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| A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z |
The usual term for the religious movement which made its appearance in WesternEurope in the sixteenth century, and which, while ostensibly aiming at an internal renewal of theChurch, really led to a great revolt against it, and an abandonment of the principalChristianbeliefs. We shall review the general characteristics of this movement from the following standpoints:
The causes of the great religious revolt of the sixteenth century must be sought as far back as the fourteenth. Thedoctrine of theChurch, it istrue, had remained pure;saintly lives were yet frequent in all parts ofEurope, and the numerous beneficientmedieval institutions of theChurch continued their course uninterruptedly. Whatever unhappyconditions existed were largely due to civil and profane influences or to the exercise of authority byecclesiastics in civil spheres; they did not obtain everywhere with equal intensity, nor did they always occur simultaneous in the same country. Ecclesiastical andreligious life exhibited in many places vigour and variety; works ofeducation andcharity abounded;religious art in all its forms had a living force; domestic missionaries were many and influential;pious and edifying literature was common and appreciated. Gradually, however, and largely owing to the variously hostile spirit of thecivil powers, fostered and heightened by several elements of the new order, there grew up in many parts ofEurope political and socialconditions which hampered the free reformatory activities of theChurch, and favoured the bold and unscrupulous, who seized a unique opportunity to let loose all the forces ofheresy andschism so long held in check by the harmonious action of theecclesiastical andcivil authorities.
Since the barbarian invasions theChurch had effected a complete transformation and revival of the races of WesternEurope, and a glorious development of religious andintellectual life. Thepapacy had become the powerful centre of thefamily ofChristian nations, and as such had for centuries, in union with theepiscopate and theclergy, displayed a most beneficent activity. With theecclesiastical organization fully developed, it came to pass that the activities of the governingecclesiastical bodies were no longer confined to theecclesiastical domain, but affected almost every sphere of popular life. Gradually a regrettable worldliness manifested itself in many highecclesiastics. Their chief object — to guideman to hiseternal goal — claimed too seldom their attention, and worldly activities became in too many cases the chief interest. Political power,material possessions, privileged position in public life, the defence of ancient historicalrights, earthly interests of various kinds were only too often the chief aim of many of the higherclergy. Pastoral solicitude, the specifically religious andecclesiastical aim, fell largely into the background, notwithstanding various spirited and successful attempts to rectify the existingevils.
Closely connected with the above were various abuses in the lives of theclergy and thepeople. In thePapal Curia political interests and a worldly life were often prominent. Manybishops andabbots (especially in countries where they were also territorial princes) bore themselves as secular rulers rather than as servants of theChurch. Many members ofcathedralchapters and otherbeneficedecclesiastics were chiefly concerned with their income and how to increase it, especially by uniting severalprebends (evenepiscopal sees) in the hands of oneperson, who thus enjoyed a larger income and greater power. Luxury prevailed widely among the higherclergy, while the lowerclergy were often oppressed. Thescientific andascetic training of theclergy left much to be desired, themoral standard of many being very low, and the practice ofcelibacy not everywhere observed. Not less serious was the condition of manymonasteries of men, and even ofwomen (which were often homes for the unmarried daughters of the nobility). The former prestige of theclergy had thus suffered greatly, and its members were in many places regarded with scorn. As to theChristian people itself, in numerous districtsignorance,superstition,religious indifference, andimmorality were rife. Nevertheless, vigorous efforts to revive life were made in most lands, and side by side with thismoral decay appear numerous examples of sincere and uprightChristian life. Such efforts, however, were too often confined to limited circles. From the fourteenth century the demand for "reform of head and members" (reformatio in capite et in membris) had been voiced with ever-increasing energy by serious and discerning men, but the same cry was taken up also by many who had no real desire for a religious renewal, wishing merely to reform others but not themselves, and seeking only their own interests. This call for reformation of head and members, discussed in many writings and in conversation with insistence on existing and often exaggerated abuses, tended necessarily to lower theclergy still more in the eyes of the people, especially as thecouncils of the fifteenth century, though largely occupied with attempts at reformation, did not succeed in accomplishing it extensively or permanently.
The authority of theHoly See had also been seriously impaired, partly through the fault of some of its occupants and partly through that of the secular princes. Thepope's removal toAvignon in the fourteenth century was a grievouserror, since the universal character of thepapacy was thus obscured in theminds of theChristian people. Certain phases of the quarrel with Louis the Bavarian and with theFranciscan Spirituals clearly indicate a decline of thepapal power. The severest blow was dealt by the disastrouspapal schism (1378-1418) which familiarizedWestern Christians with theidea thatwar might be made, with all spiritual and material weapons, against one whom many otherChristians regarded as the only lawfulpope. After the restoration of unity, the attempted reforms of thePapal Curia were not thorough.Humanism and the ideals of theRenaissance werezealously cultivated inRome, and unfortunately theheathen tendencies of this movement, so opposed to theChristianmoral law, affected too profoundly the life of many higherecclesiastics, so that worldlyideas, luxury, andimmorality rapidly gained ground at the centre ofecclesiastical life. Whenecclesiastical authority grew weak at the fountain-head, it necessarily decayed elsewhere. There were also serious administrative abuses in thePapal Curia. The ever-increasing centralization ofecclesiastical administration had brought it about that far too manyecclesiastical benefices in all parts ofChristendom were conferred atRome, while in the granting of them the personal interests of the petitioner, rather than the spiritual needs of thefaithful, were too often considered. The various kinds of reservation had also become a grievous abuse. Dissatisfaction was felt widely among theclergy at the many taxes imposed by theCuria on the incumbents ofecclesiastical benefices. From the fourteenth century these taxes called forth loud complaints. In proportion as thepapal authority lost the respect of many, resentment grew against both theCuria and thePapacy. The reform councils of the fifteenth century, instead of improving the situation, weakened still more the highestecclesiastical authority by reason of their anti-papal tendencies and measures.
