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| A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z |
Philosopher,theologian,doctor of the Church (Angelicus Doctor),patron ofCatholicuniversities,colleges, andschools. Born at Rocca Secca in theKingdom of Naples, 1225 or 1227; died at Fossa Nuova, 7 March, 1274.
The great outlines and all the important events of his life areknown, but biographers differ as to some details anddates. Death preventedHenry Denifle from executing his project of writing a critical life of thesaint.Denifle's friend and pupil, Dominic Prümmer, O.P., professor oftheology in theUniversity of Fribourg, Switzerland, took up the work and published the "Fontes Vitae S. Thomae Aquinatis, notis historicis et criticis illustrati"; and the first fascicle (Toulouse, 1911) has appeared, giving the life of St. Thomas by Peter Calo (1300) now published for the first time. FromTolomeo of Lucca . . . we learn that at the time of thesaint's death there was adoubt about his exact age (Prümmer, op. cit., 45). The end of 1225 is usually assigned as thetime of his birth. Father Prümmer, on the authority of Calo, thinks 1227 is the more probabledate (op. cit., 28). All agree that he died in 1274.
Landulph, hisfather, was Count ofAquino; Theodora, his mother, Countess of Teano. Hisfamily was related to the EmperorsHenry VI andFrederick II, and to the Kings ofAragon,Castile, andFrance. Calo relates that aholyhermit foretold his career, saying to Theodora before his birth: "He will enter theOrder of Friars Preachers, and so great will be his learning andsanctity that in his day no one will be found to equal him" (Prümmer, op. cit., 18). At the age of five, according to thecustom of the times, he was sent to receive his first training from theBenedictine monks ofMonte Cassino. Diligent in study, he was thus early noted as being meditative and devoted toprayer, and his preceptor was surprised at hearing the child ask frequently: "What isGod?"
About the year 1236 he was sent to the University ofNaples. Calo says that the change was made at the instance of theAbbot ofMonte Cassino, who wrote to Thomas's father that a boy of such talents should not be left in obscurity (Prümmcr, op. cit., 20). AtNaples his preceptors were Pietro Martini and Petrus Hibernus. The chronicler says that he soon surpassed Martini at grammar, and he was then given over to Peter of Ireland, who trained him inlogic and thenatural sciences. The customs of the times divided theliberal arts into two courses: the Trivium, embracing grammar,logic, and rhetoric; the Quadrivium, comprising music, mathematics, geometry, andastronomy . . . . Thomas could repeat the lessons with more depth and lucidity than his masters displayed. The youth's heart had remained pure amidst the corruption with which he was surrounded, and he resolved to embrace thereligious life.
Sometime between 1240 and August, 1243, he received the habit of theOrder of St. Dominic, being attracted and directed by John of St. Julian, a noted preacher of theconvent ofNaples. The city wondered that such a noble young man should don the garb ofpoorfriar. His mother, with mingled feelings ofjoy and sorrow, hastened toNaples to see her son. TheDominicans, fearing she would take him away, sent him toRome, his ultimate destination beingParis orCologne. At the instance of Theodora, Thomas's brothers, who were soldiers under theEmperor Frederick, captured thenovice near the town ofAquapendente and confined him in the fortress of San Giovanni at Rocca Secca. Here he was detained nearly two years, hisparents, brothers, and sisters endeavouring by various means to destroy hisvocation. The brothers even laid snares for hisvirtue, but the pure-mindednovice drove the temptress from his room with a brand which he snatched from the fire. Towards the end of his life,St. Thomas confided to his faithful friend and companion,Reginald of Piperno, the secret of a remarkable favour received at thistime. When the temptress had been driven from his chamber, heknelt and most earnestly imploredGod to grant him integrity ofmind and body. He fell into a gentle sleep, and, as he slept, twoangels appeared to assure him that hisprayer had been heard. They then girded him about with a white girdle, saying: "We gird thee with the girdle of perpetualvirginity." And from that day forward he never experienced the slightest motions ofconcupiscence.
Thetime spent in captivity was not lost. His mother relented somewhat, after the first burst ofanger and grief; theDominicans were allowed to provide him with new habits, and through the kind offices of his sister he procured some books — theHoly Scriptures,Aristotle's Metaphysics, and the "Sentences" ofPeter Lombard. After eighteen months or two years spent inprison, either because his mother saw that thehermit'sprophecy would eventually be fulfilled or because his brothersfeared the threats ofInnocent IV andFrederick II, he was set at liberty, being lowered in a basket into the arms of theDominicans, who were delighted to find that during his captivity "he had made as much progress as if he had been in astudium generale" (Calo, op. cit., 24).
Thomas immediately pronounced hisvows, and his superiors sent him toRome.Innocent IV examined closely into his motives in joining theFriars Preachers, dismissed him with ablessing, and forbade any further interference with hisvocation. John the Teutonic, fourth master general of theorder, took the young student toParis and, according to the majority of thesaint's biographers, toCologne, where he arrived in 1244 or 1245, and was placed underAlbertus Magnus, the most renowned professor of theorder. In the schools Thomas'shumility and taciturnity were misinterpreted as signs of dullness, but whenAlbert had heard his brilliant defence of a difficult thesis, he exclaimed: "We call this young man a dumb ox, but his bellowing indoctrine will one day resound throughout the world."
In 1245Albert was sent toParis, and Thomas accompanied him as a student. In 1248 both returned toCologne.Albert had been appointed regent of the newstudium generale, erected that year by thegeneral chapter of theorder, and Thomas was to teach under him as Bachelor. (On the system of graduation in the thirteenth century seeORDER OF PREACHERS — II, A, 1, d). During his stay inCologne, probably in 1250, he was raised to thepriesthood byConrad of Hochstaden,archbishop of that city. Throughout his busy life, he frequently preached the Word of God, inGermany,France, andItaly. Hissermons were forceful, redolent ofpiety, full of solid instruction, abounding in apt citations from theScriptures.
In the year 1251 or 1252 the master general of theorder, by the advice ofAlbertus Magnus andHugo a S. Charo (Hugh of St. Cher), sent Thomas to fill the office of Bachelor (sub-regent) in theDominicanstudium atParis. This appointment may be regarded as the beginning of his public career, for his teaching soon attracted the attention both of the professors and of the students. Hisduties consisted principally in explaining the "Sentences" ofPeter Lombard, and his commentaries on that text-book oftheology furnished the materials and, in great part, the plan for his chief work, the"Summa theologica".
In duetime he was ordered to prepare himself to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology from theUniversity of Paris, but the conferring of the degree was postponed, owing to a dispute between theuniversity and thefriars. The conflict, originally a dispute between theuniversity and thecivic authorities, arose from theslaying of one of the students and the wounding of three others by the city guard. Theuniversity, jealous of its autonomy, demanded satisfaction, which was refused. Thedoctors closed theirschools, solemnlyswore that they would not reopen them until their demands were granted, and decreed that in future no one should be admitted to the degree of Doctor unless he would take anoath to follow the same line of conduct under similar circumstances. TheDominicans andFranciscans, who had continued to teach in theirschools, refused to take the prescribedoath, and from this there arose a bitter conflict which was at its height when St. Thomas andSt. Bonaventure were ready to be presented for their degrees.William of St-Amour extended the dispute beyond the original question,violently attacked thefriars, of whom he was evidentlyjealous, and denied theirright to occupy chairs in theuniversity. Against his book, "De periculis novissimorum temporum" (The Perils of the Last Times), St. Thomas wrote a treatise "Contra impugnantes religionem", an apology for the religious orders (Touron, op. cit., II, cc. vii sqq.). The book ofWilliam of St-Amour was condemned byAlexander IV atAnagni, 5 October, 1256, and thepope gave orders that themendicant friars should be admitted to the doctorate.
