, in 1905 alone gave shelter to 11,919 young girls in Paris.
There is at present a great renewal inCatholic methods of charity and relief at Paris, the spirit of which is shown in the report concerningCatholic reliefsocieties read (Aug., 1910) at the International Congress of Public and Private Relief held atCopenhagen under the presidency of President Loubet: "The great originality ofCatholic relief work in recent years consists in the multiplication of works for socialeducation. This arises more and more from the 'patriarchal' conception of these undertakings. The modern wish and tendency is to give him who suffers a share in his own relief, to give him a collaborative or directing part in the effort which is being made to assist and uplift him. Henceforth the favouriteworks of charity amongCatholics will be those known as preventive. To prevent misery by an hygienic, domestic, professionaleducation is the object of the founders of modern works of relief. They are concerned not only with the strife against the consequences of misery but with that against its production. Without neglecting individualalms,Catholic charity aims especially at social relief; it prefers to precede misery to prevent it, rather than to follow it to relieve it; it prefers to upliftfamilies rather than assist them, to help them when they are stumbling rather than to raise them up when they have fallen; it prefers to help them actively to better working conditions, than to relieve passively the results of theseevil conditions. All instruction imparted in organizations forCatholic youth and in theCatholicpatronages of Paris is impregnated with this apparently new spirit which on closer view is seen to be merely a return to theChristian solidarity of theMiddle Ages."
In 1905 at the end of the concordatory period the Diocese of Paris had 3,599,870 inhabitants, 38parishes, 104succursales, 7 vicariates, formerly remunerated by the State. Since the separation ofChurch and State, thereligiouscharacter of Paris shows signs of renewal. Statistics of the religious and civil burials from 1883 to 1903, drawn up by the Abbé Raffin, afford a very exactidea of the religious condition of Paris at the end of the nineteenth century. The largest proportion of civil burials, 23 per cent, was reached in 1884. At the end of the nineteenth century the proportion of civil burials had fallen to 18 per cent; from 1901 to 1903, they showed a tendency to rise to 20 per cent. Civil funerals take place chiefly among the poor. For example in 1888 in the five most costly classes of burials the number of civil burials did not exceed 45 per cent; on the other hand, the ninth class, which is the cheapest, and the free class show 25 to 30 per cent. At present among the wealthy classes there is a slight increase in the number of civil funerals, and a slight decrease among theworking classes, but the fact remains that, despite the gratuitousness of religious assistance in the case of thepoor, the average number of 10,000 civil funerals which take place yearly at Paris consists chiefly of funerals of the poor. One reason for this is the insufficiency of religious assistance in thehospitals. Although more than a third of the Parisians die inhospitals, there are only about thirtyhospitalchaplains, and these the management does not permit to approach the sick unless they are summoned. Another reason lies in the excessive size of suburbanparishes and in the difficulty of reaching an immense fluctuating population. At the beginning of the twentieth century Notre-Dame-de-Ménilmontant had 70,000, St-Pierre-de-Montrouge 83,000, Notre-Dame-de-Clignancourt 120,000 inhabitants. For a long time these enormousparishes had no morepriests than the smaller ones in the centre of Paris. At St-Ambroise there were 8 to 10priests for 80,000souls, while St-Thomas-d'Aquin had 8priests for 14,000, and St-Sulpice 17 for 38,000 (see the report of M. Thureau Dangin, permanent secretary of theFrench Academy, concerning theŒuvre des chapelles de secours). M. Thureau Dangin calculated in 1905 that Paris, with its 522pastors orcurates, had an average of 37,000 or 38,000souls to aparish, while atLyons there was 1priest for every 3000souls, atAntwerp 1 for every 500, at New York 1 for every 1500.
The realization of this dearth and its dangers caused the organization of theŒuvre des Séminaires as early as 1882 to increase and facilitate vocations, and in 1905 Cardinal Richard pointed out the urgent necessity of the creation of about thirty newparishes or ofchapelles de secours. At present thediocesan administration is most actively engaged in the organization of thesechapelles de secours. Every year a dignitary of theFrench Academy or of the Institute presents a report of the progress made, MM. François Coppée, Thureau Dangin, de Mun, d'Haussonville, Georges Picot, and Etienne Lamy having been heard in turn. The Christian Doctrine Society (Œuvre des Catéchismes) founded in 1885 by Cardinal Richard was erected into a confraternity byLeo XIII on 30 May, 1893, with which all thecatecheticalsocieties ofFrance may be affiliated. Thissociety is formed ofvoluntary catechists and promoters paying dues. In addition to the multiplication of places of worship, special religious services have been organized for certain classes ofpersons. For example, the missionary work among young seamstresses (Midinettes) has developed greatly between 1908 and 1910; it consists of short instructions between 12:35 and 12:50 p.m., so that the youngwomen may return punctually to work. More than 5000 working girls have profited by these missions. The Society of Diocesan Missions, founded in 1886 by Cardinal Richard, supports from 18 to 20 missionaries, who according to the report of their superior, the Abbé Gibergues, made to the Diocesan Congress of 1908, have brought back to theChurch more than 40,000persons in less than a quarter of a century. Lastly, the Archdiocese of Paris has assumed the direction of theCatholic social movement. In 1910 a social secretariat was organized, as a bureau of information and headquarters for social undertakings, and thearchbishop has interested himself actively in the abolition of the night-work of bakers, addressing a letter to theparochial committees to arouseCatholic sentiment in favour of the claims of these workmen, and on 21 December, 1908, presiding at the meeting organized by theJeunesse catholique française for the suppression of this work.
