The Society of Jesus

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(Company of Jesus, Jesuits)

See alsoDISTINGUISHED JESUITS,JESUIT APOLOGETIC,EARLY JESUIT GENERALS,and four articles on the history of theSociety:PRE-1750,1750-1773,1773-1814,and1814-1912.

The Society of Jesus is areligious order founded bySaint Ignatius Loyola. Designated by him "The Company of Jesus" to indicate its true leader and its soldier spirit, the title was Latinized into "Societas Jesu" in theBull ofPaul III approving its formation and the first formula of its Institute ("Regimini militantis ecclesia", 27 Sept., 1540). The term "Jesuit" (of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated thename of Jesus), was first applied to the society in reproach (1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members and friends of the society in time accepted the name in its good sense. The Society ranks among religious institutes as amendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body ofpriests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying onalms for their support [Bulls ofPius V, "Dum indefessae", 7 July, 1571;Gregory XIII,"Ascendente Domino", 25 May, 1585].

As has been explained under the title"Ignatius Loyola", the founder began his self-reform, and the enlistment of followers, entirely prepossessed with theidea of the imitation ofChrist, and without any plan for areligious order or purpose of attending to the needs of the days. Unexpectedly prevented from carrying out thisidea, he offered his services and those of his followers to thepope, "Christ upon Earth", who at once employed him in such works as were most pressing at the moment. It was only after this and just before the first companions broke to go at thepope's command to various countries, that the resolution to found an order was taken, and that Ignatius was commissioned to draw up Constitutions. This he did slowly and methodically; first introducing rules and customs and seeing how they worked. He did not codify them for the first six years. Then three years were given to formulatinglaws the wisdom of which had beenproven by experiment. In the last six years of the Saint's life the Constitutions so composed were finally revised and put into practice everywhere. This sequence of events explains at once how the society, though devoted to the following ofChrist, as though there were nothing else in the world to care for, is also excellently adapted to the needs of the day. It began to attend to them before it began to legislate; and its legislation was the codification of those measures which had beenproved by experience to be apt to preserve its preliminary religious principle among men actually devoted to the requirements of theChurch in days not unlike our own.

The Society was not founded with the avowed intention of opposingProtestantism. Neither thepapal letters ofapprobation nor the Constitutions of the order mention this as the object of the new foundation. When Ignatius began to devote himself to the service of theChurch, he had probably not even heard of the names of theProtestant Reformers. His early plan was rather theconversion ofMohammedans, anidea which, a few decades after the final triumph of theChristians over theMoors inSpain, must have strongly appealed to thechivalrousSpaniards.

The name "Societas Jesu" had been born by amilitary order approved and recommended byPius II in 1450, the purpose of which was to fight against theTurks and aid in spreading theChristian faith. The early Jesuits were sent by Ignatius first topagan lands or toCatholic countries; toProtestant countries only at the special request of thepope and toGermany, the cradle-land of theReformation, at the urgent solicitation of the imperial ambassador.

From the very beginning the missionary labours of the Jesuits among thepagans ofIndia,Japan,China,Canada, Central and South America were as important as their activity inChristian countries. As the object of the society was the propagation and strengthening of theCatholicfaith everywhere, the Jesuits naturally endeavored to counteract the spread ofProtestantism. They became the main instruments of theCounter-Reformation; the re-conquest of southern and westernGermany andAustria for theChurch, and the preservation of theCatholicfaith inFrance and other countries were due chiefly to their exertions.

Institutes, constitutions, legislation

The official publication which constitutes all the regulations of the Society, itscodex legum, is entitled "Institutum Societas Jesu" of which the latest edition was issued atRome and Florence 1869-91 (for full biography see Sommervogel, V, 75-115; IX, 609-611; for commentators see X, 705-710). The Institute contains:

(1) The specialBulls and other pontifical documents approving the Society and canonically determining or regulating its various works, and itsecclesiastical standing and relations.

Besides those already mentioned, other importantBulls are those of:Paul III, "Injunctum nobis", 14 March, 1543;Julius III, "Exposcit debitum", 21 July, 1550;Pius V, "Æquum reputamus", 17 January, 1565;Pius VII, "Solicitudo omnium ecclesiarum", 7 August, 1814,Leo XIII, "Dolemus inter alia", 13 July, 1880.