In princes and governments there had meanwhile developed a national consciousness, purely temporal and to a great extent hostile to theChurch; thecivil powers interfered more frequently inecclesiastical matters, and the direct influence exercised bylaymen on the domestic administration of theChurch rapidly increased. In the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries arose the modern concept of the State. During the preceding period many matters of a secular or mixed nature had been regulated or managed by theChurch, in keeping with the historical development ofEuropeansociety. With the growing self-consciousness of the State, the secular governments sought to control all matters that fell within their competence, which course, although in large measure justifiable, was new and offensive, and thus led to frequent collisions betweenChurch and State. The State, moreover, owing to the close historical connection between theecclesiastical and secular orders, encroached on theecclesiastical domain. During the course of theWestern Schism (1378-1418) opposingpopes sought the support of thecivil powers, and thus gave the latter abundant occasion to interfere in purelyecclesiastical affairs. Again, to strengthen their authority in the face of anti-papal tendencies, thepopes of the fifteenth century made at various times certain concessions to thecivil authorities, so that the latter came to regardecclesiastical affairs as within their domain. For the future theChurch was to be, not superordinate, but subordinate to thecivil power, and was increasingly menaced with complete subjection. According as national self-consciousness developed in the various countries ofEurope, the sense of the unity and interdependence of theChristian family of nations grew weaker.Jealousy between nations increased, selfishness gained ground, the rift between politics andChristianmorality and religion grew wider, and discontent and perilous revolutionary tendencies spread rapidly among the people.Love of wealth was meanwhile given a great incentive by the discovery of theNew World, the rapid development of commerce, and the new prosperity of the cities. In public life a many-sided and intense activity revealed itself, foreshadowing a new era and inclining the popular mind to changes in the hitherto undivided province of religion.
TheRenaissance andHumanism partly introduced and greatly fostered theseconditions.Love of luxury was soon associated with the revival of the art and literature of Graeco-Romanpaganism. TheChristianreligious ideal was to a great extent lost sight of; higherintellectual culture, previously confined in great measure to theclergy, but now common among thelaity, assumed a secular character, and in only too many cases fostered actively and practically apagan spirit,paganmorality and views. A crudematerialism obtained among the higher classes ofsociety and in theeducated world, characterized by a gross love of pleasure, a desire for gain, and a voluptuousness of life diametrically opposed toChristianmorality. Only a faintinterest in thesupernatural life survived. The new art of printing made it possible to disseminate widely the works ofpagan authors and of theirhumanistic imitators. Immoral poems and romances, biting satires onecclesiastical persons and institutions, revolutionary works and songs, were circulated in all directions and wrought immense harm. AsHumanism grew, it wagedviolentwar against theScholasticism of the time. The traditionaltheological method had greatly degenerated owing to the finical, hair-splitting manner of treatingtheological questions, and a solid and thorough treatment oftheology had unhappily disappeared from manyschools and writings. TheHumanists cultivated new methods, and basedtheology on theBible and the study of the Fathers, an essentially good movement which might have renewed the study oftheology, if properly developed. But theviolence of theHumanists, their exaggerated attacks onScholasticism, and the frequent obscurity of their teaching aroused strong opposition from the representativeScholastics. The new movement, however, had won the sympathy of thelay world and of the section of theclergy devoted toHumanism. The danger was only too imminent that the reform would not be confined totheological methods but would reach the content ofecclesiasticaldogma, and would find widespread support inhumanistic circles.
The soil was thus ready for the growth of revolutionary movements in the religious sphere. Many grave warnings were indeed uttered, indicating the approaching danger and urging a fundamental reform of the actualevilconditions. Much had been effected in this direction by the reform movement in variousreligious orders and by the apostolic efforts ofzealousindividuals. But a general renewal ofecclesiastical life and a uniform improvement ofevilconditions, beginning withRome itself, the centre of theChurch, were not promptly undertaken, and soon it needed only an external impulse to precipitate a revolution, which was to cut off from the unity of theChurch great territories of Central and almost all NorthernEurope.