About this time St. Thomas also combated a dangerous book, "The Eternal Gospel" (Touron, op. cit., II, cxii). Theuniversity authorities did notobey immediately; the influence ofSt. Louis IX and elevenpapal Briefs were required before peace was firmly established, and St. Thomas was admitted to the degree of Doctor in Theology. Thedate of his promotion, as given by many biographers, was 23 October, 1257. His theme was "The Majesty of Christ". His text, "Thou waterest the hills from thy upper rooms: the earth shall be filled with the fruit of thy works" (Psalm 103:13), said to have been suggested by aheavenly visitor, seems to have beenprophetic of his career. A tradition says thatSt. Bonaventure and St. Thomas received the doctorate on the same day, and that there was a contest ofhumility between the two friends as to which should be promoted first.
From thistime St. Thomas's life may be summed up in a few words:praying, preaching, teaching, writing, journeying. Men were more anxious to hear him than they had been to hearAlbert, whom St. Thomas surpassed in accuracy, lucidity, brevity, and power of exposition, if not in universality ofknowledge.Paris claimed him as her own; thepopes wished to have him near them; thestudia of theorder were eager to enjoy the benefit of his teaching; hence we find him successively atAnagni,Rome, Bologna,Orvieto,Viterbo,Perugia, inParis again, and finally inNaples, always teaching and writing, living on earth with one passion, an ardentzeal for the explanation and defence ofChristian truth. So devoted was he to his sacred task that with tears he begged to be excused from accepting theArchbishopric ofNaples, to which he was appointed byClement IV in 1265. Had this appointment been accepted, most probably the"Summa theologica" would not have been written.
Yielding to the requests of his brethren, he on several occasions took part in the deliberations of thegeneral chapters of theorder. One of thesechapters was held inLondon in 1263. In another held at Valenciennes (1259) he collaborated withAlbertus Magnus and Peter of Tarentasia (afterwardsPope Innocent V) in formulating a system of studies which is substantially preserved to this day in thestudia generalia of theDominican Order (cf. Douais, op. cit.).
It is not surprising to read in the biographies of St. Thomas that he was frequently abstracted and inecstasy. Towards the end of his life theecstasies became more frequent. On one occasion, atNaples in 1273, after he had completed his treatise on theEucharist, three of the brethren saw him lifted inecstasy, and they heard avoice proceeding from thecrucifix on the altar, saying "Thou hast written well of me, Thomas; what reward wilt thou have?" Thomas replied, "None other than Thyself, Lord" (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 38). Similar declarations are said to have been made atOrvieto and atParis.
On 6 December, 1273, he laid aside his pen and would write no more. That day he experienced an unusually longecstasy duringMass; what was revealed to him we can only surmise from his reply toFather Reginald, who urged him to continue his writings: "I can do no more. Such secrets have been revealed to me that all I have written now appears to be of little value" (modica, Prümmer, op. cit., p. 43). The"Summa theologica" had been completed only as far as theninetieth question of the third part (De partibus poenitentiae).
Thomas began his immediatepreparation for death.Gregory X, having convoked ageneral council, to open atLyons on 1 May, 1274, invited St. Thomas andSt. Bonaventure to take part in the deliberations, commanding the former to bring to thecouncil his treatise "Contra errores Graecorum" (Against the Errors of the Greeks). He tried toobey, setting out on foot in January, 1274, but strength failed him; he fell to the ground nearTerracina, whence he was conducted to the Castle of Maienza, the home of his niece the Countess Francesca Ceccano. TheCistercian monks of Fossa Nuova pressed him to accept theirhospitality, and he was conveyed to theirmonastery, on entering which he whispered to his companion: "This is my rest for ever and ever: here will I dwell, for I have chosen it" (Psalm 131:14). WhenFather Reginald urged him to remain at the castle, thesaint replied: "If theLord wishes to take me away, it is better that I be found in areligious house than in the dwelling of a lay person." TheCistercians were so kind and attentive that Thomas'shumility was alarmed. "Whence comes thishonour", he exclaimed, "that servants ofGod should carry wood for my fire!" At the urgent request of themonks he dictated a briefcommentary on theCanticle of Canticles.
The end was near;extreme unction was administered. When theSacred Viaticum was brought into the room he pronounced the following act offaith:
If in this world there be anyknowledge of thissacrament stronger than that offaith, I wish now to use it in affirming that I firmlybelieve andknow ascertain thatJesus Christ,TrueGod andTrueMan,Son of God and Son of theVirgin Mary, is in thisSacrament . . . I receive Thee, the price of myredemption, for Whoselove I have watched, studied, and laboured. Thee have I preached; Thee have I taught. Never have I said anything against Thee: if anything was not well said, that is to be attributed to myignorance. Neither do I wish to be obstinate in my opinions, but if I have written anythingerroneous concerning thissacrament or other matters, I submit all to the judgment and correction of theHoly Roman Church, in whoseobedience I now pass from this life.
He died on 7 March, 1274. Numerousmiracles attested hissanctity, and he wascanonized byJohn XXII, 18 July, 1323. Themonks of Fossa Nuova were anxious to keep hissacred remains, but by order ofUrban V the body was given to hisDominican brethren, and was solemnly translated to theDominican church atToulouse, 28 January, 1369. A magnificent shrine erected in 1628 was destroyed during theFrench Revolution, and the body was removed to theChurch of St. Sernin, where it now reposes in a sarcophagus of gold and silver, which wassolemnlyblessed by Cardinal Desprez on 24 July, 1878. The chief bone of his left arm is preserved in thecathedral ofNaples. The right arm, bestowed on theUniversity of Paris, and originally kept in the St. Thomas's Chapel of theDominican church, is now preserved in theDominican Church of S. Maria Sopra Minerva inRome, whither it was transferred during theFrench Revolution.
A description of thesaint as he appeared in life is given by Calo (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 401), who says that his features corresponded with the greatness of hissoul. He was of lofty stature and of heavy build, but straight and well proportioned. His complexion was "like the colour of new wheat": his head was large and well shaped, and he was slightly bald. All portraits represent him as noble, meditative, gentle yet strong.St. Pius V proclaimed St. Thomas aDoctor of the Universal Church in the year 1567. In theEncyclical"Aeterni Patris", of 4 August, 1879, on the restoration ofChristianphilosophy,Leo XIII declared him "the prince and master of allScholastic doctors". The same illustriouspontiff, by aBriefdated 4 August, 1880, designated himpatron of allCatholicuniversities, academies,colleges, andschools throughout the world.
Although St. Thomas lived less than fifty years, he composed more than sixty works, some of them brief, some very lengthy. This does not necessarily mean that every word in theauthentic works was written by his hand; he was assisted by secretaries, and biographers assure us that he could dictate to several scribes at the sametime. Other works, some of which were composed by hisdisciples, have been falsely attributed to him.
