Abbot

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A title given to the superior of a community of twelve or moremonks. The name is derived fromabba, theSyriac form of theHebrewab, and means "father". InSyria, where it had its origin, and inEgypt, it was first employed as a title of honour and respect, and was given to anymonk of venerable age or of eminentsanctity. The title did not originally imply the exercise of any authority over a religious community. From the East the word passed over to theWest, and here it was soon received into general use to designate the superior of anabbey or amonastery. In this article we shall treat:

I. Historical Origin;
II. Nature of the Office;
III. Kinds of Abbots;
IV. Mode of Election;
V. Benediction of the Abbot;
VI. Authority;
VII. Rights and Privileges;
VIII. Assistance at Councils;
IX. Distribution of Abbots.

Historical origin

Monastic communities were first organized inEgypt at the beginning of the fourth century.St. Anthony introduced one form of community life theeremitical when, about the year A.D. 305, he undertook the direction and organization of the multitude ofhermits who had gathered about him in theThebaid; a second — the coenobitical, or conventual, type ofmonachism — was instituted bySt. Pachomius, who, about the same time, founded his firstcoenobium, or conventualmonastery, at Tabennae in the far south ofEgypt. Both systems spread rapidly and were soon firmly established in Palestine,Syria, Mesopotamia, andAsia Minor. By the middle of the fourth century monachism had also made its appearance inEurope, and here, at the beginning of the sixth,St. Benedict of Nursia, gave it the definite form and constitution which ultimately assured its triumph in theWest.

Every group ofhermits and everycoenobium naturally had its superior. The title given him varied. In the East he was usually styled the elder, the senior, or also father of themonastery. InAsia Minor and among the Greeks generally he was calledarchimandrite (archos, a chief, andmandra, a fold,monastery) orhegumenos. Originally there seems to have been no appreciable difference in the signification of these two words, but after the period ofJustinian the titlearchimandrite was jealously reserved for the superiors of the older or of the more importantmonasteries. Both names have, however, been permanently retained, and are to this day the titles given to monastic superiors in theEastern Church.Cassian, who at the beginning of the fifth century had transplantedEgyptian monachism toGaul, was addressed asAbbas,Pater, andDominus; he himself termed the superior of themonasteryPraepositus. The wordpraepositus, in the signification of a monastic ruler, appears also in Roman Africa and elsewhere in theWest, but towards the close of the fifth century it had been almost entirely supplanted by the termabbas. St. Benedict, in hisRule, written about 529, assigned a subordinate position in the community to thepraepositus, and restricted the use of the titleabbas to the superior of themonastery. Through theRule of the great Patriarch of Western Monachism the application of the titleabbas was definitely fixed, and its use made general in theWest.

Nature of the office

St. Benedict's conception of a monastic community was distinctly that of a spiritualfamily. Every individualmonk was to be a son of thatfamily, the, Abbot its father, and themonastery its permanent home. Upon the Abbot therefore, as upon the father of afamily, devolves the government and direction of those who are committed to his care, and a paternal solicitude should characterize his rule. St. Benedict says that "an abbot who is worthy to have the charge of amonastery ought always to remember by what title he is called," and that "in themonastery he is considered to represent the person ofChrist, seeing that he is called by His name" (Rule of St. Benedict, ii). The monastic system established by St. Benedict was based entirely upon the supremacy of the abbot. Though the Rule gives directions as to an abbot's government, and furnishes him with principles upon which to act, and binds him to carry out certain prescriptions as to consultation with others in difficult matters etc., the subject is told toobey without question or hesitation the decision of the superior. It is of course needless to say that this obedience did not extend to the commission ofevil, even were any such command ever imposed (Gasquet,English Monastic Life, London, 1904, p. 42). The obedience shown to the Abbot is regarded as obedience paid toGod Himself, and all the respect and reverence with which he is treated by the brethren of his house is paid him forChrist'slove, because as abbot — father — he is the representative ofChrist in the midst of the brethren. The whole government of a religious house depends upon the Abbot. His will is supreme in all things; yet, as the Rule says, nothing is to be taught, commanded, or ordered beyond theprecepts of theLord. All the officials who are to assist him in the government of the house, are appointed by him and have their authority from him. He may dismiss them at his discretion. The Abbot, by virtue of his office, administers thetemporal possessions of the community, exercises a general supervision for the maintenance of monasticdiscipline, provides for the keeping of the Rule, punishes and, if need be,excommunicates the refractory, presides in choir during the recitation of the Office, and at Divine Service, and gives the blessings. In a word, uniting in his person the threefold office of father, teacher, and ruler, it is theduty of the Abbot to see that all things are administered wisely in the House ofGod.

