Synagogue

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The place of assemblage of theJews. This article will treat of the name, origin, history, organization, liturgy and building of the synagogue.

Name

The Greeksunagogé, whence the Latinsynagoga, Frenchsynagogue, and Englishsynagogue, means a meeting, an assembly; and is used by theSeptuagint to translate the Hebrew. The Aramaic translation is (cf. ArabicKanîsah, a church) to which is akin the New Hebrew. The place of assemblage was termed in New Hebrew,,, meeting house, i.e.,oikos sunagoges. In the course oftime, the single word synagogue came to mean not only the meeting but the meeting-house, the teaching thereof and, in the broadest sense, the body politic of theJews. This broad sense of the word synagogue is seen in John's use of’aposunagogós ,"excommunicated" or "put out of the synagogue" (cf.9:22;12:42;16:2). Another Greek name for synagogue in use among HellenisticJews, isproseuké, shortened after the analogy ofsunagogé, fromoikos proseukos,house of prayer (cf.Philo, "In Flacc.", §§6, 7; "Ad Gaium", §§20, 23, 43). This phrase is in theSeptuagint translation ofIsaiah 56:7: "My house shall be called thehouse of prayer () for all nations." The Latinized proseucha of Juvenal (Sat., III, 296) means the Jewish house ofprayer or synagogue.Josephus (Antiq., XVI, vi, 2) cites an edict ofAugustus which calls the Synagoguesabbateíon, theSabbath-house.

Origin

Obscurity enshrouds the first beginnings of the synagogue. TheJerusalem Talmud (in Ex., xviii, 20) dates it from the time of Moses; so, too, the tradition of the AlexandrianJews, according to the witness of Philo, "De Vita Mosis" (III, 27) andJosephus, "Contra Apion." (II, 17). This rabbinical tradition is not reliable. It was probably during theBabylonian captivity that the synagogue became a national feature of Hebrew worship. Afar from their Temple, the exiledJews gathered into local meeting-houses for public worship. Sacrifice was denied them;prayer in common was not. The longer their exile from the national altar of sacrifice, the greater became their need of houses ofprayer; this need was met by an ever-increasing number of synagogues, scattered throughout the land of exile. FromBabylonia this national system of synagogue worship was brought to Jerusalem. That the synagogue dates many generations earlier than Apostolic times, is clear from the authority of St. James: "For Moses of old time [’ek geneon ’archaíon] hath in every city them that preach him in the synagogues, where he is read everysabbath" (Acts 15:21).

History

From the outset ofChristianity the synagogue was in full power of its various functions; theNew Testament speaks thereof fifty-five times. The word is used to denote the body politic of theJews twelve times: twice in Matthew (x, 17; xxiii, 34); once inMark (13:9); three times in Luke's Gospel (viii, 41; xii, 11; xxi, 12), and four times in his Acts (vi, 9; ix, 2; xxii, 19; xxvi, 11); and twice in the Johannine writings (Revelation 2:9;3:9). The more restricted meaning of meeting-house occurs forty-three times in theNew Testament — seven in Matthew (iv, 23; vi, 2, 5; ix, 35; xii, 9; xiii, 54; xxiii, 6); seven times in Mark (1:21, 23, 29, 39;3:1;6:2;12:39); twelve times in Luke's Gospel (iv, 15, 16, 20, 28, 33, 38, 44; vi, 6; vii, 5; xi, 43; xiii, 10; xx, 46), and fourteen times in his Acts (ix, 20; xiii, 5, 14, 42; xiv, 1; xv, 21; xvii, 1, 10, 17; xviii, 4, 7, 19, 26; xix, 8); twice in John (vi, 59; xviii, 20); once in James (ii, 2).Our Lord taught in the synagogues ofNazareth (Matthew 13:54;Mark 6:2;Luke 4:16), and Capharnaum (Mark 1:21;Luke 7:5;John 6:59).Saint Paul preached in the synagogues ofDamascus (Acts 9:20), Salamina inCyprus (Acts 13:5),Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:14), Iconium (xiv, 1), Philippi (xvi, 13), Thessalonica (xvii, 1), Boræa (xvii, 10), Athens (xvii, 17), Corinth (xviii, 4, 7), and Ephesus (xviii, 19). It is worthy of note that despite his frequent use of the Jewish meeting-house,St. Paul in his stern antagonism never once deigns to make mention of the synagogue. He designatesJudaism by the term "circumcision", and not, as do theEvangelists, by the word "synagogue". And even in speaking of theJews as "thecircumcision",St. Paul avoids the received wordperitomé, "a cutting around", a word employed by the Alexandrian Philo forJudaism and reserved by theApostle forChristianity. The sworn foe of the "falsecircumcision" takes a current wordkatatomé, "a cutting down", and with the vigorous die of his fancy, stamps thereon an entirely new and exclusively Pauline meaning — thefalsecircumcision ofJudaism.