An interesting organization from the social point of view is that of the provincial associations formed at Paris underCatholic auspices to bring together the immigrants from each province, to assist them to maintain close ties among themselves, and to procure spiritual help in the loneliness of the great city. In 1892 was founded thesocietyLa Bretagne, and in 1895 theUnion aveyronnaise. The latter, which had 1600 members in 1908, supports eight sisters who, in 1908 alone, spent 2641 days or nights with sickAveyronnais. In imitation of this association were founded successively theUnion lozérienne, theAssociation des Dames limousines et creusoises, theUnion lyonnaise et forésienne, theUnion pyrénéenne, theAlliance catholique savoisienne, and many others. There is a specialsociety for the Bretons residing at Paris, which provides sermons and lectures in the Breton tongue. All the provincial unions are federated under the presidency of theCatholiceconomist, M. Henri Joly, a member of the Institut. A list of these associations has been affixed in recent times to the doors of all the churches in Paris. All these undertakings for the development ofChristian life in Paris are studied and developed by the Diocesan Committee organized on 1 March, 1905, with a double aim:
It is divided into five commissions, dealing respectively with works of religion andpiety, instruction andeducation, perseverance and patronage, charitable and social works, and with the press and propaganda. At the beginning of 1910 there were 67parochial committees, nearly half theparishes being already provided with them. Since 1905diocesan congresses have taken place yearly. That of 1909 was especially concerned with the labour ofwomen, with organizations for instruction of youth, provincial and journalistic organizations. That of 1910 dealt exclusively with liberty of teaching, the formation and recruiting of teachers, and withschool books.
The suppression of the teaching congregations and the gradual but rapid closing of the establishments directed by them was a serious blow to the prosperity of the independentschools in the Archdiocese of Paris. In October, 1904, Cardinal Richard instituted adiocesan committee of "free instruction", which exhorted all the male andfemale teachers in private institutions to form separatediocesan associations. Mutual-aidsocieties were established in 1909 to provide for the future of these teachers, male andfemale, and in 1910 the diocesepromulgated a regulation fixing the conditions of their promotion and granting certain guarantees for their professional future. On 8 December, 1906, arrangements were made for the supervision of religious instruction in theschools not under the public authorities, and in June, 1908, a board for the direction of secondary and primarydiocesan instruction was created. From 1879 to 1910 the expenditure for the foundation and maintenance of the independentschools was $8,000,000, for which appeal was made to the charity ofindividuals. Their annual support costs about $600,000. Most of theschools are supported by a special committee by means of collections, subscriptions, etc.; some belong to civilsocieties which rent them to the committees, while others are wholly at the expense of thepastor. At the beginning of 1910 there were in the 162parishes of Paris and its suburbs 217 independentschools, of which only 36 are still in the hands of congregations, and these also in virtue of the Associations Law are destined after a short time to be under the supervision of layCatholics. The number of pupils frequenting theseschools is estimated to be about 42,000. The "Jeunesse prévoyante du diocèse de Paris", established in 1902, constitutes a flourishingschool mutual-aidsociety. A district union groups together thirty-five associations of former pupils of the independentschools (calledAmicales), and is a bond among 4500 members. The initiative in domestic economy in Paris was taken byCatholics. Even before the public authorities had madesacrifices for this end, the Comtesse de Diesbach had established (15 June, 1902) a first course in domestic economy, lasting a month. It was succeeded by nine other courses in 1903-05, attended by 110 pupils, 60 of them religious from 14 orders. In 1905 was opened the Normal Institute of Domestic Economy which in its three first years gave to the independentschools 150 teachers of domestic economy. HigherCatholiceducation at Paris is assured by a number of institutions conducted byecclesiastics, and by theBossuet, Fenélon,Gerson, andMassillonschools, which send their pupils to the statelycées.
For the Institut Catholique, seeUNIVERSITY OF PARIS.
A. SOURCES. — BARROUX,Essai de bibliogr. critique des généralités de l'hist. de Paris (Paris, 1908), essential; POÈTE,Les sources de l'hist. de P. et les historiens de P. in Revue Bleue (18 and 25 Nov. 1905); TOURNEUX,Bibliogr. de l'hist. de P. pendant la Révolution française (4 vols., Paris, 1890-1906), especially III;Bull. de la Soc. de l'hist. de P. et de l'Ile de France (1874-);Bull. du Comité d'hist. et d'archéol. du dioc. de P. (1883-5);Bibliothèque d'hist. de P. (1909-).