Kinds of abbots

An Abbot canonically elected and confirmed, and exercising theduties of his office, is by the law of the Church styled a Regular Abbot. Regular Abbots areprelates in the full sense of the word, and theirdignity is of three grades.

An Abbot who presides only over suchpersons, ecclesiastical andlay, as are attached to hismonastery, belongs to the lowest grade, and hisjurisdiction carries with it what is called the simple passive exemption (exemptio passiva) from the authority of the diocesanbishop.

If an Abbot's jurisdiction extends beyond the limits of hisabbey, over the inhabitants —clergy andlaity — of a certain district or territory which forms an integral part of abishop's diocese, he belongs to the middle grade (praelatus quasi nullius dioecesis) and his exemption is termed active (exemptio activa).

And when an Abbot has jurisdiction over the clergy andlaity of a district or territory (comprising one or several cities and places) which forms no part whatever of any diocese, hisabbey is styledvere nullius dioecesis (of no diocese) and, excepting a fewrights only, for the exercise of which theordo episcopalis is required, his authority is in all things equal to that of abishop. This is the third and highest grade of the dignity.

There are noabbeysvere nullius in theUnited States or inEngland. Amongabbeys of this class in other countries may be mentioned: inItaly, the arch-abbey ofMonte Cassino, founded by St. Benedict himself about 529; the abbey ofSubiaco, of which the titular is always acardinal; theabbey of St. Paulextra Muros (Rome); that ofMonte Vergine nearAvellino, founded bySt. William of Vercelli in 1124; and the abbey of the Most Holy Trinity at Cava, dating back to 1011; inSwitzerland, the abbey ofEinsiedeln, founded about 934; inHungary (Austria), the arch-abbey of St. Martin's, (Martinsberg), established A.D. 1001 by St. Stephen, King ofHungary; and in WestAustralia the abbey ofNew Norcia. All exemptabbeys, no matter what the canonical title or degree of theirexemption, are under the immediate jurisdiction of theHoly See. The termexempt is, strictly speaking, not applied to an Abbotnullius, because his jurisdiction is entirely extraterritorial. Within the limits of his territory such an Abbot has, with few exceptions, therights and privileges of abishop, and assumes all abishop'sobligations. Abbots of the second grade, however, whose authority (though quasi-episcopal) is intra-territorial, cannot be considered ordinaries, nor can they lay any claim to therights and privileges ofbishops, excepting those, of course, which have been especially granted them by theHoly See.

When themonasteries in which the same regular observance is followed, or theabbeys of the same province, district, or country form a congregation, i.e. a federation of houses to promote the general interest of the order, the presiding Abbot is styled the "Abbot President", or the "Abbot General." Thus, the Cassinese Congregation of the Primitive Observance has at its head an Abbot General; theEnglish Congregation, the American-Cassinese, and the American-Swiss, have each an Abbot President. The authority of the Abbot President is defined in the statutes or constitution of each congregation. In the recent confederation of theBenedictine Order all the Black Monks of St. Benedict were united under the presidency of an "Abbot Primate" (Leo XIII,Summum semper, 12 July, 1893); but the unification, fraternal in its nature, brought no modification to the abbatial dignity, and the various congregations preserved their autonomy intact. The powers of the Abbot Primate are specified, and his position defined, in aDecree of the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars dated 16 September, 1893. The primacy is attached to the Abbey and International Benedictine College of St. Anselm,Rome, and the Primate, who takes precedence of all other Abbots, is empowered to pronounce on all doubtful matters ofdiscipline, to settle difficulties arising betweenmonasteries to hold acanonical visitation, if necessary, in any congregation of the order, and to exercise a general supervision for the regular observance of monasticdiscipline. Of late, however, certain branches of theBenedictine Order seem to have lost their original autonomy to some extent. TheReformed Cistercians of La Trappe, for instance, are by aDecree ofPope Leo XIII, 8 May, 1892, placed under the authority of an Abbot-General. The Abbot-General has full authority to pass decision upon all current affairs and difficulties. On account of the antiquity or the preeminence of theabbeys over which they preside, the honorary title of Arch-abbot is bestowed upon the superiors of certainmonasteries.Monte Cassino, "the Cradle of Western Monachism",St. Martinsberg inHungary, St. Martin's of Beuron, inGermany, and St. Vincent's,Pennsylvania, the firstBenedictine foundation in America, are presided over by Arch-abbots.