The first impulse to secession was supplied by the opposition ofLuther inGermany and ofZwingli in GermanSwitzerland to thepromulgation byLeo X of anindulgence for contributions towards the building of the newSt. Peter's atRome. For a long time it had been customary for thepopes to grantindulgences for buildings of public utility (e.g. bridges). In such cases thetruedoctrine ofindulgences as a remission of the punishment due tosin (not of guilt ofsin) had been always upheld, and thenecessaryconditions (especially theobligation of acontrite confession to obtainabsolution fromsin) always inculcated. But thealmsgiving for a good object, prescribed only as a goodwork supplementary to the chiefconditions for the gaining of theindulgence, was often prominently emphasized. Theindulgencecommissaries sought tocollect as much money as possible in connexion with theindulgence. Indeed, frequently since theWestern Schism the spiritual needs of the people did not receive as much consideration as a motive forpromulgating anindulgence, as the need of the good object by promoting which theindulgence was to be gained, and the consequent need of obtainingalms for this purpose. Thewar against theTurks and other crises, the erection of churches andmonasteries, and numerous other causes led to the granting ofindulgences in the fifteenth century. The consequent abuses were heightened by the fact that secular rulers frequently forbade thepromulgation ofindulgences within their territories,consenting only on condition that a portion of the receipts should be given to them. In practice, therefore, and in the public mind thepromulgation ofindulgences took on aneconomic aspect, and, as they were frequent, many came to regard them as an oppressive tax. Vainly did earnest men raise their voices against this abuse, which aroused no little bitterness against theecclesiastical order and particularly thePapal Curia. Thepromulgation ofindulgences for the newSt. Peter's furnishedLuther with an opportunity to attackindulgences in general, and this attack was the immediate occasion of the Reformation inGermany. A little later the same motive ledZwingli to put forth hiserroneous teachings, thereby inaugurating the Reformation in GermanSwitzerland. Both declared that they were attacking only the abuses ofindulgences; however, they soon taughtdoctrine in many ways contrary to the teaching of theChurch.
The great applause whichLuther received on his first appearance, both inhumanistic circles and among sometheologians and some of the earnest-mindedlaity, was due to the dissatisfaction with the existing abuses. His ownerroneous views and the influence of a portion of his followers very soon droveLuther into rebellion againstecclesiastical authority as such, and eventually led him into openapostasy andschism. His chief original supporters were among theHumanists, the immoralclergy, and the lower grades of the landed nobility imbued with revolutionary tendencies. It was soon evident that he meant to subvert all the fundamental institutions of theChurch. Beginning by proclaiming thefalse doctrine of "justification byfaith alone", he later rejected allsupernatural remedies (especially thesacraments and the Mass), denied themeritoriousness of goodworks (thus condemningmonasticvows andChristianasceticism in general), and finally rejected the institution of a genuinehierarchicalpriesthood (especially thepapacy) in theChurch. Hisdoctrine of theBible as the solerule of faith, with rejection of allecclesiastical authority, established subjectivism in matters offaith. By this revolutionary assaultLuther forfeited the support of many seriouspersons indisposed to break with theChurch but on the other hand won over all the anti-ecclesiastical elements, including numerousmonks andnuns who left themonasteries to break theirvows, and manypriests who espoused his cause with theintention of marrying. The support of his sovereign, Frederick of Saxony, was of great importance. Very soon secular princes and municipal magistrates made the Reformation a pretext for arbitrary interference in purelyecclesiastical and religious affairs, for appropriatingecclesiastical property and disposing of it at pleasure, and for deciding whatfaith their subjects should accept. Some followers ofLuther went to even greater extremes. TheAnabaptists and the"Iconoclasts" revealed the extremest possibilities of the principles advocated byLuther, while in thePeasants' War the most oppressed elements of Germansociety put into practice thedoctrine of the reformer. Ecclesiastical affairs were now reorganized on the basis of the new teachings; henceforth thesecular power is ever more clearly the supreme judge in purely religious matters, and completely disregards any independentecclesiastical authority.
A second centre of the Reformation was established byZwingli atZurich. Though he differed in many particulars fromLuther, and was much more radical than the latter in his transformation of theceremonial of the Mass, the aims of his followers were identical with those of theLutherans. Political considerations played a great role in the development ofZwinglianism, and the magistracy ofZurich, after amajority of its members had declared forZwingli, became azealous promoter of the Reformation. Arbitrarydecrees were issued by the magistrates concerningecclesiastical organization; the councillors who remained true to theCatholicFaith were expelled from the council, andCatholicservices were forbidden in the city. The city and the canton ofZurich were reformed by thecivil authorities according to theideas ofZwingli. Other parts of GermanSwitzerland experienced a similarfate.FrenchSwitzerland developed later its own peculiar Reformation; this was organized atGeneva byCalvin.Calvinism is distinguished fromLutheranism andZwinglianism by a more rigid and consistent form ofdoctrine and by the strictness of itsmoralprecepts, which regulate the whole domestic and public life of the citizen. Theecclesiastical organization ofCalvin was declared a fundamentallaw of the Republic of Geneva, and the authorities gave their entire support to the reformer in the establishment of his new court ofmorals.Calvin's word was the highest authority, and he tolerated no contradiction of his views or regulations.Calvinism was introduced intoGeneva and the surrounding country byviolence.Catholicpriests were banished, and the people oppressed and compelled to attendCalvinisticsermons.