At the time of the destruction ofJerusalem ( 70) there were in the city itself 394 synagogues, according to theBabylonian Talmud (Kethuth, 105a); 480, according to theJerusalem Talmud (Megilla 73d). Besides these synagogues for the PalestinianJews, each group of HellenisticJews inJerusalem had its own synagogue — the Libertines, the Alexandrians, the Cyrenians, the Cilicians, etc. (Acts 6:9).Josephus speaks of the synagogue whichAgrippa I erected in Dora (Antiq., XIX, vi, 3), of the Cæsarean synagogue which revolted againstRome (Bell. Jud., II, xiv, 4), of the great synagogue ofTiberias (Vita, 54), and of the synagogue of Antioch inSyria to which thesacred vessels were borne away in the time of theSeleucid War (Bell. Jud., VII, iii, 3). Philo is authority for the existence, during the first century , of many synagogues in Alexandria (Leg. ad Gaium, 20), and of not a few inRome (Ibid., 23). In NorthernGalilee, are numerous ruins whose style of architecture and inscriptions are indications of synagogues of the second and, maybe, the first century TheFranciscans are now engaged in the restoration of the ruined synagogue of Tel Hum, the site of ancient Capharnaum. This beautiful and colossal synagogue was probably the one in whichJesus taught (Luke 7:5). Of the ruined synagogues ofGalilee, that of Kefr Bir'im is the most perfectly preserved. Various Greek inscriptions, recently discovered in LowerEgypt, tell of synagogues built there in the days of the Ptolemies. A marble slab, unearthed in 1902 some twelve miles from Alexandria, reads: "Inhonour of King Ptolemy and Queen Berenice, his sister and wife, and their children, theJews (dedicate) thisproseuché. Both theJerusalem and theBabylonian Talmud make mention of numerous Galilean synagogues which were centres of rabbinical literary, and religious and political influence at Sepphoris,Tiberias,Scythopolis, etc. Every Jewish settlement wasobliged by Talmudic law to have its synagogue; the members of the community couldoblige one another to the building and maintaining thereof; indeed the members of the Jewish community were designated "sons of the synagogue". For further history of the synagogue, seeJ J.

The Great Synagogue is worthy of special mention, as to it is assigned, by Jewish tradition, the important rôle of forming the Canon of theOld Testament. It is said to have been founded by Esdras in the middle of the fifth century , and to have been a permanent and legislative assemblage for two and a half centuries. The Mishnah (Pirke Aboth, I, 1) claims that the Prophets handed down the Torah to the men of the Great Synagogue. "Aboth Rabbi Nathan" (a post-Talmudic treatise) paraphrases this statement by including the last three Prophets in this assemblage: "Aggeus, Zacharias and Malachias received [the Torah] from the Prophets; and the men of the Great Synagogue received from Aggeus, Zacharias and Malachias". How long this supposedly authoritative body held control of the religion ofIsrael, it is impossible to tell. Jewishchronology from the Exile to Alexander's conquest is far from clear. Rabbi Jeremiah (Jerus. Talmud, Berakot, 4d) says that one hundred and twenty elders made dictions ofKiddush andhabdalah. The Talmud, on the contrary (Peah, II, 6), hands down Torah from the Prophets to the Zugoth (Pairs) without the intervention of the Great Synagogue. Be the Great Synagogue of Jewish tradition what it may, historical criticism has ruled it out of court. Kuenen, in his epoch-making monograph "Over die Mannen der groote synagoge" (Amsterdam, 1876), shows that a single meeting came to be looked upon as a permanent institution. TheLevites and people met once and only once, probably on the occasion of the covenant described by Nehemias (Nehemiah 8-10), and the important assemblage became the nucleus round which were wrapped the fables of later Jewish tradition. Such is the conclusion of W. R. Smith, "The Old Testament in the Jewish Church", p. 169; Ryle, "Canon of the Old Testament", p ú Buhl, "Canon and Text of the Old Testament", p. 33; Driver, "Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament", 6th ed., p. 7.