A further variety of Abbots-Regular are the "Titular Abbots." A Titular Abbot holds the title of anabbey which has been either destroyed or suppressed, but he exercises none of the functions of an Abbot, and hasin actu no subjects belonging to themonastery whence he derives his title. The law of the Church recognizes also "Secular Abbots," i.e.clerics who, though not professed members of any monastic order, nevertheless possess an abbacy as anecclesiastical benefice, with the title and some of thehonours of the office. Thesebenefices belonged originally to monastic houses, but on the suppression of the abbeys thebenefice and the title were transferred to other churches. There are various classes of Secular Abbots; some have both jurisdiction and theright to use the pontifical insignia; others have only the abbatical dignity without either jurisdiction or theright topontificalia; while yet another class holds in certaincathedral churches the first dignity and the privilege of precedence in choir and in assemblies, by reason of some suppressed or destroyed conventual church now become thecathedral. In the earlyMiddle Ages the title Abbot was borne not only by the superiors of religious houses, but also by a number ofpersons, ecclesiastical andlay, who had no connection whatever with themonastic system.St. Gregory of Tours, for instance, employed it in his day to designate the principal of a body ofsecular clergy attached to certain churches; and later, under the Merovingians and Carlovingians, it was applied to thechaplain of the royal household,Abbas Palatinus, and to the militarychaplain of the king,Abbas Castrenisis. From the time ofCharles Martel onward to the eleventh century it came to be adopted even bylaymen, theAbbacomites, orAbbates Milites, mostly nobles dependent on the court, or old officers, to whom the sovereign would assign a portion of the revenues of somemonastery as a reward for military service. "Commendatory Abbots" (secularecclesiastics who held an abbacy notin titulo, butin commendam) had their origin in the system of commendation prevalent during the eighth and succeeding centuries. They were in the first instance merely temporary trustees, appointed to administer the estates of anabbey during avacancy; but in the course of time they retained the office for life, and claimed a portion of the revenues for their maintenance. The practice ofnominating Commendatory Abbots eventually led to serious abuses; it was greatly checked by theCouncil of Trent, and has in modern times entirely disappeared from theChurch.