InEngland the origin of the Reformation was entirely different. Here the sensual and tyrannicalHenry VIII, with the support of Thomas Cranmer, whom the king made theArchbishop ofCanterbury, severed his country fromecclesiastical unity because thepope, as thetrue guardian of theDivine law, refused to recognize the invalid marriage of the king with Anne Boleyn during the lifetime of his lawful wife. Renouncing obedience to thepope, the despotic monarch constituted himself supreme judge even inecclesiastical affairs; the opposition of such good men asThomas More andJohn Fisher was overcome in blood. The king wished, however, to retain unchanged both the doctrines of theChurch and theecclesiastical hierarchy, andcaused a series of doctrines and institutions rejected byLuther and his followers to be strictly proscribed by Act of Parliament (Six Articles) under the pain ofdeath. InEngland also thecivil power constituted itself supreme judge in matters offaith, and laid the foundation for further arbitrary religious innovations. Under the following sovereign, Edward VI (1547-53), theProtestant party gained the upper hand, and thenceforth began to promote the Reformation inEngland according to the principles ofLuther,Zwingli, andCalvin. Here also force was employed to spread thenew doctrines. This last effort of the Reformation movement was practically confined toEngland (seeANGLICANISM).
In the choice of means for extending the Reformation its founders and supporters were not fastidious, availing themselves of any factor which could further their movement.
Denunciation of real and supposed abuses in religious andecclesiastical life was, especially at the beginning, one of the chief methods employed by the reformers to promote their designs. By this means they won over many who were dissatisfied with existingconditions, and were ready to support any movement that promised a change. But it was especially the widespreadhatred ofRome and of the members of thehierarchy, fostered by the incessantly repeated and only too often justifiable complaints about abuses, that most efficiently favoured the reformers, who very soonviolently attacked thepapal authority, recognizing in it the supreme guardian of theCatholicFaith. Hence the multitude of lampoons, often most vulgar, against thepope, thebishops, and in general against all representatives ofecclesiastical authority. These pamphlets were circulated everywhere among the people, and thereby respect for authority was still moreviolently shaken. Painters prepared shameless and degrading caricatures of thepope, theclergy, and themonks, to illustrate the text of hostile pamphlets. Waged with every possible weapon (even the most reprehensible), thiswarfare against the representatives of theChurch, as the supposed originators of allecclesiastical abuses, prepared the way for the reception of the Reformation. A distinction was no longer drawn between temporary and corrigible abuses and fundamentalsupernaturalChristiantruths; together with the abuses, importantecclesiastical institutions, resting on Divine foundation were simultaneously abolished.
Advantage was also taken of the divisions existing in many places between theecclesiastical andcivil authorities. The development of the State, in its modern form, among theChristian peoples of the West gave rise to many disputes between theclergy andlaity, betweenbishops and the cities, betweenmonasteries and the territorial lords. When the reformers withdrew from theclergy all authority, especially all influence in civil affairs, they enabled the princes and municipal authorities to end these long-pending strifes to their own advantage by arbitrarily arrogating to themselves all disputedrights, banishing thehierarchy whoserights they usurped, and then establishing by their own authority a completely newecclesiastical organization. The Reformedclergy thus possessed from the beginning only suchrights as thecivil authorities were pleased to assign them. Consequently the Reformed national Churches were completely subject to thecivil authorities, and the Reformers, who had entrusted to thecivil power the actual execution of their principles, had now no means of ridding themselves of this servitude.
In the course of centuries an immense number of foundations had been made for religious,charitable, andeducational objects, and had been provided with rich material resources. Churches,monasteries,hospitals, andschools had often great incomes and extensive possessions, which aroused theenvy of secular rulers. The Reformation enabled the latter to secularize this vastecclesiastical wealth, since the leaders of the Reformation constantly inveighed against the centralization of suchriches in the hands of theclergy. The princes and municipal authorities were thus invited to seizeecclesiastical property, and employ it for their own purposes. Ecclesiastical principalities, which were entrusted to the incumbents only asecclesiastical persons for administration and usufruct, were, in defiance of actuallaw, by exclusion of the incumbents, transformed into secular principalities. In this way the Reformers succeeded in depriving theChurch of thetemporal wealth provided for its many needs, and in diverting the same to their own advantage.
Human emotions, to which the Reformers appealed in the most various ways, were another means of spreading the Reformation. The veryideas which these innovators defended —Christian freedom, license of thought, theright and capacity of eachindividual to found his ownfaith on theBible, and other similar principles — were very seductive for many. The abolition of religious institutions which acted as a curb onsinfulhumannature (confession,penance,fasting,abstinence,vows) attracted the lascivious and frivolous. Thewarfare against thereligious orders, againstvirginity andcelibacy, against the practices of a higherChristian life, won for the Reformation a great number of those who, without a seriousvocation, had embraced thereligious life from purelyhuman and worldly motives, and who wished to be rid ofobligations towardsGod which had grown burdensome, and to be free to gratify theirsensual cravings. This they could do the more easily, as the confiscation of theproperty of the Churches andmonasteries rendered it possible to provide for the material advancement of ex-monks and ex-nuns, and ofpriests whoapostasized. In the innumerable writings and pamphlets intended for the people the Reformers made it their frequent endeavour to excite the basesthumaninstincts. Against thepope, theRoman Curia, and thebishops,priests,monks, andnuns who had remained true to theirCatholic convictions, the most incredible lampoons andlibels were disseminated. In language of the utmost coarsenessCatholic doctrines and institutions were distorted and ridiculed. Among the lower, mostly uneducated, and abandoned elements of the population, the baserpassions andinstincts were stimulated and pressed into the service of the Reformation.