B. GENERAL. — LEBEUF,Hist. de la ville et de tout le dioc. de P. (15 vols., Paris, 1754-58), new ed. by AUGIER (5 vols.);Tables (1 vol., Paris, 1884); BOURNON,Rectifications et Additions à l'Abbé Lebeuf (4 fascicles, Paris, 1890-1901); IDEM,P. hist., monuments, administration (Paris, 1888); IDEM,P. Atlas (Paris, 1900); CAIN,Promenades dans P., Pierres de P., Coins de P. (4 vols., Paris, 1905-10); DAVIS,About P. (New York, 1895); HARE,P. (London, 1896); MEMPES,P. (London, 1907); OKEY,P. and its Story (London, 1904); FRANKLIN,La vie privée d'autrefois. Arts et métiers, modes, mæurs, usages des Parisiens du XIIe au XVIIe siècle (27 vols., Paris, 1887-1902); HARRISON,Memorable P. Houses with illustrative, critical, and anecdotal notices (London, 1893).
C. ECCLESIASTICAL. —Gallia christ., VII (1744), 1-219,Instrumenta, 1-192; FISQUET,La France pontificale (2 vols., Paris, 1864-6); LONGNON,L'ancien dioc. de P. et ses subdivisions inBull. du Comité d'hist. et d'archéol. du dioc. de P., I (1883), pp. 10-19; BERNARD,Les origines de l'église de P., établissement du christianisme dans les Gaules; saint Denys de P. (Paris, 1870); CHARTIER,L'ancien chapitre de Notre-Dame-de-P. et sa maîtrise (Paris, 1897); JAUNAY,Hist. des évêques et archevêques de P. (Paris, 1884); DEPOIN,Essai sur la chronologie des évêques de P. de 768 à 1138 inBull. histor. et philol. (1906); FÉRET,L'abbaye de Ste-Geneviève et la congregation de France (Paris, 1883); BONNARD,Hist. de l'abbaye royale de l'ordre des chanoines réguliers de St-Victor (2 vols., Paris, 1908); BROUILLET,Les églises paroissiales de P. (monographs, Lyons, 1897-1904); LONERGAN,Historic Churches of P. (London, 1896); MORTET,Etude histor. et archéol. sur la cathédrale et le palais épiscopal de P. au VIe et XIIe siècle (Paris, 1888); AUBERT,La cathédrale N.-D.-de-P. (Paris, 1909); HIATT,N.-D.-de-P., a Short History and Description of the Cathedral (London, 1902); DUPLESSY,P. religieux (Paris, 1900); D'AYZAC,Hist. de l'abbaye de St-Denis en France (2 vols., Paris, 1860-1); HAVET,Les origines de St-Denis (Paris, 1890); PARIS,Les grandes chroniques de France, selon qu'elles sont conservées en l'église de St-Denis (6 vols., Paris, 1830-9); VITRY AND BRIÈRE,L'église abbatiale de St-Denis (Paris, 1908); LESÊTRE,L'Immaculée Conception et l'Église de Paris (Paris, 1904); DOUMERGUE,Paris protestant au XVIe siècle inBull. de la Soc. du protestantisme français (1896); DOUEN,La Révocation de l'édit de Nantes à P. (3 vols., Paris, 1894); DECOPPET,P. protestant (Paris, 1876); ROBINET,Le mouvement religieux à P. pendant la Révolution, 1789-1801 (2 vols., Paris, 1896); DELARC,L'église de P. pendant la Révolution française, 1789-1801 (3 vols., Paris, 1895-8); GRENTE,Le culte catholique à P. de la Terreur au Concordat (Paris, 1903); PISANI,L'église de P. sous la Révolution (3 vols., Paris, 1909-10); DE LANZAC DE LABORIE,P. sous Napoléon, especially IV (Paris, 1907).
D. CHARITIES. — CHEVALIER,L'hôtel-Dieu de P. et les Sæurs Augustines (650 à 1810) (Paris, 1901); BRUNET, La charité paroissiale à P. au XVIIe siècle d'après les réglements des compagnies de charité (Caen, 1906); CAHEN,Le grand bureau des pauvres de P. au milieu du 18e siècle (Paris, 1904); MAXIME DU CAMP,La charité privée à P. (Paris, 1885); IDEM,P. bienfaisant (Paris, 1888); DU THILLEUL,L'assistance publique à P., ses bienfaiteurs et sa fortune mobilière (2 vols., Paris, 1904);P. charitable et prévoyant, published by the Central Office of Charitable Institutions (3rd ed., Paris, 1904);Manuel des Œuvres (new ed., Paris, 1911), supplies the most recent information and a detailed description concerning all French Catholic charitable works, especially those of Paris.
APA citation.Goyau, G.(1911).Paris. InThe Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11480c.htm
MLA citation.Goyau, Georges."Paris."The Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 11.New York: Robert Appleton Company,1911.<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11480c.htm>.
Transcription.This article was transcribed for New Advent by Douglas J. Potter.Dedicated to the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Ecclesiastical approbation.Nihil Obstat. February 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor.Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmasterat newadvent.org. Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.