Mode of election

In the early days of monastic institutions the founder of areligious house was usually its first superior; in every other instance the Abbot was appointed or elected. Some Abbots indeed selected their own successors, but the cases were exceptional. In many places, when a vacancy occurred, thebishop of thediocese would choose a superior from among themonks of theconvent, but it appears that from the very beginning the appointment of an Abbot rested generally with themonks themselves. St. Benedictordained (Rule, lxiv) that the Abbot should be chosen "by the general consent of the whole community, or of a small part of the community, provided its choice were made with greater wisdom and discretion." Thebishop of thediocese, the Abbots andChristian men of the neighbourhood were called upon to oppose the election of an unworthy man. Every religious house professing his Rule adopted the method prescribed by the great monastic legislator, and in the course of time the right of themonks toelect their own Abbot came to be generally recognized, particularly so when it had been solemnly confirmed by the canons of the Church seeThomassin, Vetus et Nova Eccl. Disciplina, Pt. I, III, c. xxxii, no. 6). But during theMiddle Ages, whenmonasteries had grown wealthy and powerful, kings and princes gradually encroached on therights of themonks, until in most countries the sovereign had wholly usurped the power ofnominating abbots for many of the greater houses in his realm. This interference of the court in the affairs of thecloister was in the process of time the source of many evils and the occasion of grave disorders, while in its effect on monasticdiscipline it was uniformly disastrous. Therights of thecloister were finally restored by theCouncil of Trent. According to the present legislation, the Abbot is elected for life by the secret suffrages of the community'sprofessed membersin sacris. To be eligible he must have all the qualifications required by the canons of the Church. It is furthermore necessary that he should be apriest, a professed member of the order, of legitimate birth, and at least twenty-five years of age. The election, to be valid, must be held in the manner prescribed by the common law of the Church (cf. Quia propter. — De elect., I, 6; and Cone. Trid., sess. XXV, c. vi, De reg.), and as determined in the statutes or constitutions of each congregation. In theEnglish and American congregations the Abbot of amonastery is elected for life by a two-thirds vote of the professed members insacris of the chapter. The Abbots themselves elect the abbot president. Exemptabbeys under the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope must, within the space of a month, apply to theHoly See for a confirmation of the election; non-exempt houses, within three months, to thebishop of thediocese. The confirmation confers upon the Abbot-elect thejus in re, and having obtained it he enters at once upon theduties and privileges of his office. A canonical perpetuity attaches to the abbatial dignity;semel abbas, semper abbas; and even after a resignation the dignity endures, and the title is retained.Benedictineabbeys in the United States and inEngland enjoy exemption; for America, the newly-elected Abbots are confirmed directly by the Pope; inEngland, however, according to the recent Constitution, "Diu quidem est" (1899), they are confirmed by the Abbot President in the name of theHoly See.

Benediction of the abbot

After his ecclesiastical confirmation, the newly elected Abbot is solemnly blessed according to therite prescribed in the"Pontificale Romanum" (De benedictione Abbatis). By the Constitution ofBenedict XIII, Commissi Nobis, 6 May, 1725, all Regular Abbots elected for life are nowobliged to receive this blessing (or, at least, to thrice formally request it) within the space of a year, from thebishop of thediocese; if they fail to have theceremony performed within the required time, they incuripso jure asuspension from office for the period of one year. Should the petition be refused for the third time, either by the diocesan or themetropolitan, an Abbot is free to receive benediction from anybishop in communion withRome. The Constitution at the same time expressly declares that the Abbot-elect may licitly and validly perform all theduties of his office during the interval preceding his solemn benediction. It must be noted, however, that the legislation enforced byBenedict XIII does not affect those Abbots who areprivileged to receive the blessing from their regular superiors, nor those who by their election and confirmation areipso facto regarded as blessed by thePope. The blessing is notin se essential for the exercise of an Abbot's order and office; it confers no additional jurisdiction, and imparts no sacramentalgrace orcharacter. An Abbotnullius may call upon anybishop in union with theHoly See to bestow the abbatial blessing. By the recent Constitution ofLeo XIII, "Diu quidem est." 1899, the Abbots of theEnglish Congregation are bound within six months of their election to present themselves to theordinary of thediocese to be blessed by Apostolical authority; and, if the diocesan be prevented, they can receive the blessing from anyCatholicbishop.

The ceremony, which in solemnity differs but slightly from that of abishop'sconsecration, takes place during theHoly Sacrifice of the Mass, after the Epistle. The essentials of the episcopal order are of course omitted, but before his benediction the Abbot takes theoath of allegiance to theHoly See and, like thebishop, is subjected to a canonical examination. He receives the insignia of his office — themitre,crosier,ring, etc. — from the hands of the officiatingprelate, and at theOffertory presents to him two small casks ofwine, two loaves ofbread, and two large waxtapers; he says the Mass with thebishop and receivesHoly Communion from him. During the singing of theTe Deum the newly blessed Abbot, withmitre andcrosier, is conducted through thenave of the church by the two assistant Abbots, andblesses the people. Upon his returning to his seat in the sanctuary (if in his own church), themonks of the community come, one by one, and,kneeling before their new superior, pay him their homage, and receive from him thekiss of peace. The ceremony is concluded by a solemn blessing bestowed by the newlyinstalled Abbot standing at theHigh Altar. According to the Pontificale Romanum, the day set apart for the function ought to be aSunday or afeast day. The solemn rite of benediction, once conferred, need not be again received when an Abbot is translated from onemonastery to another.