In the "Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum" (Paris, 1719)Fr. Echard devotes eighty-six folio pages to St. Thomas's works, the different editions and translations (I, pp. 282-348).Touron (op. cit., pp. 69 sqq.) says thatmanuscript copies were found in nearly all thelibraries ofEurope, and that, after the invention of printing, copies were multiplied rapidly inGermany,Italy, andFrance, portions of the"Summa theologica" being one of the first important works printed.Peter Schöffer, a printer ofMainz, published the"Secunda Secundae" in 1467. This is the first known printed copy of any work of St. Thomas. The first complete edition of the"Summa" was printed atBasle, in 1485. Many other editions of this and of other works were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially atVenice and atLyons. The principal editions of all the work (Opera Omnia) were published as follows:Rome, 1570; Venice, 1594, 1612, 1745; Antwerp, 1612;Paris, 1660, 1871-80 (Vives); Parma, 1852-73; Rome, 1882 (the Leonine). TheRoman edition of 1570, called "the Piana", because edited by order ofSt. Pius V, was the standard for many years. Besides a carefully revised text it contained the commentaries ofCardinal Cajetan and the valuable "Tabula Aurea" ofPeter of Bergamo. TheVenetian edition of 1612 was highly prized because the text was accompanied by theCajetan-Porrecta commentaries . . . . The Leonine edition, begun under the patronage ofLeo XIII, now continued under the master general of theDominicans, undoubtedly will be the most perfect of all. Critical dissertations on each work will be given, the text will be carefully revised, and all references will be verified. By direction ofLeo XIII (Motu Proprio, 18 Jan., 1880) the "Summa contra gentiles" will be published with the commentaries of Sylvester Ferrariensis, whilst the commentaries ofCajetan go with the"Summa theologica".
The latter has been published, being volumes IV-XII of the edition (last in 1906). St. Thomas's works may be classified asphilosophical,theological,scriptural, andapologetic, or controversial. The division, however, cannot always be rigidly maintained. The"Summa theologica", e.g., contains much that isphilosophical, whilst the "Summa contra gentiles" is principally, but not exclusively,philosophical andapologetic. Hisphilosophical works are chiefly commentaries onAristotle, and his first importanttheological writings were commentaries onPeter Lombard's four books of "Sentences"; but he does not slavishly follow either thePhilosopher or theMaster of the Sentences (on opinions of theLombard rejected bytheologians, seeMigne, 1841, edition of the"Summa" I, p. 451).
Amongst the works wherein St. Thomas's ownmind and method are shown, the following deserve special mention:
(1) "Quaestiones disputatae" (Disputed Questions) — These were more complete treatises on subjects that had not been fully elucidated in the lecture halls, or concerning which the professor's opinion had been sought. They are very valuable, because in them the author, free from limitations as totime orspace, freely expresses hismind and gives all arguments for or against the opinions adopted. These treatises, containing the questions "De potentia", "De malo", "De spirit. creaturis", "De anima", "De unione Verbi Incarnati", "De virt. in communi", "De caritate", "De corr. fraterna", "De spe", "De virt. cardinal.", "De veritate", were often reprinted, e.g. recently by the Association of St. Paul (2 vols., Paris and Fribourg, Switzerland, 1883).
(2) "Quodlibeta" (may be rendered "Various Subjects", or "Free Discussions") — They present questions or arguments proposed and answers given in or outside the lecture halls, chiefly in the more formalScholastic exercises, termedcirculi, conclusiones, ordeterminationes, which were held once or twice a year.
(3) "De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas" -- This opusculum refuted a very dangerous and widespreaderror, viz., that there was but onesoul for allmen, a theory which did away withindividualliberty and responsibility. (SeeAVERROES)
(4) "Commentaria in Libros Sententiarum" (mentioned above) -- This with the following work are the immediate forerunners of the"Summa theologica".
(5) "Summa de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles" (Treatise on the Truth of the Catholic Faith, against Unbelievers) -- This work, written atRome, 1261-64, was composed at the request ofSt. Raymond of Pennafort, who desired to have aphilosophical exposition and defence of theChristian Faith, to be used against theJews andMoors inSpain. It is a perfect model of patient and soundapologetics, showing that no demonstratedtruth (science) is opposed torevealedtruth (faith). The best recent editions are those ofRome, 1878 (by Uccelli), ofParis andFribourg,Switzerland, 1882, and ofRome, 1894. It has been translated into many languages. It is divided into four books: I. Of God as He is in Himself; II. Of God the Origin of Creatures; III. Of God the End of Creatures; IV. Of God in His Revelation. It is worthy of remark that the Fathers of theVatican Council, treating thenecessity ofrevelation (Constitution "Dei Filius", c. 2), employed almost the very words used by St. Thomas in treating that subject in this work (I, cc. iv, V), and in the"Summa theologica" (I:1:1).
(6) Three works written by order ofUrban IV --
(7) The "Summa theologica"-- This work immortalized St. Thomas. The author himself modestly considered it simply a manual ofChristian doctrine for the use of students. In reality it is a complete scientifically arranged exposition oftheology and at the same time a summary ofChristianphilosophy (seeSUMMÆ). In the briefprologue St. Thomas first calls attention to the difficulties experienced by students ofsacred doctrine in his day, the causes assigned being: the multiplication of useless questions, articles, and arguments; the lack of scientific order; frequent repetitions, "which beget disgust and confusion in theminds of learners". Then he adds: "Wishing to avoid these and similar drawbacks, we shall endeavour, confiding in the Divine assistance, to treat of these things that pertain tosacred doctrine with brevity and clearness, in so far as the subject to be treated will permit."
In the introductory question,"On Sacred Doctrine", heproves that, besides theknowledge whichreason affords,Revelation also isnecessary forsalvation first, because without itmen could notknow thesupenatural end to which they must tend by theirvoluntary acts; secondly, because, withoutRevelation, even thetruths concerningGod which could beproved byreason would beknown "only by a few, after a longtime, and with the admixture of manyerrors". Whenrevealed truths have been accepted, themind ofman proceeds to explain them and to draw conclusions from them. Hence resultstheology, which is ascience, because it proceeds from principles that arecertain (Answer 2). The object, or subject, of thisscience isGod; other things are treated in it only in so far as they relate toGod (Answer 7).Reason is used intheology not toprove thetruths offaith, which are accepted on the authority ofGod, but to defend, explain, and develop the doctrines revealed (Answer 8). He thus announces the division of the"Summa": "Since the chief aim of thissacred science is to give theknowledge ofGod, not only as He is in Himself, but also as He is the Beginning of all things, and the End of all, especially of rational creatures, we shall treat first ofGod; secondly, of the rational creature's advance towardsGod (de motu creaturae rationalis in Deum); thirdly, ofChrist, Who, asMan, is the way by which we tend toGod."God in Himself, and as He is the Creator;God as the End of all things, especially ofman;God as the Redeemer — these are the leadingideas, the great headings, under which all that pertains totheology is contained.
(a) Sub-divisions
TheFirst Part is divided into three tracts:
The Second Part, OnGod as He is in the End ofman, is sometimes called theMoral Theology of St. Thomas, i.e., his treatise on the end ofman and onhuman acts. It is subdivided into two parts, known as theFirst Section of the Second (I-II, or 1a 2ae) and theSecond of the Second (II-II, or 2a 2ae).
TheFirst of the Second. The first five questions are devoted toproving thatman's last end, hisbeatitude, consists in the possession ofGod.Man attains to that end or deviates from it byhuman acts, i.e. by free, deliberate acts. Ofhuman acts he treats, first, in general (in all but the first five questions of theI-II), secondly, in particular (in the whole of theII-II). The treatise onhuman acts in general is divided into two parts: the first, onhuman acts in themselves; the other, on the principles or causes, extrinsic or intrinsic, of thoseacts. In these tracts and in theSecond of the Second, St. Thomas, followingAristotle, gives a perfect description and a wonderfully keenanalysis of the movements ofman'smind andheart.
TheSecond of the Second considershuman acts, i.e., thevirtues andvices, in particular. In it St. Thomas treats, first, of those things that pertain to allmen, no matter what may be their station in life, and, secondly, of those things that pertain to somemen only. Things that pertain to allmen are reduced to seven headings:Faith,Hope, andCharity;Prudence,Justice,Fortitude, andTemperance. Under each title, in order to avoid repetitions, St. Thomas treats not only of thevirtue itself, but also of thevices opposed to it, of thecommandment to practise it, and of thegift of theHoly Ghost which corresponds to it. Things pertaining to somemen only are reduced to three headings: thegraces freely given (gratia gratis datae) to certain individuals for thegood of theChurch, such as thegifts oftongues, ofprophecy, ofmiracles; the active and thecontemplative life; the particular states of life, andduties of those who are in different states, especiallybishops andreligious.