At first manybishops displayed great apathy towards the Reformers, attaching to the new movement no importance; its chiefs were thus given a longertime to spread their doctrines. Even later, many worldly-inclinedbishops, though remainingtrue to theChurch, were very lax in combatingheresy and in employing the proper means to prevent its further advance. The same might be said of theparochialclergy, who were to a great extentignorant andindifferent, and looked on idly at the defection of the people. The Reformers, on the other hand, displayed the greatestzeal for their cause. Leaving no means unused by word and pen, by constant intercourse with similarly mindedpersons, by popular eloquence, which the leaders of the Reformation were especially skilled in employing, bysermons and popular writings appealing to the weaknesses of the popular character, by inciting the fanaticism of the masses, in short by clever andzealous utilization of every opportunity and opening that presented itself, theyproved their ardour for the spread of their doctrines. Meanwhile they proceeded with great astuteness, purported to adhere strictly to the essentialtruths of theCatholicFaith, retained at first many of the externalceremonies ofCatholic worship, and declared theirintention of abolishing only things resting onhuman invention, seeking thus to deceive the people concerning the real objects of their activity. They found indeed manypious andzealous opponents in the ranks of theregular andsecular clergy, but the great need, especially at the beginning, was a universally organized and systematically conducted resistance to thisfalse reformation.
Many new institutions introduced by the Reformers flattered the multitude — e.g. the reception of thechalice by the whole people, the use of the vernacular at Divine service, the popular religioushymns used during services, the reading of theBible, the denial of theessential difference betweenclergy andlaity. In this category may be included doctrines which had an attraction for many — e.g.justification byfaith alone without reference to goodworks, the denial of freedom of will, which furnished an excuse formoral lapses, personalcertainty ofsalvation infaith (i.e. subjective confidence in themerits ofChrist), the universalpriesthood, which seemed to give all a direct share insacerdotal functions andecclesiastical administration.
Finally, one of the chief means employed in promoting the spread of the Reformation was the use ofviolence by the princes and the municipal authorities.Priests who remainedCatholic were expelled and replaced by adherents of the newdoctrine, and the people were compelled to attend the new services. Thefaithful adherents of theChurch were variouslypersecuted, and thecivil authorities saw to it that thefaith of the descendants of those who had strongly opposed the Reformation was gradually sapped. In many places the people were severed from theChurch by brutalviolence; elsewhere to deceive the people the ruse was employed of retaining theCatholicrite outwardly for a long time, and prescribing for the reformedclergy the ecclesiasticalecclesiastical vestments of theCatholic worship. The history of the Reformation shows incontestably that thecivil power was the chief factor in spreading it in all lands, and that in the last analysis it was not religious, but dynastic, political, and social interests whichproved decisive. Add to this that the princes and municipal magistrates who had joined the Reformers tyrannized grossly over theconsciences of their subjects and burghers. All must accept the religion prescribed by the civil ruler. The principle "Cuius regio, illius et religio" (Religion goes with the land) is an outgrowth of the Reformation, and was by it and its adherents, wherever they possessed thenecessary power, put into practice.
The Reformation was inaugurated inGermany whenLuther affixed his celebrated theses to the doors of the church atWittenberg, 31 October, 1517. From the consequences ofpapal excommunication and the imperial banLuther was protected by Elector Frederick of Saxony, his territorial sovereign. While outwardly adopting a neutral attitude, the latter encouraged the formation ofLutheran communities within his domains, afterLuther had returned toWittenberg and resumed there the leadership of the reform movement, in opposition to theAnabaptists. It wasLuther who introduced the arbitrary regulations forDivine worship and religious functions; in accordance with these,Lutheran communities were established, whereby an organizedheretical body was opposed to theCatholicChurch. Among the other German princes who early associated themselves withLuther and seconded his efforts were:
Meanwhile in several German imperial cities the reform movement was initiated by followers ofLuther — especially in Ulm,Augsburg, Nuremburg, Nördlingen,Strasburg,Constance,Mainz, Erfurt, Zwickau,Magdeburg,Frankfort-on-the-Main, andBremen. TheLutheran princes formed the Alliance of Torgau on 4 May, 1526, for their common defence. By their appearance at the Diet of Speyer in 1526 they secured the adoption of the resolution that, with respect to the Edict of Worms againstLuther and hiserroneousdoctrine, each might adopt such attitude as he could answer for beforeGod and emperor. Liberty to introduce the Reformation into their territories was thus granted to the territorial rulers. TheCatholic estates became discouraged, while theLutheran princes grew ever more extravagant in their demands. Even the entirely moderatedecrees of the Diet of Speyer (1529) drew a protest from theLutheran and Reformed estates.