Authority of the abbot

The authority of an Abbot is of two; kinds, one relating to the external government of the house, the other to the spiritual government of his subjects. The first is a paternal or domestic authority, based on the nature ofreligious life and on thevow of obedience, the second a power of quasi-episcopal jurisdiction, by virtue of which he is truly aprelate.

His domestic authority empowers the Abbot to administer the property of theabbey, to maintain thediscipline of the house, to compel the religious, even by penalties, to observe the Rule and the Constitutions of the Order, and to ordain whatever else may be essential for the preservation of peace and order in the community.

Thepower of jurisdiction which the Abbot possesses, bothin foro interno andin foro externo, authorizes him toabsolve his subjects from all cases ofconscience not specially reserved, and todelegate this power to thepriests of hismonastery; toreserve to himself the eleven cases enumerated in the Constitution ofClement VIII, "Ad futuram rei memoriam"; to inflictecclesiastical censures; and todispense the members of his house in certain cases for which adispensation is usually obtained from thebishop of thediocese. He cannot, of course, dispense a religious from thevows of poverty,chastity, and obedience.

Abbots, like themonks over whom they ruled, were originallylaymen, and subject to thebishop of thediocese. It was not long, however, before they were enrolled in the ranks of the clergy. Towards the close of the fifth century by far the greater number of Abbots in the East had receivedordination. The change was effected more slowly in theWest, but even here few were found at the end of the seventh century who had not been clothed with the dignity of thepriesthood. A council held atRome, 826, underPope Eugene II, enjoined theordination of Abbots, but the canon seems not to have been rigidly enforced, for as late as the eleventh century we read of some who were onlydeacons. The Council of Poitiers (1078) finally obliged all Abbots under pain of deprivation to receivepriest's orders. (Thomassin, Pt. I, I, iii,passim.) From this time forward the power and influence of Abbots steadily increased in Church and State, until towards the close of theMiddle Ages their position was everywhere regarded as one of the highest distinction. InGermany eleven Abbots held rank as princes of the Empire, and with all therights and privileges of princes took part in the deliberation of the Diets. The Abbots ofFulda exercised even sovereign power over ten square miles round theabbey. In the Parliament ofEngland

abbots formed the bulk of the spiritual peerage. The position held by them throughout every part of the country gave yet a further weight to their great position as noblemen and local magnates. As such they wentpari passu with baron or earl of the noblest lineage. On the blazoned Roll of the Lords, theLord Richard Whiting and the Lord Hugh Farringdon (Abbots of Glastonbury and of Reading) went hand in hand with a Howard and a Talbot [Gasquet, Henry VIII and the English Monast. (London, 1888), I, 25].

InFrance,Spain,Italy, andHungary their power and influence were equally great, and continued so generally up to the time of theCouncil of Trent.

