Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem

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(Also known as K M).

The most important of all themilitary orders, both for the extent of its area and for its duration. It is said to have existed before theCrusades and is not extinct at the present time. During this long career it has not always borne the same name. Known asHospitallers ofJerusalem until 1309, the members were called Knights ofRhodes from 1309 till 1522, and have been called Knights of Malta since 1530.

The origins of the order have given rise to learned discussions, to fictitious legends and hazardous conjectures. The unquestionable founder was one Gerald or Gerard, whose birthplace and family name it has been vainly sought to ascertain. On the other hand, his title as founder is attested by a contemporary official document, theBull of Paschal II,dated 1113, addressed to "Geraudo institutori ac praeposito Hirosolimitani Xenodochii". This was certainly not the first establishment of the kind atJerusalem. Even before thecrusades, hostelries were indispensable to shelter thepilgrims who flocked to the Holy Places, and in the beginning thehospitia orxenodochia were nothing more. They belonged to different nations; aFrankish hospice is spoken of in the time ofCharlemagne; the Hungarian hospice is said to date from King St. Stephen (year 1000). But the most famous was an Italian hospice about the year 1050 by the merchants ofAmalfi, who at that time had commercial relations with the Holy Land. Attempts have been made to trace the origin of theHospitallers of St. John to this foundation, but it is obvious to remark that theHospitallers hadSt. John the Baptist for their patron, while the Italian hospice was dedicated to St. John of Alexandria. Moreover, the former adopted theRule of St. Augustine, while the latter followedthat of the Benedictines. Like most similar houses at that time, the hospice ofAmalfi was in fact merely a dependency of amonastery, while Gerard's was autonomous from the beginning. Before theCrusades, theItalianhospital languished, sustained solely byalms gathered inItaly; but Gerard profited by the presence of thecrusaders, and by the gratitude felt for his hospitality, to acquire territory and revenues not only in the newKingdom of Jerusalem, but inEurope — inSicily,Italy, and Provence. In the acts of donation which remain to us, there is no mention of the sick, but only of the poor and strangers. In this respect the hospice of Gerard did not differ from others, and his epitaph defines his work:

Pauperibus servus, pius hospitibus . . . .
Undique collegit pasceret unde sous.

Thanks to the resources accumulated by Gerard, his successor, Raymond of Provence (1120-60), caused the erection of more spacious buildings near the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and henceforth the hospice became an infirmary served by a community of hospitallers in the modern sense of the word.

Strictly speaking, therefore, theHospitallers ofJerusalem only began with Raymond of Provence, to whom they owe their rule. This rule deals only with their conduct as religious and infirmarians, there being no mention ofknights. It especially sets forth that thehospital shall permanently maintain at its expense five physicians and three surgeons. The brothers were to fulfil theduties of infirmarians. A pilgrim, about the year 1150, places the number of sickpersons cared for at 2000, a figure evidently exaggerated, unless we make it include all thepersons harboured in a whole year. Raymond continued to receive donations, and this permitted him to complete his foundation by a second innovation. To accompany and defend at need, the arriving and departingpilgrims, he defrayed the cost of an armed escort, which in time became a veritable army, comprisingknights recruited from among thecrusaders ofEurope, and serving as a heavy cavalry (seeC), and Turcopoles recruited from among the natives of mixed blood, and serving as light cavalry armed in theTurkish fashion. With this innovation originated the most ancient military dignities in the order: the marshal, to command theknights, the turcopolier, for the Turcopoles. Later the grand masters themselves went into battle. Gosbert (c. 1177), the fifth successor of Raymond, distinguished himself, and Roger de Moulins perished gloriously on the field of battle (1187). Thus the Order of St. John imperceptibly became military without losing its eleemosynary character. Thestatutes of Roger de Moulins (1187) deal only with the service of the sick; the first mention of military service is in thestatutes of the ninth grand master, Alfonso ofPortugal (about 1200). In the latter a marked distinction is made between secularknights, externs to the order, who served only for a time, and the professedknights, attached to the order by a perpetualvow, and who alone enjoyed the same spiritual privileges as the other religious. Henceforth the order numbered two distinct classes of members: the military brothers and the brothers infirmarians. The brotherschaplains, to whom was entrusted the divine service, formed a third class.