The negotiations at the Diet of Augsburg (1530), at which the estates rejecting theCatholicfaith elaborated theircreed (Augsburg Confession), showed that the restoration ofreligious unity was not to be effected. The Reformation extended wider and wider, bothLutheranism andZwinglianism being introduced into other German territories. Besides the above-mentioned principalities and cities, it had made its way by 1530 into the principalities of Bayreuth, Ansbach,Anhalt, andBrunswick-Lunenburg, and in the next few years intoPomerania, Jülich-Cleve, and Wurtemberg. InSilesia and the duchy of Liegnitz the Reformation also made great strides. In 1531 theSmalkaldic League, an offensive and defensive alliance, was concluded between theProtestant princes and cities. Especially after its renewal (1535) this league was joined by other cities and princes who had espoused the Reformation, e.g. Count Palatine Rupert of Zweibrücken, Count William of Nassau, the cities ofAugsburg, Kempten,Hamburg, and others. Further negotiations and discussions between the religious parties were instituted with a view to ending theschism, but without success. Among the methods adopted by theProtestants in spreading the Reformation force was ever more freely employed. The Diocese of Naumburg-Zeitz becomingvacant, Elector John Frederick of Saxony installed by force in thesee theLutheran preacher Nicholas Amsdorf (instead of thecathedralprovost,Julius von Pflug, chosen by the chapter) and himself undertook the secular government. Duke Henry of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel was exiled in 1542, and the Reformation introduced into his domains by force. In Cologne itself the Reformation was very nearly established by force. Someecclesiastical princesproved delinquent, taking no measures against the innovations that spread daily in widening circles. Into Pfalz-Neuburg and the towns of Halberstadt, Halle, etc., the Reformation found entrance. The collapse of theSmalkaldic League (1547) somewhat stemmed the progress of the Reformation:Julius von Pflug was installed in hisdiocese of Naumburg, Duke Henry of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel recovered his lands, and Hermann von Wied had to resign theDiocese of Cologne, where theCatholicFaith was thus maintained.
The formula of union established by the Diet of Augsburg in 1547-48 (Augsburg Interim) did not succeed in its object, although introduced into manyProtestant territories. Meanwhile the treachery of Prince Moritz of Saxony, who made a secret treaty with Henry II ofFrance,Germany's enemy, and formed a confederation with theProtestant princes William of Hesse, John Albert of Mecklenburg, andAlbert of Brandenburg, to makewar on the emperor and empire, broke the power of the emperor. At the suggestion of Charles, King Ferdinand convened the Diet of Augsburg in 1555, at which, after long negotiations, the compact known as the Religious Peace of Augsburg was concluded. This pact contained the following provisions in its twenty-two paragraphs:
By this peace the religiousschism in theGerman Empire was definitively established; henceforth theCatholic andProtestant estates are opposing camps. Almost allGermany, from theNetherlands frontier in the west to the Polish frontier in the east, the territory of theTeutonic Order inPrussia, CentralGermany with the exception of the greater part of the western portion, and (in SouthGermany) Wurtemburg, Ansbach, Pfalz-Zweibrucken, and other small domains, with numerous free cities, had espoused theLutheran. Moreover, in the south and southeast, which remained prevailinglyCatholic, it found more or less numerous supporters.Calvinism also spread fairly widely.
But the Peace of Augsburg failed to secure the harmony hoped for. In defiance of its express provisions, A series ofecclesiastical principalities (2 archbishoprics, 12bishoprics, and numerousabbeys) were reformed andsecularized before the beginning of the seventeenth century. The Catholic League was formed for the protection ofCatholic interests, and to offset the Protestant Union. TheThirty Years' War soon followed, a struggle most ominous forGermany, since it surrendered the country to its enemies from the west and north, and destroyed the power,wealth, and influence of theGerman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia, concluded in 1648 withFrance at Munster and withSweden atOsnabrück, confirmed definitely the status of religiousschism inGermany, placed both theCalvinists and the Reformed on the same footing as theLutherans, and granted the estatesimmediately subject to the emperor theright of introducing the Reformation. Henceforth territorial sovereigns could compel their subjects to adopt a given religion, subject to the recognition of the independence of those who in 1624 enjoyed theright to hold their own religious services. State Absolutism in religious matters had now attained its highest development inGermany.
In GermanSwitzerland a similar course was pursued. AfterZurich had accepted and forcibly introduced the Reformation, Basle followed its example. In BasleJohn Œcolampadius and Wolfgang Capito associated themselves withZwingli, spread his teaching, and won a victory for the newfaith. TheCatholic members of the Great Council were expelled. Similar results followed in Appenzell Outer Rhodes, Schaffhausen, and Glarus. After long hesitation, the Reformation was accepted also atBerne, where anapostateCarthusian, Franz Kolb, with Johann and Berthold Haller, preachedZwinglianism;all the monasteries were suppressed, and greatviolence was exercised to forceZwinglianism upon the people of the territory.St. Gall, where Joachim Vadianus preached, and a great portion of Graubunden also adopted the innovations. Throughout the empireZwinglianism was a strong rival ofLutheranism, and aviolent conflict between the two confessions began, despite constant negotiations for union. Attempts were not wanting inSwitzerland to terminate the unhappy religious division. In May, 1526, a great religious disputation was held atBaden, theCatholics being represented byEck,Johann Faber, andMurner, and the Reformed byŒcolampadius and Berthold Haller. The result was favourable to theCatholics; most of the representatives of the estates present declared against the Reformation, and writings ofLuther andZwingli were prohibited. This aroused the opposition of the Reformed estates. In 1527Zurich formed an alliance withConstance; Basle, Bern, and other Reformed estates joined the Confederacy in 1528. In self-defence theCatholic estates formed an alliance in 1529 for the protection of thetruefaith within their territories. In the resultingwar theCatholic estates gained a victory at Kappel, andZwingli was slain on the battlefield.Zurich andBerne were granted peace on condition that no place should disturb another on account of religion, and thatCatholic services might be freely held in the common territories. TheCatholicFaith was restored in certain districts of Glarus and Appenzell; theAbbey of St. Gall was restored to theabbot, though the town remained Reformed. InZurich, Basle,Berne, and Schaffhausen, however, theCatholics were unable to secure theirrights. TheSwiss Reformers soon composed formal statements of theirbeliefs; especially noteworthy were the First Helvetic Confession (Confessio Helvetica I), composed by Bullinger, Myconius, Grynaeus, and others (1536), and the Second Confession composed by Bullinger in 1564 (Confessio Helvetica II); the latter was adopted in most Reformed territories of theZwinglian type.