TheThird Part treats ofChrist and of the benefits which He has conferred uponman, hence three tracts: On theIncarnation, and on what theSaviour did and suffered; On theSacraments, which were instituted byChrist, and have their efficacy from Hismerits andsufferings; On Eternal Life, i.e., on the end of the world, theresurrection of bodies,judgment, thepunishment of the wicked, thehappiness of the just who, throughChrist, attain toeternallife inheaven.
Eight years were given to the composition of this work, which was begun atRome, where theFirst Part and theFirst of the Second were written (1265-69). TheSecond of the Second, begun inRome, was completed inParis (1271). In 1272 St. Thomas went toNaples, where theThird Part was written, down to theninetieth question of the tract On Penance (see Leonine edition, I, p. xlii). The work has been completed by the addition of asupplement, drawn from other writings of St. Thomas, attributed by some toPeter of Auvergne, by others to Henry of Gorkum. These attributions are rejected by the editors of the Leonine edition (XI, pp. viii, xiv, xviii). Mandonnet (op. cit., 153) inclines to the very probable opinion that it was compiled byFather Reginald de Piperno, thesaint's faithful companion and secretary.
The entire"Summa" contains 38 Treatises, 612 Questions, subdivided into 3120 articles, in which about 10,000 objections are proposed and answered. So admirably is the promised order preserved that, by reference to the beginning of the Tracts and Questions, one can see at a glance what place it occupies in the general plan, which embraces all that can beknown throughtheology ofGod, ofman, and of their mutual relations . . . "The wholeSumma is arranged on a uniform plan. Every subject is introduced as a question, and divided into articles. . . . Each article has also a uniform disposition of parts. The topic is introduced as an inquiry for discussion, under the termUtrum, whether — e.g.Utrum Deus sit? The objections against the proposed thesis are then stated. These are generally three or four in number, but sometimes extend to seven or more. The conclusion adopted is then introduced by the words,Respondeo dicendum. At the end of the thesis expounded the objections are answered, under the forms,ad primum, ad secundum, etc." . . . . The"Summa" isChristian doctrine inscientific form; it ishuman reason rendering its highest service in defence and explanation of thetruths of theChristian religion. It is the answer of the matured andsaintly doctor to the question of his youth: What isGod?Revelation, madeknown in theScriptures and bytradition;reason and its best results; soundness and fulness ofdoctrine, order, conciseness and clearness of expression, effacement of self, thelove oftruth alone, hence a remarkable fairness towards adversaries and calmness in combating theirerrors; soberness and soundness of judgment, together with a charmingly tender and enlightened piety — these are all found in this"Summa" more than in his other writings, more than in the writings of his contemporaries, for "among theScholasticdoctors, the chief and master of all, towers Thomas Aquinas, who, asCajetan observes (In 2am 2ae, Q. 148, a. 4) 'because he mostvenerated the ancientdoctors of the Church in a certain way seems to have inherited theintellect of all'" (Encyclical,"Aeterni Patris", ofLeo XIII).
(b) Editions and Translations
It is impossible to mention the various editions of the"Summa", which has been in constant use for more than seven hundred years. Very few books have been so often republished. The first complete edition, printed atBasle in 1485, was soon followed by others, e.g., atVenice in 1505, 1509, 1588, 1594; atLyons in 1520, 1541, 1547, 1548, 1581, 1588, 1624,1655; atAntwerp in 1575. These are enumerated byTouron (op. cit., p. 692), who says that about the sametime other editions were published atRome,Antwerp,Rouen,Paris,Douai,Cologne,Amsterdam, Bologna, etc. The editors of the Leonine edition deem worthy of mention those published atParis in 1617, 1638, and 1648, atLyons in 1663, 1677, and 1686, and aRoman edition of 1773 (IV, pp. xi, xii). Of all old editions they consider the most accurate two published atPadua, one in 1698, the other in 1712, and theVenice edition of 1755. Of recent editions the best are the following: the Leonine; theMigne editions (Paris, 1841, 1877); the first volume of the 1841 edition containing the "Libri quatuor sententiarum" ofPeter Lombard; the very practical Faucher edition (5 vols. small quarto, Paris, 1887), dedicated to Cardinal Pecci, enriched with valuable notes; aRoman edition of 1894. The"Summa" has been translated into many modern languages as well.
It is not possible to characterize the method of St. Thomas by one word, unless it can be calledeclectic. It isAristotelean,Platonic, andSocratic; it isinductive anddeductive; it isanalytic and synthetic. He chose the best that could he find in those who preceded him, carefully sifting the chaff from the wheat, approving what wastrue, rejecting thefalse. His powers of synthesis were extraordinary. No writer surpassed him in the faculty of expressing in a few well-chosen words thetruth gathered from a multitude of varying and conflicting opinions; and in almost every instance the student sees thetruth and is perfectly satisfied with St. Thomas's summary and statement. Not that he would have students swear by the words of a master. Inphilosophy, he says, arguments from authority are of secondary importance;philosophy does not consist in knowing whatmen have said, but in knowing thetruth (In I lib. de Coelo, lect. xxii; II Sent., D. xiv, a. 2, ad 1um). He assigns its proper place toreason used intheology (see below: Influence of St. Thomas), but he keeps it within its own sphere. Against theTraditionalists theHoly See has declared that the method used by St. Thomas andSt. Bonaventure does not lead toRationalism (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1652). Not so bold or original in investigating nature as wereAlbertus Magnus andRoger Bacon, he was, nevertheless, abreast of histime inscience, and many of his opinions are ofscientific value in the twentieth century. Take, for instance, the following: "In the same plant there is the two-fold virtue, active and passive, though sometimes the active is found in one and the passive in another, so that one plant is said to be masculine and the other feminine" (3 Sent., D. III, Q. ii, a 1).
The style of St. Thomas is a medium between the rough expressiveness of someScholastics and the fastidious elegance ofJohn of Salisbury; it is remarkable for accuracy, brevity, and completeness.Pope Innocent VI (quoted in theEncyclical,"Aeterni Patris", ofLeo XIII) declared that, with the exception of thecanonical writings, the works of St. Thomas surpass all others in "accuracy of expression andtruth of statement" (habet proprietatem verborum, modum dicendorum, veritatem sententiarum). Great orators, such asBossuet,Lacordaire,Monsabré, have studied his style, and have been influenced by it, but they could not reproduce it. The same istrue oftheological writers.Cajetanknew St. Thomas's style better than any of hisdisciples, butCajetan is beneath his great master in clearness and accuracy of expression, in soberness and solidity of judgment. St. Thomas did not attain to this perfection without an effort. He was a singularlyblessed genius, but he was also an indefatigable worker, and by continued application he reached that stage of perfection in the art of writing where the art disappears. "The author'smanuscript of theSumma Contra Gentiles is still in great part extant. It is now in theVaticanLibrary. Themanuscript consists of strips of parchment, of various shades of colour, contained in an old parchment cover to which they were originally stitched. The writing is in double column, and difficult to decipher, abounding in abbreviations, often passing into a kind of shorthand. Throughout many passages a line is drawn in sign of erasure" (Rickaby, Op. cit., preface: see Ucelli ed., "Sum. cont. gent.", Rome, 1878).
How was this great genius formed? The causes that exerted an influence on St. Thomas were of two kinds,natural andsupernatural.