While the Order of St. John became a mixed order, that of theTemplars was purely military from the beginning, and on this point it can claim priority, despite the contrary assertions of theHospitallers. TheTemplars followed a different monastic rule and wore a different habit — the white habit of theCistercians, whose rule they followed, with a red cross, while theHospitallers had the black mantle with a white cross. Inwar theknightly brothers wore above their armour a red surcoat with the white cross. Mutually emulous from the outset, they soon became rivals, and this rivalry had much to do with the rapid decline of theKingdom of Jerusalem. In other respects the two orders held the same rank inChurch and State, both being recognized as regular orders and endowed by thepapacy with most extensive privileges, absolute independence of all spiritual and temporal authority save that ofRome, exemptions fromtithes, with theright to have their ownchapels,clergy and cemeteries. Both were charged with the military defense of the Holy Land, and the most redoubtable strongholds of the country, the splendid ruins of which still exist, were occupied by one or the other (Rey, "Monument de l'architecture militaire des Croisés", Paris, 1865). On the battlefield they shared between them the most perilous posts, alternately holding the van and rear guard. The history of theHospitallers ofJerusalem is involved in that of the Latin Kingdom of the same name, with which the order was associated in prosperity and adversity. When the kingdom was at the height of its glory, theHospitallers possessed no fewer than seven strongholds, some situated on the coast, others in the mountains; of these Margat and Krak, in the territory of Tripoli, are the most famous. They enjoyed the revenues of more than one hundred and forty estates (casalia) in the Holy Land. As to theirEuropean possessions, a writer of the thirteenth century credits them with about nineteen thousand manses or manors. It wasnecessary to organize a financial administration in order to assure the regular payment of revenues of these widely scattered possessions. This was the task of Hugh of Ravel, seventeenth Grand Master of the Holy Land (c. 1270). The lands attached to a single house were placed under the command of aknight of the order, who formerly was called a preceptor, but afterwards took the title of commander. This official was charged with collecting the revenues, one portion of which was devoted to the support of his community, formed of achaplain and some brothers; the other portion being destined for the houses of the Holy Land. This latter portion consisted of an annual and invariable impost called "Responsions".

Thanks to these resources, drawn fromEurope, the order was able to survive the fall of theKingdom of Jerusalem, which involved the loss of all its possessions inAsia. After the capture ofJerusalem by Saladin (1187), theHospitallers retained only their possessions in the Principality of Tripoli, and these they lost a century later by the fall of Acre (1291). They wereobliged to seek refuge, under their grand master, Jean de Villiers, in the Kingdom ofCyprus, where they already had some possessions. King Amaury assigned them as a place of residence the town of Limassol on the coast. Having become islanders, theHospitallers wereobliged to modify their manner ofwarfare. They equipped fleets to fight theMuslims on the sea and to protect thepilgrims, who had not ceased to visit the Holy Places. But it was chiefly the conquest of the island ofRhodes, under the Grand Master Foulques de Villaret, that brought about a complete transformation of the order.

The Knights of Rhodes (1309-1522)