TheLutheran Reformation found an early entrance intoDenmark,Norway (then united toDenmark), andSweden. Its introduction was primarily due to royal influence. King Christian II ofDenmark (1513-23) welcomed the Reformation as a means of weakening the nobility and especially theclergy (who possessed extensiveproperty) and thereby extending the power of the throne. His first attempt to spread the teaching ofMaster Martin Luther in 1520 met with little success: the barons andprelates soon deposed him for tyranny, and in his place elected his uncle Duke Frederick of Schleswig and Holstein. The latter, who was a secret follower ofLutheranism, deceived thebishops and nobility, andswore at hiscoronation in 1523 to maintain theCatholic Religion. Seated on the throne, however, he favoured the Reformers, especially the preacher Hans Tausen. At the Diet of Odensee in 1527 he granted freedom of religion to the Reformers, permitted theclergy tomarry, and reserved to the king the confirmation of 11 episcopal appointments.Lutheranism was spread byviolent means, and the faithful adherents of theCatholic religion were oppressed. His son, Christian III who had already "reformed" Holstein, threw intoprison theDanishbishops who protested against his succession, and courted the support of the barons. With the exception of Bishop Ronow of Roskilde, who died inprison (1544), all thebishops agreed to resign and to refrain from opposing the newdoctrine, whereupon they were set at liberty and theirproperty was restored to them. All thepriests who opposed the Reformation were expelled, themonasteries suppressed, and the Reformation introduced everywhere by force. In 1537Luther's companion Johann Bugenhagen (Pomeranus) was summoned fromWittenberg toDenmark to establish the Reformation in accordance with theideas ofLuther. At the Diet of Copenhagen in 1546 the lastrights of theCatholics were withdrawn;right of inheritance and eligibility for any office were denied them, andCatholicpriests were forbidden to reside in the country underpenalty of death.
InNorway Archbishop Olaus ofTrondhjemapostatized toLutheranism, but was compelled to leave the country, as a supporter of the deposed king, Christian II. With the aid of theDanish nobility Christian III introduced the Reformation intoNorway by force.Iceland resisted longer royal absolutism and the religious innovations. The unflinchingBishop of Holum, Jon Arason, was beheaded, and the Reformation spread rapidly after 1551. Some externals of theCatholic period were retained — the title ofbishop and to some extent theliturgical vestments and forms of worship.
IntoSweden also the Reformation was introduced for political reasons by the secular ruler. Gustavus Vasa, who had been given to Christian II ofDenmark in 1520 as a hostage and had escaped to Lubeck, there became acquainted with theLutheran teaching and recognized the services it could render him. Returning toSweden, he became the first imperial chancellor, and, after being elected king on the deposition of Christian II inDenmark, attempted to convertSweden into a hereditary monarchy, but had to yield to the opposition of theclergy and nobility. The Reformation helped him to attain his desire, although its introduction was difficult on account of the great fidelity of the people to theCatholicFaith. He appointed to high positions twoSwedes, the brothers Olaf and Lorenz Peterson, who had studied atWittenberg and had acceptedLuther's teaching; one was appointed courtchaplain atStockholm and the other professor at Upsala. Both laboured in secret for the spread ofLutheranism, and won many adherents, including thearchdeacon Lorenz Anderson, whom the king thereupon named his chancellor. In his dealings withPope Adrian VI and hislegates the king simulated the greatest fidelity to theChurch, while he was giving ever-increased support to religious innovations. TheDominicans, who offered a strong opposition to his designs, were banished from the kingdom, and thebishops who resisted were subjected to all kinds of oppression. After a religious disputation at theUniversity of Upsala the king assigned the victory to Olaf Peterson and proceeded toLutheranize theuniversity, to confiscateecclesiastical property, and to employ every means to compel theclergy to accept the newdoctrine. A popular rebellion gave him an opportunity of accusing theCatholicbishops of high treason, and in 1527 theArchbishop ofUpsala and theBishop of Westraes were executed. Manyecclesiastics acceded to the wishes of the king; others resisted and had to endureviolentpersecution, an heroic resistance being offered by thenuns of Wadstena. After the Diet of Westraes in 1527 great concessions were made to the king throughfear of fresh subjection to theDanes, especially theright of confiscatingchurch property, ofecclesiastical appointments and removals, etc. Some of the nobles were soon won over to the king's side, when it was made optional to take back all the goods donated to theChurch by one's ancestors sine 1453.Clerical celibacy was abolished, and the vernacular introduced into Divine service. The king constituted himself supreme authority in religious matters, and severed the country fromCatholic unity. The Synod of Orebro (1529) completed the Reformation, although most of the externalrites, theimages in the churches, theliturgicalvestments, and the titles ofarchbishop andbishop were retained. Later (1544) Gustavus Vasa made the title to the throne hereditary in hisfamily. The numerous risings directed against him and his innovations were put down with bloodyviolence. At a later period arose other great religious contests, likewise of a political character.