Rights and privileges

Allregular Abbots have theright to give thetonsure and to conferminor orders on the professed members of their house. As early as 787 theSecond Council of Nicaea permitted Abbots (provided they werepriests, and had received the solemn rite of benediction) to give thetonsure and to advance theirmonks to the order oflector (Thomassin, Pt., I. c., I. iii, c. xvii, no. 3). The privilege granted by this Council was gradually extended until it embracedall theminor orders, and in the course of time Abbots were authorized to confer them not only on theirregular but also on their secular subjects [Wernz, Jus Decretalium (Rome, 1899) ii, 47, note]. TheCouncil of Trent, however, decreed that "it shall not henceforth be lawful for abbots, . . . howsoever exempted, . . . to confer thetonsure andminor orders on any but theirregular subjects, nor shall the said abbots grant letters dimissory to anysecular clerics to beordained by others" [Can. et Decret. Conc. Trid. (ed. Richter et Schulte), p. 197]. From thisdecree of the Council it is quite clear that Abbots still have theright to confer thetonsure andminor orders, but it is equally clear that they may confer them lawfully only on theirregular subjects. Novices, therefore,oblates,regulars of another order or congregation, and seculars cannot be advanced by the Abbot. Even the Abbots styledvere nullius, who exercise an episcopal jurisdiction in their territory, may not without a special privilege giveminor orders to their secular subjects [Santi, Praelect. Jur. Can. (New York, 1898), I, 125 sq., and Can. et Decret. Cone. Trid. (ed. Richter et Schulte), 197 sq., where also the decisions of the Sacred Cong. of the Council on this subject may be found]. On the question of the validity of orders conferred by an Abbot who goes beyond the limits of the faculties extended by theHoly See, canonists disagree. Some pronounce such orders absolutely invalid, others maintain that they are illicitly conferred but nevertheless valid. The opinion of the latter seems to be sustained by various decisions of the Sacred Cong. of the Council (Santi, op. cit., p. 128 sq.; cf.Benedict XIV, De Syn. Dioec. II, c. xi, no. 13). It is a much-disputed question whether Abbots have ever been permitted to confer thesubdiaconate and thediaconate. Many canonists hold that the subdiaconate, being of merely ecclesiastical institution, was formerly amounted one of theminor orders of the Church, and infer that before the time ofUrban II (1099), Abbots could have given that order. But the further claim that Abbots have also conferred thediaconate cannot, apparently, be sustained, for theBull ofInnocent VIII, "Exposcit tuae devotionis" (9 April, 1489), in which this privilege is said to have been granted to certainCistercian Abbots, makes no reference whatever to thediaconate — "Factâ inspectione in Archivis (Vaticani) . . . bulla quidem ibidem est reperta, sed mentio de diaconatu in eâdem deest." [See Gasparri, Tract. can. de S. Ordinatione, II, n. 798; cf. also P. Pie de Langogne, "Bulle d'Innocent VIII aux abbés de Cîteaux pour les ordinations in sacris" (Etudes franciscaines, fév., 1901, 129 sq.)] Pauhölzl, in "Studien und Mittheil. aus dem Benedictiner und Cistercienser-Orden", 1884, I, 441 sq. gives theBull and defends its authenticity. By the law of the Church Abbots may grant letters dimissorial to theirregular subjects, authorizing and recommending them forordination, but they cannot give dimissorials to seculars without incurringsuspension. Abbots are furthermore privileged to dedicate theirabbey church and the cemetery of themonastery, and authorized to reconcile them in case of desecration. They canblesschurch vestments, altar linens, ciboria,monstrances, etc., for their own subjects, andconsecratealtars andchalices for their own churches. Asprelates, they hold the rank immediately after thebishops, being preceded only by theprotonotarii participantes (see CURIA ROMANA), and by thevicar-general in hisdiocese. It may be added that the Abbotsnullius dioecesis arepreconized by the Pope in a public consistory, and that, within the territory over which they exercise jurisdiction, their name, like that of a diocesan, is inserted in thecanon of the Mass.