The Knights ofRhodes, the successors of theHospitallers of St. John, were distinguished from the latter in many ways. In the first place, the grand master of the order was thenceforward a temporal sovereign in that island, which constituted atrueecclesiastical principality, under the nominal suzerainty of the Emperors of the East. Secondly, although Villaret's first care was to build a new infirmary, the care of the sick took a secondary place, as the members of the order had scarcely occasion to devote themselves to any save the members of the community. The nameknights then prevailed over that of hospitallers. This character was accentuated by the fusion of theHospitallers with the remainingKnights Templar, subsequent to the suppression of the latter (1312). This fusion at the same time increased the wealth of the order, to which thepope assigned theproperty of theTemplars in every country exceptAragon andPortugal. InFrance, wherePhilip the Fair had sequestrated thisproperty, the order obtained restitution only by paying large indemnities to the king. From this time its organization took its definitive form, the whole body being divided into tongues,priories, and commanderies. The tongues, or nations, were eight in number, each having its own bailiff; and one of the eight supreme dignities was reserved to each tongue — to Provence, that of the grand commander; to Auvergne, that of marshal; toFrance, grand hospitaller; toItaly, admiral; toAragon, standard-bearer; to Castile, grand chancellor; toGermany, grand bailiff; toEngland, turcoplier. (On these dignities seeMILITARY ORDERS.) The grand master might be elected from any of the various tongues; he exercised supreme authority, but under control of the grand chapter and with the aid of several councils. Each tongue was subdivided intopriories, and the head of eachpriory had theright to receive newknights and to visit the commanderies. Thepriories number twenty-four, and the commanderies, which were subdivisions of thepriories, 656. All these posts were held according to seniority, the commanderies after three campaigns, which were known as "caravans".

A most important change in the character of the order was the transformation of theknights into corsairs. The piracy practiced by theMuslims was the scourge of the Mediterranean and especially ofChristian commerce. The Knights ofRhodes, on their side, armed cruisers not only to give chase to the pirates, but to make reprisals on theTurkish merchantmen. With increasing audacity they made descents on the coast and pillaged the richest ports of the Orient, such as Smyrna (1341) and Alexandria (1365). However, a newMuslim power arose at this period — the OttomanTurks ofIconium — and took the offensive againstChristianity. After the fall ofConstantinople, Mahomet II directed his attention to the task of destroying this den of pirates which made Rhodes the terror of theMuslim world. Henceforth the order, thrown on the defensive, lived perpetually on the alert. Once, under its grand master, Pierre d'Aubusson, it repulsed all the forces of Mahomet II in the siege of 1480. In 1522 Solyman II returned to the attack with a fleet of 400 ships and an army of 140,000 men. Theknights sustained this great onslaught with their habitualbravery for a period of six months under their grand master, Villiers de l'Isle Adam, and capitulated only when their supplies were completely exhausted. Their lives were spared, and they were permitted to withdraw. Solyman II, in homage to their heroism, lent them his ships to return toEurope. They dispersed to their commanderies and beggedCharles V to grant them the island of Malta, which was a dependency of his kingdom ofSicily, and this sovereignty was granted them in 1530, under the suzerainty of the kings ofSpain.

The Knights of Malta (1530-1798)

The Knights of Malta at once resumed the manner of life they had already practiced for two centuries atRhodes. With a fleet which did not number more than seven galleys they resisted the Barbary pirates who infested the western basin of the Mediterranean. They formed a valuable contingent during the great expeditions ofCharles V againstTunis and Algiers and at the memorable victory ofLepanto. The Knights of Malta were also permitted to equip galleys at their own expense to give chase to theTurkish galleys. These enterprises did not fail to draw upon them fresh attacks from theOttomans. Solyman II, regretting his generosity, gathered a second time all forces of his empire to dislodge theChristian corsairs from their retreat. The siege ofMalta, quite as famous as that ofRhodes, lasted for four months (1565). TheTurks has already taken possession of a part of the island, destroying nearly the whole of the old city, slaying half theknights and almost 8000 soldiers, when Malta was delivered by an army of relief fromSpain. In retreating theTurks are said to have left 30,000 slain. A new city had to be built — the present city of Valette, so named in memory of its valiant grand master who had sustained this siege. Malta, however, was not rid of its most dangerous adversary until the battle ofLepanto (1571) which dealt the Ottoman fleet a fatal and final blow.