(1) As a foundation, he "was a witty child, and had received agoodsoul" (Wisdom 8:19). From the beginning he manifested precocious and extraordinary talent and thoughtfulness beyond his years.
(2) Hiseducation was such that great things might have been expected of him. His training atMonte Cassino, atNaples,Paris, andCologne was the best that the thirteenth century could give, and that century was the golden age ofeducation. That it afforded excellent opportunities for forming greatphilosophers andtheologians is evident from the character of St. Thomas's contemporaries.Alexander of Hales,Albertus Magnus,St. Bonaventure,St. Raymond of Pennafort,Roger Bacon,Hugo a S. Charo,Vincent of Beauvais, not to mention scores of others,prove beyond alldoubt that those were days of really great scholars. (See Walsh, "The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries", New York, 1907.) The men who trained St. Thomas were his teachers atMonte Cassino andNaples, but above allAlbertus Magnus, under whom he studied atParis andCologne.
(3) The books that exercised the greatest influence on hismind were theBible, theDecrees of thecouncils and of thepopes, the works of theFathers, Greek andLatin, especially ofSt. Augustine, the "Sentences" ofPeter Lombard, the writings of thephilosophers, especially ofPlato,Aristotle, andBoethius. If from these authors any were to be selected for special mention, undoubtedly they would beAristotle,St. Augustine, andPeter Lombard. In another sense the writings of St. Thomas were influenced byAverroes, the chief opponent whom he had to combat in order to defend and makeknown thetrueAristotle.
(4) It must be borne in mind that St. Thomas wasblessed with a retentivememory and great powers of penetration. Father Daniel d'Agusta once pressed him to say what he considered the greatestgrace he had ever received,sanctifying grace of course excepted. "I think that of having understood whatever I have read", was the reply.St. Antoninus declared that "heremembered everything be had read, so that hismind was like a hugelibrary" (cf.Drane, op. cit., p. 427; Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 567). The bare enumeration of the texts ofScripture cited in the"Summa theologica" fills eighty small-print columns in theMigne edition, and by many it is not unreasonably supposed that he learned theSacred Books by heart while he wasimprisoned in the Castle of San Giovanni. LikeSt. Dominic he had a speciallove for theEpistles ofSt. Paul, on which he wrotecommentaries (recent edition in 2 vols., Turin, 1891).
(5) Deep reverence for theFaith, as madeknown bytradition, characterizes all his writings. Theconsuetudo ecclesiae — the practice of theChurch — should prevail over the authority of anydoctor (Summa II-II:10:12). In the"Summa" he quotes from 19councils, 41popes, and 52Fathers of the Church. A slight acquaintance with his writings will show that among theFathers his favourite wasSt. Augustine (on theGreekFathers see Vaughan, op. cit., II, cc. iii sqq.).
(6) WithSt. Augustine (On Christian Doctrine II.40), St. Thomas held that whatever there was oftruth in the writings ofpaganphilosophers should be taken from them, as from "unjust possessors", and adapted to the teaching of thetrue religion (Summa I:84:5). In the"Summa" alone he quotes from the writings of 46philosophers and poets, his favourite authors beingAristotle,Plato, and, amongChristian writers,Boethius. FromAristotle he learned that love of order and accuracy of expression which are characteristic of his own works. FromBoethius he learned thatAristotle's works could be used without detriment toChristianity. He did not followBoethius in his vain attempt to reconcilePlato andAristotle. In general theStagirite was his master, but the elevation and grandeur of St. Thomas's conceptions and the majestic dignity of his methods of treatment speak strongly of the sublimePlato.
Even if we do not accept as literallytrue the declaration ofJohn XXII, that St. Thomas wrought as manymiracles as there are articles in the"Summa", we must, nevertheless, go beyond causes merely natural in attempting to explain his extraordinary career and wonderful writings.
(1) Purity ofmind and body contributes in no small degree to clearness of vision (see St. Thomas, "Commentaries on I Cor., c. vii", Lesson v). By the gift ofpurity,miraculously granted at the time of themystic girdling,God made Thomas's lifeangelic; the perspicacity and depth of hisintellect,Divine grace aiding, made him the"Angelic Doctor".
(2) The spirit ofprayer, his great piety and devotion, drew downblessings on his studies. Explaining why he read, every day, portions of the "Conferences" ofCassian, he said: "In such reading I find devotion, whence I readily ascend tocontemplation" (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 32). In the lessons of theBreviary read on hisfeast day it is explicitly stated that he never began to study without first invoking the assistance ofGod inprayer; and when he wrestled with obscure passages of theScriptures, toprayer he addedfasting.
(3) Facts narrated bypersons who eitherknew St. Thomas in life or wrote at about thetime of hiscanonizationprove that he received assistance fromheaven. ToFather Reginald he declared that he had learned more inprayer andcontemplation than he had acquired frommen or books (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 36). These same authors tell of mysterious visitors who came to encourage and enlighten him. TheBlessed Virginappeared, to assure him that his life and his writings were acceptable toGod, and that he would persevere in hisholy vocation. Sts.Peter andPaul came to aid him in interpreting an obscure passage inIsaias. Whenhumilitycaused him to consider himself unworthy of the doctorate, a venerablereligious of hisorder (supposed to beSt. Dominic) appeared to encourage him and suggested the text for his opening discourse (Prümmer, op. cit., 29, 37; Tocco in "Acta SS.", VII Mar.; Vaughan, op. cit., II, 91). Hisecstasies have been mentioned. His abstractions in presence ofKing Louis IX (St. Louis) and of distinguished visitors are related by all biographers. Hence, even if allowance be made for great enthusiasm on the part of his admirers, we must conclude that his extraordinary learning cannot be attributed to merely natural causes. Of him it may truly be said that he laboured as if all depended on his own efforts andprayed as if all depended onGod.
The greatScholastics wereholy as well as learned men.Alexander of Hales,St. Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas, andSt. Bonaventureprove that learning does not necessarily dry up devotion. The angelic Thomas and the seraphicBonaventure represent the highest types ofChristian scholarship, combining eminent learning withheroic sanctity.Cardinal Bessarion called St. Thomas "the mostsaintly of learned men and the most learned ofsaints". His works breathe the spirit ofGod, a tender and enlightened piety, built on a solid foundation, viz. theknowledge ofGod, ofChrist, ofman. The"Summa theologica" may be made a manual of piety as well as a text-book for the study oftheology (Cf.Drane, op. cit., p. 446).St. Francis de Sales,St. Philip Neri,St. Charles Borromeo,St. Vincent Ferrer,St. Pius V,St. Antoninus constantly studied St. Thomas. Nothing could be more inspiring than his treatises onChrist, in His sacredPerson, in Hislife andsufferings. His treatise on thesacraments, especially onpenance and theEucharist, would melt even hardened hearts. He takes pains to explain the variousceremonies of the Mass ("De ritu Eucharistiae" inSumma III:83), and no writer has explained more clearly than St. Thomas the effects produced in thesouls ofmen by this heavenly Bread (Summa III:79). The principles recently urged, in regard tofrequent Communion, byPius X ("Sacra Trid. Synodus", 1905) are found in St. Thomas (SummaIII:79:8,III:80:10), although he is not so explicit on this point as he is on theCommunion of children. In theDecree"Quam Singulari" (1910) thepope cites St. Thomas, who teaches that, when children begin to have some use ofreason, so that they can conceive some devotion to theBlessed Sacrament, they may be allowed to communicate (Summa III:80:9). The spiritual and devotional aspects of St. Thomas'stheology have been pointed out byFather Contenson, O.P., in his "Theologia mentis et cordis". They are more fully explained byFather Vallgornera, O.P., in his "Theologia Mystica D. Thomae", wherein the author leads thesoul toGod through thepurgative, illuminative, and unitive ways. TheEncyclical Letter ofLeo XIII on theHoly Spirit is drawn largely from St. Thomas, and those who have studied the"Prima Secundae" and the"Secunda Secundae"know how admirably thesaint explains the gifts and fruits of theHoly Ghost, as well as theBeatitudes, and their relations to the differentvirtues Nearly allgood spiritual writers seek in St. Thomas definitions of thevirtues which they recommend.