The use of the pontifical insignia —mitre,crosier,pectoral cross, ring,gloves, andsandals — which Abbots commonly have, is one of their most ancient privileges. It cannot be definitely ascertained when the privilege was first granted, but as early as 643 the Abbey of Bobbio inItaly is said to have obtained a constitution fromPope Theodore confirming a grant made to the Abbot byHonorius I. InEngland the pontifical insignia were assigned first to the Abbot ofSt. Augustine's,Canterbury, in 1063 and nearly a hundred years later to the Abbot of St. Alban's. The privilege was gradually extended to otherabbeys until, at the close of theMiddle Ages, every monastic house of importance inEurope was presided over by a mitred Abbot. Therights of Abbots topontificalia are now regulated by theDecree ofPope Alexander VII (S. Cong. of Rites, 27 September, 1659). By the terms of thisdecree the days on which an Abbot is permitted to pontificate are limited to three days in the year. The use of the seventhcandle, customary at a solemnpontifical Mass, is forbidden. The Abbot'smitre is to be made of less costly material than abishop's, and thepastoral staff is to be used with a white pendantveil. The Abbot is not to have a permanentthrone in his monastic church, but is allowed, only when celebrating pontifically, to have a movable throne on two steps and a simple canopy. He has also the privilege of usingmitre andcrosier whenever theritual functions require them. As a mark of special distinction, some Abbots are permitted by theHoly See to use thecappa magna, and all abbotsnullius may wear a violetbiretta andzucchetto. "A recentdecree of the S.C.R. (13 June, 1902) has regulated in accordance with former legislation therights of the abbots of the English Congregation topontificalia. According to thisdecree theEnglish abbots can celebrate pontifically not only in their own abbatial churches, but also without the leave of the diocesanbishop in all other churches served by theirmonks withcure of souls. They can also give leave to other abbots of their Congregation to pontificate in their churches. They can use the prelatical dress i.e.rochet,mozzetta andmantelletta outside their own churches" [Taunton, The Law of the Church (London, 1906), p. 3]. The Abbots of the American-Cassinese and of the American-Swiss Congregations have the same privileges.

Assistance at councils

Ecclesiastical councils were attended by Abbots at a very early period. Thus, in 448, twenty-threearchimandrites or Abbots assisted at that held byFlavian, thePatriarch of Constantinople, and with thirtybishops signed the condemnation ofEutyches. InFrance under the Merovingian kings, they frequently appeared at ecclesiastical synods as the delegates ofbishops, while inSaxon England and inSpain the presence of monastic superiors at the councils of the Church was nothing uncommon. Their attendance did not, however, become a general practice in theWest until after the Eighth Council of Toledo (653) where ten Abbots had been present, and had subscribed to thedecrees by virtue of their pastoral charge. From the eighth century onward Abbots had a voice also in the œcumenical councils of the Church. It must be remarked that in later centuries Abbots were invited to assist at suchcouncils and were permitted to give a decisive vote, mainly because they too, like thebishops, exercised apower of jurisdiction in theChurch of God. In this connectionPope Benedict XIV says: "Item sciendum est quod quando in Conciliis generalibus soli episcopi habebant vocem definitivam, hoc fuit quia habebant administrationem populi . . . Postea additi fuere Abbates eâdem de causâ, et quia habebant administrationem subjectorum (De Syn. dioec. XIII, c. ii, no. 5). A newly appointed Abbot, before he receives the solemn benediction at the hands of thebishop takes anoath that he will discharge faithfully all theduties of his office, specifying among others that of attending councils: "Vocatus ad synodum, veniam, nisi praepeditus fuero canonica praepeditione" (Pontif. Rom.,De Benedictione Abbatis). In the performance of thisduty the Abbot must be guided by the regulations of the sacred canons. According to the present practice of the Church all Abbotsnullius dioecesis, or with quasi-episcopal jurisdiction, have aright to assist at œcumenical councils. They have moreover, the right of a decisive vote, and may subscribe to the decrees. The Abbots-President of congregations and the abbots-general of an entire order are also present and cast a decisive vote, though only by virtue of privilege. Other classes of Abbots were not admitted to theVatican Council in 1870. Inprovincial synods and in plenary or national councils the Abbotsnullius havede jure a decisive vote, and sign the decrees after thebishops. Attendance at thesesynods is for them not merely a right, but also anobligation. By the terms of theCouncil of Trent (Sess. XXIV, De ref., c. ii) they are obliged, "like thebishops who are not subject to anyarchbishop, to make choice of some neighbouring metropolitan, at whose synods they shall be bound to appear," and they are further directed "to observe and to cause to be observed whatsoever shall be thereinordained." Though other Abbots must not be calledde jure to provincial or to national councils, it is yet the custom, in most countries, to invite also the mitred Abbots who have actual jurisdiction only over theirmonasteries. Thus, at theSecond Plenary Council of Baltimore (1866) both the Abbot of theCistercians and the Abbot-President of the American-CassineseBenedictines were present, and signed the decrees. At the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) six mitred Abbots assisted, two of whom, the Abbots-President of the American-Cassinese and of the American-Swiss Congregations ofBenedictines, exercised the right of a decisive vote, while the other four had only a consultative voice and subscribed to the decrees merely as assenting, not as defining. And this is the practice of the Church generally. Exempt Abbots have noobligation to attend diocesan synods.