From this time the history of Malta is reduced to a series of encounters by sea with the Barbary corsairs which have only local interest. The struggle was carried on chiefly by youngerknights who were in haste to accomplish their three "caravans" in order to merit some vacant commandery. It was an existence filled with perils of every kind, sudden attacks, adventures, successes and defeats. There was constant risk of life, or of liberty, which could be regained only at the cost of enormous ransoms. But when success came, the undertakingproved lucrative, not only defraying all costs but also enriching the captain. The best result was the deliverance of hundreds ofChristian slaves, chained as rowers on theTurkish galleys. In requital the vanquishedTurks were in turn reduced to slavery and sold toChristian galleys which had need of rowers. In this respect Malta remained a veritable slave-market until well into the eighteenth century. It required a thousand slaves to equip merely the galleys of the order, which were a hell for those unfortunates. It will be readily understood that the habit of living in the midst of these scenes ofviolence and brutality exercised a bad influence on themorals of theknights of the order. Discipline became relaxed and the grand mastership became a more and more periloushonour. Revolts were frequent. In 1581 the grand master, Jean de la Cassière, was madeprisoner by his ownknights, whose principle grievance was the expulsion of lewdwomen. Thevow of obedience was little better observed than that ofcelibacy. Once in possession of some commandery situated on the Continent, aknight would become indeed independent of the grand master's authority and maintain only the most remote relations with the order. As to thevow of poverty, theknights were recruited solely from among the nobility,proofs of noble descent being more severely scrutinized than religious dispositions, and naturally, the wealth of the order formed the only motive of these vocations. Its decay began, too, with the confiscation of its possessions. One effect ofProtestantism was the alienation of a large group of commanderies, to be thenceforward appropriated to theProtestant nobility, as, for instance, the Bailiwick of Sonnenburg inPrussia. In otherProtestant countries the order was simply suppressed. InCatholic countries the sovereigns themselves assumed more and more theright to dispose of the commanderies within theirjurisdiction. At last Malta, the very centre of the order, was treacherously surrendered under the grand master, the Count von Hompesch, toGeneral Bonaparte when he made his expedition toEgypt (12 June, 1798).

Present state of the order

The secularization of theproperty of the order inProtestant countries was extended by theFrench Revolution to the greater number ofCatholic countries. On the other hand, Czar Paul ofRussia assigned them considerableproperty in his domains (1797), and in return was elected grand master, but his election was not recognized by thepope. From that time forward thepope has named the grand master of the bailiff who takes his place. From 1805 to 1879 there was no grand master, butLeo XIII re-established the dignity, bestowing it on an Austrian, Geschi di Sancta Croce. It is now (1910) held by Galeazzo von Thun Hohenstein. The actual conditions for admission to the order are: nobility of sixteen quarterings, theCatholicFaith, attainment of full legal age, integrity of character, and corresponding social position. There are now in existence only four greatpriories, one inBohemia, and three inItaly. There are still commanders and several classes ofknights, with different insignia, but all wear the same eight-pointed Maltese cross (seePONTIFICAL DECORATIONS).

To the Order of the Knights of Malta belong the Convent of S. Maria del Priorato on the Aventine inRome, overlooking the Tiber, and commanding from its gardens one of the most delightful views of the city. The walls of theconvent are adorned with portraits of theknights, and the archives are rich in records of the order. Thetombs of theknights in theconvent church are interesting. The order was summoned to attend the Convention ofGeneva (1864), on the same footing as the great powers.

TheProtestant Baliwick of Sonnenburg inPrussia disappeared after the secularization of itsproperty in 1810. Nevertheless Frederick William IV created a new confraternity of "Evangelical Johannittes" (1852), under the master (Herrenmeister) always chosen from the royal family, and with a great number of other dignitaries. Admission to the order is subject to numerous conditions, ancient nobility, corresponding social position, and entrance fee of 900 marks, a probation of at least four years as aknight of honor before admission of the accolade which confers the title of Knight of Justice. Their firstobligation is to collect contributions for the support ofhospitals. Thus thisProtestant branch of the order has returned to the ideal of its first founder in the time of theFirst Crusade. Moreover, in times ofwar, since 1870, the order has been devoted to ambulance service on the field of battle.

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