(2) The Examen Generale and Constitutions. The Examen contains subjects to be explained topostulants and points on which they are to be examined. The Constitutions are divided into ten parts:

Thus far in the Institute all is bySaint Ignatius, who has also added "Declarations" of various obscure parts. Then come:

The Constitutions as drafted by Ignatius and adopted finally by the first congregation of the Society, 1558, have never been altered. Ill-informed writers have stated thatLainez, the second general, made considerable changes in thesaint's conception of the order; but Ignatius' own later recension of the Constitutions, lately reproduced in facsimile (Rome, 1908), exactly agree with the text of the Constitutions now in force, and contains no word byLainez, not even in the declarations, orglosses added to the text, which are all the work of Ignatius. The text in use in the Society is a Latin version prepared under the direction of the third congregation, and subjected to a minute comparison with the Spanish original preserved in the Society's archives, during the fourth congregation (1581).

These Constitutions were written after long deliberation between Ignatius and his companions in the founding of the Society, as at first it seemed to them that they might continue their work without the aid of a special Rule. They were the fruit of long experience and of serious meditation andprayer. Throughout they are inspired by an exalted spirit of charity andzeal forsouls.

They contain nothing unreasonable. To appreciate them, however, requires aknowledge of canon law applied tomonastic life and also of their history in the light of the times for which they were framed. Usually those who find fault with them either have never read them or else have misinterpreted them. Monod, for instance, in his introduction to Böhmer's essay on the Jesuits ("Les jesuites", Paris, 1910, p. 13, 14) recalls how Michelet mistranslated the words of the Constitutions, p. VI, c. 5,obligationem ad peccatum, and made it appear that they require obedience even to the commission ofsin, as if the text wereobligatio ad peccandum, where the obvious meaning and purpose of the text is precisely to show that the transgression of the rules is not in itselfsinful. Monod enumerates such men asArnauld, Wolf, Lange, Ranke in the first edition of his "History", Hausser and Droysen, Philippson and Charbonnel, as having repeated the sameerror, although it has been refuted frequently since 1824, particularly by Gieseler, and corrected by Ranke in his second edition.

Whenever the Constitutions enjoin what is already a seriousmoralobligation, or superiors, by virtue of their authority, impose a graveobligation, transgression issinful; but this istrue of such transgressions not only in the society but out of it. Moreover such commands are rarely given by the superiors and only when the good of theindividual member or the common good imperatively demands it. The rule throughout is one oflove inspired by wisdom, and must be interpreted in the spirit of charity which animates it. This is especiallytrue of its provisions for the affectionate relations of members with superiors and with one another, by themanifestation of conscience, more or less practiced in everyreligious order, and bymutual correction when this may benecessary. It also applies to the methods employed to ascertain the qualification of members for various offices or ministries.

The chief authority is vested in the general congregation, which elects the general, and could, for certain grave causes,depose him. This body could also (although there has never yet been an occasion for so doing) add new Constitutions and abrogate old ones. Usually this congregation is convened on the occasion of the death of a general, in order toelect a successor, and to make provisions for the government and welfare of the Society. It may also be called at other times for grave reasons. It consists of the general, when alive, and his assistants, the provincials, and two deputies from each province or territorial division of the society elected by the superiors and olderprofessed members.

Thus authority in the Society eventually rests on a democratic basis. But as there is no definitetime for calling the general congregation — which in fact rarely occurs except toelect a new general — the exercise of authority is usually in the hands of the general, in whom is vested the fullness of administrative power, and of spiritual authority. He can do anything within the scope of the Constitutions, and can even dispense with them for good causes, though he cannot change them. He resides atRome, and has a council of assistants, five in number at present, one each forItaly,France,Spain, and the countries of Spanish origin, one forGermany,Austria,Poland,Belgium,Hungary,Holland, and one for English-speaking countries —England,Ireland,United States,Canada, and British colonies (exceptIndia). These usually hold office until the death of the general. Should the general through age or infirmity become incapacitated for governing the Society, avicar is chosen by a general congregation to act for him. At his death he names one so to act until the congregation can meet andelect his successor.