Since the days ofAristotle, probably no one man has exercised such a powerful influence on the thinking world as did St. Thomas. His authority was very great during his lifetime. Thepopes, theuniversities, thestudia of hisorder were anxious to profit by his learning andprudence. Several of his important works were written at the request of others, and his opinion was sought by all classes. On several occasions thedoctors ofParis referred their disputes to him and gratefully abided by his decision (Vaughan, op. cit., II, 1 p. 544). His principles, madeknown by his writings, have continued to influencemen even to this day. This subject cannot be considered in all its aspects, nor is thatnecessary. His influence on matters purelyphilosophical is fully explained in histories ofphilosophy. (Theologians who followed St. Thomas will be mentioned inTHOMISM. See alsoORDER OF PREACHERS) His paramount importance and influence may be explained by considering him as theChristianAristotle, combining in his person the best that the world hasknown inphilosophy andtheology. It is in this light that he is proposed as a model byLeo XIII in the famousEncyclical"Aeterni Patris". The work of his life may be summed up in two propositions: he established thetrue relations betweenfaith andreason; he systematizedtheology.
(1) Faith and Reason
The principles of St. Thomas on the relations betweenfaith andreason were solemnly proclaimed in theVatican Council. The second, third, and fourth chapters of the Constitution "Dei Filius" read like pages taken from the works of theAngelic Doctor. First,reason alone is not sufficient to guidemen: they needRevelation; we must carefully distinguish thetruthsknown byreason from highertruths (mysteries)known byRevelation. Secondly,reason andRevelation, though distinct, are not opposed to each other. Thirdly,faith preservesreason fromerror;reason should do service in the cause offaith. Fourthly, this service is rendered in three ways:
This is a development ofSt. Augustine's famous saying (On the Holy Trinity XIV.1), that the right use ofreason is "that by which the most wholesomefaith is begotten . . . is nourished, defended, and made strong." These principles are proposed by St. Thomas in many places, especially in the following: "In Boethium, da Trin. Proem.", Q. ii, a. 1; "Sum. cont. gent.", I, cc. iii-ix;Summa I:1:1,I:1:5,I:1:8,I:32:1,I:84:5. St. Thomas's services to theFaith are thus summed up byLeo XIII in theEncyclical"Aeterni Patris": "He won this title of distinction for himself: that singlehanded he victoriously combated theerrors of former times, and supplied invincible arms to put to rout those which might in after times spring up. Again, clearly distinguishing, as is fitting,reason andfaith, he both preserved and had regard for therights of each; so much so, indeed, thatreason, borne on the wings of Thomas, can scarcely rise higher, whilefaith could scarcely expect more or stronger aids fromreason than those which she has already obtained through Thomas."
St. Thomas did not combat imaginary foes; he attacked living adversaries. The works ofAristotle had been introduced intoFrance in faulty translations and with the misleading commentaries ofJewish andMoorishphilosophers. This gave rise to a flood oferrors which so alarmed the authorities that the reading ofAristotle'sPhysics andMetaphysics was forbidden byRobert de Courçon in 1210, thedecree being moderated byGregory IX in 1231. There crept into theUniversity of Paris an insidious spirit of irreverence andRationalism, represented especially byAbelard andRaymond Lullus, which claimed thatreason couldknow andprove all things, even themysteries ofFaith. Under the authority ofAverroes dangerous doctrines were propagated, especially two very perniciouserrors: first, thatphilosophy andreligion being in different regions, what istrue inreligion might befalse inphilosophy; secondly, that allmen have but onesoul.Averroes was commonly styled "The Commentator", but St. Thomas says he was "not so much a Peripatetic as a corruptor of Peripateticphilosophy" (Opusc. de unit. intell.). Applying a principle ofSt. Augustine (seeI:84:5), following in the footsteps ofAlexander of Hales andAlbertus Magnus, St. Thomas resolved to take what wastrue from the "unjust possessors", in order to press it into the service ofrevealedreligion. Objections toAristotle would cease if thetrueAristotle were madeknown; hence his first care was to obtain a new translation of the works of the greatphilosopher.Aristotle was to be purified;false commentators were to be refuted; the most influential of these wasAverroes, hence St. Thomas is continually rejecting hisfalse interpretations.
(2) Theology Systematized
The next step was to pressreason into the service of theFaith, by puttingChristian doctrine intoscientific form.Scholasticism does not consist, as somepersons imagine, in useless discussions and subtleties, but in this, that it expresses sounddoctrine in language which is accurate, clear, and concise. In theEncyclical"Aeterni Patris"Leo XIII, citing the words ofSixtus V (Bull "Triumphantis", 1588), declares that to the right use ofphilosophy we are indebted for "those noble endowments which makeScholastic theology so formidable to the enemies oftruth", because "that ready coherence ofcause and effect, that order and array of a disciplined army in battle, those clear definitions and distinctions, that strength of argument and those keen discussions by which light is distinguished from darkness, thetrue from thefalse, expose and lay bare, as it were, thefalsehoods ofheretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuges and fallacies". When the greatScholastics had written, there was light where there had been darkness, there was order where confusion had prevailed. The work ofSt. Anselm and ofPeter Lombard was perfected by theScholastictheologians. Since their days no substantial improvements have been made in the plan and system oftheology, although the field ofapologetics has been widened, andpositive theology has become more important.
Within a shorttime after his death the writings of St. Thomas were universally esteemed. TheDominicans naturally took the lead in following St. Thomas. Thegeneral chapter held inParis in 1279 pronounced severe penalties against all who dared to speak irreverently of him or of his writings. Thechapters held inParis in 1286, atBordeaux in 1287, and atLucca in 1288 expressly required the brethren to follow thedoctrine of Thomas, who at thattime had not beencanonized (Const. Ord. Praed., n. 1130). TheUniversity of Paris, on the occasion of Thomas's death, sent an official letter of condolence to thegeneral chapter of theDominicans, declaring that, equally with his brethren, theuniversity experienced sorrow at the loss of one who was their own by many titles (see text of letter in Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 82). In theEncyclical"Aeterni Patris"Leo XIII mentions theUniversities ofParis,Salamanca,Alcalá,Douai,Toulouse,Louvain,Padua,Bologna,Naples,Coimbra as "the homes of human wisdom where Thomas reigned supreme, and theminds of all, of teachers as well as of taught, rested in wonderful harmony under the shield and authority of theAngelic Doctor". To the list may be addedLima andManila,Fribourg andWashington.
Seminaries andcolleges followed the lead of theuniversities. The"Summa" gradually supplanted the "Sentences" as the textbook oftheology.Minds were formed in accordance with the principles of St. Thomas; he became the great master, exercising a world-wide influence on the opinions ofmen and on their writings; for even those who did not adopt all of his conclusions wereobliged to give due consideration to his opinions. It has been estimated that 6000 commentaries on St. Thomas's works have been written. Manuals oftheology and ofphilosophy, composed with theintention of imparting his teaching, translations, and studies, or digests (études), of portions of his works have been published in profusion during the last six hundred years and today his name is inhonour all over the world (seeTHOMISM).