Organization

Judicial

The "sons of the synagogue" were governed by a council calledbêth dîn, "house ofjustice"; orsunédrion "council" (transliterated,Sanhedrin); orboulé, "council". The members of this council were twenty-three in larger towns, seven in smaller; and were called’árchontes, "rulers" (Matthew 9:18, 23);Luke 8:41), orpresbúteroi, "ancients" (Luke 7:3). The "rulers of the synagogue" had it in their power to punish byexcommunication, scourging and death. (a)Excommunication from the synagogal community was termedherem,,’anáthema, (see A). Both the Hebrew and Greek words mean that an object is "sacred" or "accursed" (cf. Arabichárîm, the harem, a precinct sacred to thewomen of a household or the mosque of a community). (b) Scourging (, cf. Makkoth, III, 12;mastigón, cf.Matthew 10:17;23:34;déro,, cf.Mark 13:9;Acts 22:19) was thirty-nine stripes (Makkoth, III, 10;2 Corinthians 11:24) laid on by the "servant of the synagogue",hazzan,‘uperétes, for minor offences. Three elders made up a tribunal competent to inflict the penalty of scourging. It is likely by this lesser tribunal thatOur Lord refers: "Whosoever is angry with his brother shall be in danger of the judgment",’énochos ’éstai te krísei (Matthew 5:22). (c) Thedeath penalty was inflicted by theSanhedrin in full session of twenty-three elders (cf. Sanhedrin I, 4). To this penalty or to that ofexcommunication should probably be referredOur Lord's words: "And whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council",’énochos ’éstai to sunedrío (Matthew 5:22).

Liturgical

The "ruler of the synagogue", (Mark 5:22, 35, 36,, 38;Luke 8:49;13:14;Acts 13:15;18:8, 17),rôsh hákkeneséth (Sota, VII, 7) presided over the synagogue and its services. This presidency did not prevent the "sons of the synagogue" from freely officiating. Witness the freedom with whichOur Lord andSt. Paul stood up to explain theScriptures in the various synagogues of Palestine and theDiaspora. Thehazzan, "servant", handed the scrolls to the readers and taught the children.

Liturgy

There were five parts in the synagogue service:

(1) The Shema’ is made up ofDeuteronomy 6:4-9;11:13-21;Numbers 15:37-41 — two openingblessings for morning and evening, one closing blessing for morning and two for evening. These benedictions are namedShema‘ from the opening word, the imperative: "Hear, OIsrael; Jahweh ourGod is one Jahweh". The origin of theShema‘, as of other portions of Jewish liturgy, is unknown. It seems undoubtedly to be pre-Christian. For it ordains the wearing of thephylacteries or frontlets — prayer-bands borne upon the arm and between the eyes — during the recitation of the great commandment of thelove ofGod (cf.Deuteronomy 6:8;11:18). These phylacteries (phulaktéria) are called in the Talmud, "the prayer which is for the hand",, and "theprayer which is for the head",. The wearing of the two bands was in vogue inChristian times (Matthew 23:5;Josephus, "Antiquit.", IV, 8:13).

(2)ThePrayer is called "the eighteenth",Shemónéh ‘esréh), because of its eighteen benedictions and petitions. There are two recensions — the Babylonian, which is commonly in use, and the Palestinian, which Schechter recently discovered in a Cairogenizah (manuscripts-box). Dalman (Worte Jesu, p. 304) considers that petitions 7, 10-14, are later than the destruction of Jerusalem ( 70). The twelfth petition of the Palestinian recension shows that theChristians were mentioned in this dailyprayer of the synagogue:

"May theChristians andheretics perish in a moment;
May they be blotted out of the book of life;
May they not be written with the just."

The Babylonian recension omits,Christians. TheLord's prayer is made up, in like manner, out of petitions and praises, but in a very unlike and un-Jewish spirit oflove of enemies.