Next to him in order of authority comes theprovincials, the heads of the Society, whether for an entire country, asEngland,Ireland,Canada,Belgium, Mexico, or, where these units are too large or too small to make convenient provinces they may be subdivided or joined together. Thus there are now four provinces in theUnited States:California,Maryland-New York,Missouri,New Orleans. In all there are now twenty-seven provinces. The provincial is appointed by the general, with ample administrativefaculties. He too has a council of "counselors" and an "admonitor" appointed by the general. Under the provincial come the local superiors. Of these,rectors ofcolleges,provosts of professed houses, and masters ofnovices are appointed by the general; the rest by the provincial. To enable the general to make and control so many appointments, a free and ample correspondence is kept up, and everyone has theright of private communication with him. No superior, except the general, is named for life. Usuallyprovincials andrectors ofcolleges hold office for three years.

Members of the society fall into four classes:

All live in community alike, as regards food, apparel, lodging, recreation, and all are alike bound by the rules of the Society.

There are no secret Jesuits. Like other orders, the Society can, if it will, make its friends participators in itsprayers, and in themerits of its goodworks; but it cannot make them members of the order, unless they live the life of the order. There is indeed the case ofSt. Francis Borgia, who made some of the probations in an unusual way, outside the houses of the order. But this was in order that he might be able to conclude certain business matters and other affairs of state, and thus appear the sooner in public as a Jesuit, not that he might remain permanently outside the common life.

Novitiate and training

Candidates for admission come not only from thecolleges conducted by the Society, but from otherschools. Frequently post-graduate or professional students, and those who have already begun their career in business or professional life, or even in thepriesthood, apply for admission. Usually the candidate applies in person to theprovincial, and if he considers him a likely subject he refers him forexamination to four of the more experiencedfathers. They question him about the age, health, position, occupation of hisparents, their religion and goodcharacter, their dependence on his services; about his own health,obligations such asdebts, or othercontractual relations; his studies, qualifications,moralcharacter, personal motives as well as the external influences that may have lead him to seek admission. The results of their questioning and of their own observation they report severally to theprovincial, who weighs their opinions carefully before deciding for or against the applicant. Any notable bodily ormental defect in the candidate, seriousindebtedness or otherobligation, previous membership in anotherreligious order even for a day, indicating instability ofvocation, unqualifies for admission. Undue influence, particularly if exercised by members of the order, would occasion stricter scrutiny than usual into the personal motives of the applicant.

Candidates may enter at anytime, but usually there is a fixed day each years for their admission, toward the close of the summer holidays, in order that all may begin their training, or probation, together. They spend the first ten days considering the manner of life they are to adopt, and its difficulties, the rules of the order, the obedience required of its members. They then make a briefretreat, meditating on what they have learned about the Society and examining their own motives and hopes for perserverance in the new mode of life. If all be satisfactory to them and to the superior or director who has charge of them, they are admitted asnovices, wear theclerical costume (as there is no special Jesuit habit) and begin in earnest the life of members in the Society. They rise early, make a brief visit to thechapel, a meditation on some subject selected the night before, assist at Mass, review their meditation, breakfast, and then prepare for the day's routine. This consists of manual labor in or out of doors, reading books on spiritual topics,ecclesiastical history, biography, particularly of men orwomen distinguished forzeal and enterprise in missionary oreducational fields. There is a daily conference by the master of thenovices on some detail of the Institute, notes of which all are required to make, so as to be ready, when asked, to repeat the salient points.

Wherever it is possible some are submitted to certain tests of theirvocation or usefulness; to teachingcatechism in the village churches; to attendance on the sick inhospitals; to going about on apilgrimage or missionary journey without money or other provision. As soon as possible, all make the spiritual exercises for 30 days. This is really the chief test of avocation, as it is also in epitome the main work of the two years of thenovitiate, and for that matter of the entire life of a Jesuit. On these exercises the Constitutions, the life, and activity of the Society are based, so they are really the chief factor in forming thecharacter of a Jesuit.

In accordance with the ideals set forth in these exercises, of disinterested conformity withGod's will, and of personallove ofJesus Christ, thenovice is trained diligently in the meditative study of thetruths of religion, in the habit of self-knowledge, in the constant scrutiny of his motives and of the actions inspired by them, in the correction of every form of self-deceit, illusion, plausible pretext, and in theeducation of his will, particularly in making choice of what seems best after careful deliberation and without self-seeking. Deeds, not words, are insisted upon asproof of genuine service, and a mechanical, emotional, or fancifulpiety is not tolerated. As thenovice gradually thus becomes master of his will, he grows more and more capable of offering toGod the reasonable service enjoined bySt. Paul, and seeks to follow the divine will, as manifested inJesus Christ, by Hisvicar on earth, by thebishops appointed to rule HisChurch, by his more immediate or religious superiors, and by thecivil powers rightfully exercising authority. This is what is meant by Jesuit obedience, the characteristic virtue of the order, such a sincere respect for authority as to accept its decisions and comply with them, not merely by outward performance but in all sincerity with the conviction that compliance is best, and that the command expresses for the time the will ofGod, as nearly as it can be ascertained.