In every one of thegeneral councils held since his death St. Thomas has been singularlyhonoured. At theCouncil of Lyons his book "Contra errores Graecorum" was used with telling effect against theGreeks. In later disputes, before and during theCouncil of Florence, John of Montenegro, the champion ofLatinorthodoxy, found St. Thomas's works a source of irrefragable arguments. The "Decretum pro Armenis" (Instruction for the Armenians), issued by the authority of thatcouncil, is taken almost verbatim from his treatise, "De fidei articulis et septem sacramentis" (seeDenzinger-Bannwart, n. 695). "In the Councils ofLyons,Vienne,Florence, and theVatican", writesLeo XIII (Encyclical"Aeterni Patris"), "one might almost say that Thomas took part in and presided over the deliberations anddecrees of the Fathers contending against theerrors of theGreeks, ofheretics, andRationalists, with invincible force and with the happiest results."
But the chief and specialglory of Thomas, one which he has shared with none of theCatholic doctors, is that the Fathers ofTrent made it part of the order of theconclave to lay upon thealtar, together with the code ofSacred Scripture and thedecrees of theSupreme Pontiffs, theSumma of Thomas Aquinas, whence to seek counsel,reason, and inspiration. Greater influence than this noman could have.
Before this section is closed mention should be made of two books widely known and highly esteemed, which were inspired by and drawn from the writings of St. Thomas. TheCatechism of the Council of Trent, composed bydisciples of theAngelic Doctor, is in reality a compendium of histheology, in convenient form for the use ofparishpriests.Dante's "Divina Commedia" has been called "theSumma of St. Thomas in verse", and commentators trace the great Florentine poet's divisions and descriptions of thevirtues and vices to the"Secunda Secundae".
(1) In the Church
The esteem in which he was held during his life has not been diminished, but rather increased, in the course of the six centuries that have elapsed since his death. The position which he occupies in theChurch is well explained by that great scholarLeo XIII, in theEncyclical"Aeterni Patris", recommending the study ofScholastic philosophy: "It isknown that nearly all the founders and framers oflaws of religious orders commanded theirsocieties to study and religiously adhere to the teachings of St. Thomas. . . To say nothing of thefamily of St. Dominic, which rightly claims this great teacher for its ownglory, thestatutes of theBenedictines, theCarmelites, theAugustinians, theSociety of Jesus, and many others, all testify that they are bound by thislaw." Amongst the "many others" theServites, thePassionists, theBarnabites, and theSulpicians have been devoted in an especial manner to the study of St. Thomas. The principal ancientuniversities where St. Thomas ruled as the great master have been enumerated above. TheParisdoctors called him the morning star, the luminous sun, the light of the wholeChurch. Stephen,Bishop ofParis, repressing those who dared to attack thedoctrine of "that most excellentDoctor, the blessed Thomas", calls him "the great luminary of theCatholicChurch, the precious stone of thepriesthood, the flower ofdoctors, and the bright mirror of theUniversity of Paris" (Drane, op. cit., p. 431). In the oldLouvain University thedoctors were required to uncover and bow their heads when they pronounced the name of Thomas (Goudin, op. cit., p. 21).
"Theecumenical councils, where blossoms the flower of all earthly wisdom, have always been careful to hold Thomas Aquinas in singularhonour" (Leo XIII in"Aeterni Patris"). This subject has been sufficiently treated above. The "Bullarium Ordinis Praedicatorum", published in 1729-39, gives thirty-eightBulls in which eighteensovereign pontiffs praised and recommended thedoctrine of St. Thomas (see also Vaughan, op. cit., II, c. ii; Berthier, op. cit., pp. 7 sqq.). These approbations are recalled and renewed byLeo XIII, who lays special stress on "the crowning testimony ofInnocent VI: 'His teaching above that of others, thecanons alone excepted, enjoys such an elegance of phraseology, a method of statement, atruth of proposition, that those who hold it are never found swerving from the path oftruth, and he who dare assail it will always be suspected oferror (ibid.).'"Leo XIII surpassed his predecessors in admiration of St. Thomas, in whose works he declared a remedy can be found for manyevils that afflictsociety (see Berthier, op. cit., introd.). The notableEncyclical Letters with which the name of that illustriouspontiff will always be associated show how he had studied the works of theAngelic Doctor. This is very noticeable in theletters onChristian marriage, theChristian constitution of states, thecondition of the working classes, and the study ofHoly Scripture.Pope Pius X, in severalletters, e.g. in the "Pascendi Dominici Gregis" (September, 1907), has insisted on the observance of the recommendations ofLeo XIII concerning the study of St. Thomas. An attempt to give names ofCatholic writers who have expressed their appreciation of St. Thomas and of his influence would be an impossible undertaking; for the list would include nearly all who have written onphilosophy ortheology since the thirteenth century, as well as hundreds of writers on other subjects. Commendations and eulogies are found in the introductory chapters of allgood commentaries. An incomplete list of authors who have collected these testimonies is given by Father Berthier (op. cit., p. 22). . . .
(2) Outside the Church
(a) Anti-Scholastics -- Somepersons have been and are still opposed to everything that comes under the name ofScholasticism, which they hold to be synonymous with subtleties and useless discussions. From the prologue to the"Summa" it is clear that St. Thomas was opposed to all that was superfluous and confusing inScholastic studies. When people understand whattrueScholasticism means, their objections will cease.
(b) Heretics and Schismatics -- "A last triumph was reserved for this incomparable man — namely, to compel the homage, praise, and admiration of even the very enemies of theCatholic name" (Leo XIII, ibid.). St. Thomas'sorthodoxy drew upon him thehatred of allGreeks who were opposed tounion with Rome. Theunited Greeks, however, admire St. Thomas and study his works (see above Translations of the "Summa"). The leaders of thesixteenth-century revolthonoured St. Thomas by attacking him,Luther being particularlyviolent in his coarse invectives against the greatdoctor. CitingBucer's wild boast, "Take away Thomas and I will destroy theChurch",Leo XIII (ibid.) remarks, "The hope was vain, but the testimony has its value".
Calo, Tocco, and other biographers relate that St. Thomas, travelling fromRome toNaples,converted two celebratedJewishrabbis, whom he met at the country house of Cardinal Richard (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 33; Vaughan, op. cit., I, p. 795).Rabbi Paul of Burgos, in the fifteenth century, wasconverted by reading the works of St. Thomas. Theobald Thamer, a disciple ofMelancthon,abjured hisheresy after he had read the"Summa", which he intended to refute. TheCalvinistDuperron wasconverted in the same way, subsequently becomingArchbishop ofSens and acardinal (see Conway, O.P., op. cit., p. 96).
After the bitterness of the first period ofProtestantism had passed away,Protestants saw thenecessity of retaining many parts ofCatholicphilosophy andtheology, and those who came toknow St. Thomas were compelled to admire him. Überweg says "He brought theScholastic philosophy to its highest stage of development, by effecting the most perfect accommodation that was possible of theAristotelianphilosophy toecclesiasticalorthodoxy" (op. cit., p. 440). R. Seeberg in the "New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia" (New York, 1911) devotes ten columns to St. Thomas, and says that "at all points he succeeded in upholding thechurch doctrine as credible and reasonable" (XI, p. 427).
For many years, especially since the days ofPusey andNewman, St. Thomas has been in high repute atOxford. Recently the "Summa contra gentiles" was placed on the list of subjects which a candidate may offer in the final honour schools ofLitterae Humaniores at that university (cf. Walsh, op. cit., c. xvii). For several years Father De Groot, O.P., has been the professor ofScholastic philosophy in the University ofAmsterdam, and courses inScholastic philosophy have been established in some of the leading non-Catholicuniversities of theUnited States.Anglicans have a deep admiration for St. Thomas. Alfred Mortimer, in the chapter "The Study of Theology" of his work entitled "Catholic Faith and Practice" (2 vols., New York, 1909), regretting that "theEnglishpriest has ordinarily noscientific acquaintance with the Queen of Sciences", and proposing a remedy, says, "The simplest and most perfect sketch of universaltheology is to be found in theSumma of St. Thomas" (vol. II, pp. 454, 465).