(3)Torah. TheJerusalem Talmud (Megilla, 75a) tells us that the reading of the Law onsabbaths, feast-days, new moons, and half feast-days is ofMosaic institution; and that Esdras inaugurated the reading of Torah on Mondays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. This Talmudic tradition, though not very reliable, points to a very ancient custom. The law is divided into fifty-four sections,sedarîm, which make up a pericopicsabbath reading of thePentateuch. Special readings are assigned for specialsabbaths; seven readers are called upon at random, and each reads his share.

(4)The Prophets. Parallel to the pericopic reading of Torah is a pericopic reading from the Prophets, or second part of the Hebrew Canon. These sections are chosen with a view to exemplify or drive home the lesson from the Law which precedes. The name of the section from the Prophets,haphtara (from Hiph‘il of, "to dismiss"), indicates that at first the synagogue service here came to a close.

(5)The Scripture Lesson. Even by the time ofChrist, the exposition of Scripture was part of the synagogal liturgy (Matthew 4:23;Mark 1:21;6:2). Any of the brethren might be called upon to give the "word of exhortation" (Acts 13:15). The Talmudic statute (Megilla, IV, 4) was that themethúrgeman, interpreter, paraphrase the section from Torah one verse at a time and the section from the Prophets one to three verses at a time. These paraphrases are calledtárgûmîm; a lengthy exposition of a section is amidrash. There was formerly an antiphonal chanting of one or other of Psalms cv-cvii, cxi-cxix, cxvi-cxviii, cxxv, cxxxvi, cxxxxvi-cl. Theprecentor chanted verse after verse and the choir repeated the first verse of the psalm. At the end he chanted thedoxology and called upon the people to answer "Amen", which they did.

Building

Site

In Palestine, the synagogues were built within the city. In the Diaspora, a site was generally chosen outside the city gate and either by the seaside or river-side (Acts 16:13). TheTosephta (Megilla, IV, 22) ordains that the synagogue be in the highest place of the city and face to the east. The ruins of Galilean synagogues show no observance of this ordinance.

Style of architecture

There seems to have been no established style of synagogal architecture. Until recent years, the synagogue has been built in whatsoever style had vogue in the place and at the time of building. The ruined synagogue of Merom is in severe Doric. That of Kafr Bir’im is in a Græco-Roman modification ofCorinthian. The building is quadrangular in form. On the main façade there are three doorways, each of which has a highly ornamented architrave; above the centre doorway is a carefully carved Roman arch. Later on, Russian synagogues were built in decidedly Russian style. In Strasburg,Munich, Cassel,Hanover, and elsewhere the synagogues show the influence of the different styles of the churches of those cities. The cruciform plan is naturally not followed; thetransepts are omitted. Synagogues of Padua,Venice, Livorno and other Italian cities are in theRenaissance style. Since the expulsion of theJews fromSpain,Moorish forms have gradually come to be considered the distinctive trait of synagogal architecture. El Transito and Santa Maria la Blanca, both in Toledo, are two of the finest examples of thisMoorish architecture under Jewish influence.

Interior setting

The Ark,arôn tébah, containing the sacred scrolls, stood at the eastern end opposite the entrance to the rectangular building. In the center was a raised platform (bema,), and thereupon the lectern (’analogion,). This elevated platform is also called "Almenar", a word corrupted from the ArabicAl-minbar, the "chair", the "pulpit". These two furnishings are the most essential interior settings of the synagogue. The Ark was originally but a niche in the wall. In time, as the most dignified feature, it received most concern in the decorative scheme. Nowadays, it is raised on high, approached by three or more steps and covered by an elaborately embellished canopy. The Almenar, too, has undergone various embellishments. It is approached by steps, sometimes has seats, is railed in and at times surrounded by a grille, round about or on both sides of it, are the seats for the congregation (klintér,). The first seats,protokathedría (cf.Matthew 23:6;Mark 12:39;Luke 11:43 and20:46) are those nearest the Ark; they are reserved for those who are highest in rank (cf.Tosephta, Megilla, IV, 21).Women, at least since theMiddle Ages, sit in galleries to which they enter by stairways from the outside. These galleries were formerly set very high; but now are low enough to show both the Ark and the Almemar.

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