Thenoviceship lasts two years. On its completion thenovice makes the usualvows of religion, the simplevow ofchastity in the Society having the force of a dirimentimpediment tomatrimony. During thenoviceship but a brief time daily is devoted to reviewing previous studies. Thenoviceship over, the scholastic members, i.e., those who are to becomepriests in the Society, follow a special course in classics and mathematics lasting two years, usually in the same house with thenovices. Then, in another house and neighbourhood, three years are given to the study ofphilosophy, about five years to teaching in one or other of the publiccolleges of the Society, four years to the study oftheology,priestly orders being conferred after the third, and finally, one year more to another probation ornoviceship, intended to help the youngpriest renew his spirit ofpiety and to learn how to utilize to the best of his ability all the learning and experience he has required. In exceptional cases, as in that of apriest who has finished his studies before entering the order, allowance is made and the training periods need not last over ten years, a good part of which is spent in active ministry.

The object of the order is not limited to practicing any one class of goodworks, however laudable (as preaching,chantingoffice, doing penance, etc.), but to study, in the manner of the Spiritual, whatChrist would have done, if He were living in our circumstances, and to carry out that ideal. Hence elevation and largeness of aim. Hence the motto of the Society, "Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam". Hence the selection of thevirtue of obedience as the characteristic of the order, to be ready for any call, and to keep unity in every variety of work. Hence, by easy sequence, the omission ofoffice in choir, of a special distinctive habit, of unusualpenances. Where theProtestant reformers aimed at reorganizing thechurch at large according to their particular conceptions, Ignatius began with interior self-reform; and after that had been thoroughly established, then the earnest preaching of self-reform to others. That done, thechurch would not, and did not, fail to reform herself. Many religious distinguished themselves as educators before the Jesuits; but the Society was the first order which enjoined by its very Constitutions devotion to the cause ofeducation. It was, in this sense, the first "teaching order".

The ministry of the Society consists chiefly in preaching; teachingcatechism, especially to children; administering thesacraments especially penance and the Eucharist; conductingmissions in the parishes on the lines of the Spiritual; directing those who wish to follow those exercises in houses ofretreat,seminaries orconvents; taking care ofparishes orcollegiate churches; organizingpiousconfraternities, sodalities,unions of prayer,Bona Mors associations in their own and otherparishes; teaching inschools of every grade — academic;seminary,university; writing books, pamphlets, periodical articles; going on foreign missions among uncivilized peoples.

Inliturgical functions theRoman Rite is followed. The proper exercise of all these functions is provided for by rules carefully framed by the general congregations or by the generals. All these regulations command the greatest respect on the part of every member. In practice the superior for the time being is the living rule — not that he can alter or abrogate any rule, but because he must interpret and determine its application. In this fact and in its consequences, the Society differs from everyreligious order antecedent to its foundation; to this principally, it owes its life, activity, and power to adapt its Institutes to modernconditions without need of change in that instrument or of reform in the body itself.

The story of the foundation of the Society is told in the articleIgnatius Loyola. Briefly, after having inspired his companionsPeter Faber,Francis Xavier,James Lainez,Alonso Salmerón,Nicolas Bobadilla, Simon Rodriquez, Claude Le Jay, Jean Codure, and Paschase Brouet with a desire to dwell in the Holy Land imitating the life ofChrist, they first madevows of poverty andchastity at Montmartre, Paris, on 15 August, 1534, adding avow to go to the Holy Land after two years. When this was found to be inpracticable, after waiting another year, they offered their services to thepope,Paul III. Fully another year was passed by some inuniversity towns inItaly, by others atRome, where, after encountering much opposition andslander, all met together to agree on a mode of life by which they might advance inevangelical perfection and help others in the same task. The first formula of the Institute was submitted to thepope and approved of viva voce, 3 September 1539, and formally, 27 September, 1540.

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