In theSyllabus of 1864Pius IX condemned a proposition in which it was stated that the method and principles of the ancientScholasticdoctors were not suited to the needs of our times and the progress ofscience (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1713).
In theEncyclical"Aeterni Patris"Leo XIII points out the benefits to be derived from "a practical reform ofphilosophy by restoring the renowned teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas". He exhorts thebishops to "restore the golden wisdom of Thomas and to spread it far and wide for the defence and beauty of theCatholicFaith, for thegood ofsociety, and for the advantage of all thesciences". In the pages of theEncyclical immediately preceding these words he explains why the teaching of St. Thomas would produce such most desirable results: St. Thomas is the great master to explain and defend theFaith, for his is "the soliddoctrine of theFathers and theScholastics, who so clearly and forcibly demonstrate the firm foundations of theFaith, its Divine origin, itscertaintruth, the arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred on thehuman race, and its perfect accord withreason, in a manner to satisfy completelyminds open to persuasion, however unwilling and repugnant". The career of St. Thomas would in itself have justifiedLeo XIII in assuringmen of the nineteenth century that theCatholicChurch was not opposed to the right use ofreason. Thesociological aspects of St. Thomas are also pointed out: "The teachings of Thomas on thetrue meaning of liberty, which at thistime is running into license, on the Divine origin of all authority, onlaws and their force, on the paternal and just rule of princes, onobedience to the highest powers, on mutualcharity one towards another — on all of these and kindred subjects, have very great and invincible force to overturn those principles of the new order which are well known to be dangerous to the peaceful order of things and to public safety" (ibid.).
Theevils affecting modernsociety had been pointed out by thepope in theLetter "Inscrutabili" of 21 April, 1878, and in the one onSocialism,Communism, andNihilism ("The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII", pp. 9 sqq.; 22 sqq.). How the principles of theAngelic Doctor will furnish a remedy for theseevils is explained here in a general way, more particularly in theLetters on theChristian constitution of states, human liberty, the chiefduties ofChristians as citizens, and on theconditions of the working classes (ibid., pp. 107, 135, 180, 208).
It is in relation to thesciences that somepersonsdoubt the reliability of St. Thomas's writings; and the doubters are thinking of the physical and experimentalsciences, for inmetaphysics theScholastics are admitted to be masters.Leo XIII calls attention to the followingtruths: (a) TheScholastics were not opposed to investigation. Holding as a principle in anthropology "that the humanintelligence is only led to theknowledge of things without body andmatter by things sensible, they well understood that nothing was of greater use to thephilosopher than diligently to search into the mysteries ofnature, and to be earnest and constant in the study of physical things" (ibid., p. 55). This principle was reduced to practice: St. Thomas,St. Albertus Magnus,Roger Bacon, and others "gave large attention to theknowledge of natural things" (ibid., p. 56). (b) Investigation alone is not sufficient fortruescience. "When facts have been established, it isnecessary to rise and apply ourselves to the study of thenature of corporeal things, to inquire into thelaws which govern them and the principles whence their order and varied unity and mutual attraction in diversity arise" (p. 55).
Will thescientists of today pretend to be betterreasoners than St. Thomas, or more powerful in synthesis? It is the method and the principles of St. Thomas thatLeo XIII recommends: "If anything is taken up with too great subtlety by theScholasticdoctors, or too carelessly stated; if there be anything that ill agrees with the discoveries of a later age or, in a word, is improbable in any way, it does not enter into ourmind to propose that for imitation to our age" (p. 56). Just as St. Thomas, in his day, saw a movement towardsAristotle andphilosophical studies which could not be checked, but could be guided in the right direction and made to serve the cause oftruth, so also,Leo XIII, seeing in the world of his time a spirit of study and investigation which might be productive ofevil or ofgood, had no desire to check it, but resolved to propose a moderator and master who could guide it in the paths oftruth.
No better guide could have been chosen than the clear-minded,analytic, synthetic, and sympathetic Thomas Aquinas. His extraordinary patience and fairness in dealing witherringphilosophers, his approbation of all that wastrue in their writings, his gentleness in condemning what wasfalse, his clear-sightedness in pointing out the direction totrueknowledge in all its branches, his aptness and accuracy in expressing thetruth — these qualities mark him as a great master not only for the thirteenth century, but for all times. If anypersons are inclined to consider him too subtle, it is because they do notknow how clear, concise, and simple are his definitions and divisions. His twosummae are masterpieces of pedagogy, and mark him as the greatest of human teachers. Moreover, he dealt witherrors similar to many which go under the name ofphilosophy orscience in our days. TheRationalism ofAbelard and others called forth St. Thomas's luminous and everlasting principles on thetrue relations offaith andreason.Ontologism was solidly refuted by St. Thomas nearly six centuries before the days ofMalebranche,Gioberti, andUbaghs (seeSumma I:84:5). Thetruedoctrine on first principles and onuniversals, given by him and by the other greatScholastics, is the best refutation ofKant's criticism ofmetaphysicalideas (see, e.g., "Post. Analyt.", I, lect. xix; "De ente et essentia", c. iv;Summa I:17:3 corp. and ad 2um;I:79:3;I:84:5;I:84:6 corp and ad 1um;I:85:2 ad 2um;I:85:3 ad 1um, ad 4um; Cf. index to "Summa": "Veritas", "Principium", "Universale"). Modernpsychological Pantheism does not differ substantially from the theory of onesoul for allmen asserted byAverroes (see "De unit. intell." andSumma I:76:2;I:79:5). TheModernistic error, which distinguishes theChrist offaith from theChrist of history, had as its forerunner theAverroistic principle that a thing might betrue inphilosophy andfalse inreligion.
In theEncyclical "Providentissimus Deus" (18 November, 1893)Leo XIII draws from St. Thomas's writings the principles and wise rules which should governscientific criticism of theSacred Books. From the same source recent writers have drawn principles which are most helpful in the solution of questions pertaining toSpiritism andHypnotism. Are we to conclude, then, that St. Thomas's works, as he left them, furnish sufficient instruction forscientists,philosophers, andtheologians of our times? By no means.Vetera novis augere et perficere — "To strengthen and complete the old by aid of the new" — is the motto of the restoration proposed byLeo XIII. Were St. Thomas living today he would gladly adopt and use all the facts madeknown by recentscientific and historical investigations, but he would carefully weigh all evidence offered in favour of the facts. Positivetheology is morenecessary in our days than it was in the thirteenth century.Leo XIII calls attention to itsnecessity in hisEncyclical, and his admonition is renewed byPius X in hisLetter onModernism. But bothpontiffs declare thatpositive theology must not be extolled to the detriment ofScholastic theology. In theEncyclical "Pascendi", prescribing remedies againstModernism,Pius X, following in this his illustrious predecessor, gives the first place to "Scholastic philosophy, especially as it was taught byThomas Aquinas"; St. Thomas is still "The Angel of the Schools".
APA citation.Kennedy, D.(1912).St. Thomas Aquinas. InThe Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm
MLA citation.Kennedy, Daniel."St. Thomas Aquinas."The Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 14.New York: Robert Appleton Company,1912.<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm>.
Transcription.This article was transcribed for New Advent by Kevin Cawley.
Ecclesiastical approbation.Nihil Obstat. July 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor.Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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