Distribution of abbots

The Black Monks of St. Benedict have at present seven Abbotsnullius dioecesis, located as follows:Italy, 4;Switzerland, 1;Hungary, 1; and WestAustralia, 1; 86 Abbots exercising actualjurisdiction over theirmonasteries: Austria, 19;United States, 14;France, 9 (before the Law of Associations);Italy, 9;Germany, 7;England, 6;Hungary, 5;Switzerland, 4;Brazil, S.A., 3;Holland, 3;Spain, 3;Belgium, 2;Scotland l; WestAustralia 1. They have also nine titular, and three resigned Abbots.

TheCistercian Abbots of the Three Observances number fifty-seven. Of these theCistercians of the Common and of the Lesser Observance have nineteen:Italy, 3;Belgium, 2;Austro-Hungarian Province, 8; and the Swiss-German Congregation 3. TheCongregation of Sénanque, to which the three Abbots of the Lesser Observance belong, is now dispersed by the Associations Law ofFrance. TheCistercians of the Strict Observance (Trappists) have thirty-eight:France, 18 (not expelled);Belgium, 4;Italy, 3;United States,Austria, andIreland, two each;Canada, China,England,Germany,Holland, andSpain, one each. TheCistercians have also two Abbotsnullius dioecesis.

InItaly, theCamaldolese,Vallombrosans,Silvestrines, andOlivetans, all branches of theBenedictine Order, have each a small number of Abbots. Monte Oliveto Maggiore, belonging to theOlivetans, is anabbeynullius dioecesis. Some few houses of the variousCongregations of Canons Regular, of theAntonians, of theArmenianBenedictines, and of theBasilians, are also under the direction of Abbots. Mitred Abbots in the United States are the Abbots of St. Vincent's Arch-Abbey, Beatty,Pennsylvania; St. John's Abbey, Collegeville,Minnesota; St. Benedict's Abbey, Atchison,Kansas; St. Mary's Abbey,Newark,New Jersey; Maryhelp Abbey, Belmont,North Carolina; St. Bernard's Abbey, St. Bernard,Alabama; St. Procopius's Abbey,Chicago, Illinois; St. Leo's Abbey, St. Leo,Florida; St. Meinrad's Abbey, St. Meinrad,Indiana; Immaculate Conception Abbey, Conception,Missouri; New Subiaco Abbey, Spielerville,Arkansas; St. Joseph's Abbey,Covington,Louisiana; St. Mary's Abbey, Richardton,North Dakota; St. Benedict's Abbey, Mount Angel,Oregon; Gethsemani Abbey,Kentucky; New Melleray Abbey, nearDubuque,Iowa; and the Sacred Heart Abbey,Oklahoma.

Mitred Abbots inEngland are the Titular Abbot ofReading, the Abbot of St. Gregory's Abbey, Downside, Bath; St. Lawrence's Abbey, Ampleforth, York; St. Edmund's Abbey of Douay, Woolhampton, Reading; St. Augustine's Abbey, Ramsgate; St. Thomas's Abbey, Erdington, Birmingham;Buckfast Abbey, Buckfastleigh, Devon; St. Michael's Abbey, Farnborough (Benedictines ofSolesmes) Abbey of St. Pierre, Appuldurcombe, Isle of Wight (Benedictines ofSolesmes); St. Bernard's Abbey, Coalville, near Leicester (Cistercian), TheCanons Regular of the Lateran, Spettisbury, Dorsetshire.

In Scotland; St. Benedict's Abbey, Fort Augustus, Inverness.

In Ireland: Mt. Melleray Abbey, Cappoquin, Mt. St. Joseph's Abbey, Roscrea, Tipperary.

In West Australia: Holy Trinity Abbey,New Norcia (nullius dioecesis).

In Canada: Abbey of Notre Dame du Lac, Lac des Deux Montagnes.

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