Calvinism also spread to some extent, and Eric XIV (1560-68) endeavoured to promote it. He was, however, dethroned by the nobility for his tyranny, and his brother John III (1568-92) named king. The latter restored theCatholicFaith and tried to restore the land to the unity of theChurch. But on the death of his first wife, thezealousCatholic Princess Katherina, his ardour declined in the face of numerous difficulties, and his second wife favouredLutheranism. On John's death his son Sigismund, already King ofPoland and thoroughlyCatholic in sentiment, became King ofSweden. However, his uncle Duke Charles, the chancellor of the kingdom, gave energetic support to the Reformation, and the Augsburg Confession was introduced at theNational Synod of Upsala in 1593. Against the chancellor and theSwedish nobility Sigismund found himself powerless; finally (1600) he was deposed as anapostate from the "truedoctrine", and Charles was appointed king. Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32), Charles' son, used the Reformation to increase the power ofSweden by his campaigns. The Reformation was then successfully enforced throughoutSweden.
In certainhumanistic circles inFrance there originated at an early date a movement favourable to the Reformation. The centre of this movement was Meaux, where Bishop Guillaume Briconnet favoured thehumanistic andmysticideas, and whereProfessor Lefèvre d'Etaples, W. Farel, and J. de Clerc,humanists withLutheran tendencies, taught. However, the Court, theuniversity, and the Parlement opposed the religious innovations, and theLutheran community of Meaux was dissolved. More important centres of the Reformation were found in the South, where theWaldensians had prepared the soil. Here public riots occurred during which images ofChrist and thesaints were destroyed. The parlements in most cases took energetic measures against the innovators, although in certain quarters the latter found protectors — especially Margaret of Valois, sister ofKing Francis I and wife of Henry d'Albret, King ofNavarre. The leaders of the Reformation inGermany sought to win overKing Francis I, for political reasons an ally of theProtestant German princes; the king, however, remained true to theChurch, and suppressed the reform movements throughout his land. In the southeast districts, especially in Provence and Dauphine, the supporters of the new doctrines increased through the efforts of Reformers fromSwitzerland andStrasburg, until finally thedesecration and plundering of churches compelled the king to take energetic steps against them. AfterCalvinism had established itself inGeneva, its influence grew rapidly in French reform circles.Calvin appeared atParis as defender of the new religious movement in 1533, dedicated to the French king in 1536 his "Institutiones Christianae Religionis", and went toGeneva in the same year. Expelled fromGeneva, he returned in 1541, and began there the final establishment of his religious organization.Geneva, with its academy inaugurated byCalvin, was a leading centre of the Reformation and affected principallyFrance. Pierre le Clerc established the firstCalvinistic community atParis; other communities were established atLyons,Orléans,Angers, andRouen, repressive measures proving of little avail. Bishop Jacques Spifamius ofNevers lapsed intoCalvinism, and in 1559Paris witnessed the assembly of a general synod ofFrench Reformers, which adopted aCalvinisticcreed and introduced theSwiss presbyteral constitution for the Reformed communities. Owing to the support of theWaldensians, to the dissemination of reform literature fromGeneva, Basle, andStrasburg, and to the steady influx of preachers from these cities, the adherents of the Reformation increased inFrance. On the death of King Henry II (1559) theCalvinist Huguenots wished to take advantage of the weakness of the government to increase their power. The queen-dowager,Catherine de Medici, was an ambitious intriguer, and pursued a time-serving policy. Political aspirations soon became entangled with the religious movement, which thereby assumed wider proportions and a greater importance. From opposition to the ruling line and to the powerful andzealouslyCatholic dukes ofGuise, the princes of the Bourbon line became the protectors of theCalvinists; these were Antoine* de Vendôme, King ofNavarre, and his brothers, especially Louis de Condé. They were joined by the Constable de Montmorency, Admiral Coligny and his brother d'Andelot, and Cardinal Odet de Châtillon,Bishop ofBeauvais.
In spite of anti-hereticallawsCalvinism was making steady progress in the South ofFrance, when on 17 January, 1562, thequeen-dowager, regent for the young Charles IX, issued an edict oftoleration, allowing theHuguenots the free practice of their religion outside the towns and without weapons, but forbidding all interference with and acts ofviolence againstCatholic institutions, and ordering therestitution of all churches and allecclesiastical property taken from theCatholics. Rendered thereby only more audacious, theCalvinists committed, especially in the South, revolting acts ofviolence against theCatholics, putting to deathCatholicpriests even in the suburbs ofParis. The occurrence at Vassy in Champagne on 1 March, 1562, where the retinue of theDuke of Guise came into conflict with theHuguenots, inaugurated the first religious and civilwar inFrance. Although this ended with the defeat of theHuguenots, it occasioned great losses to theCatholics ofFrance.Relics of saints were burned and scattered, magnificent churches reduced to ashes, and numerouspriestsmurdered. The Edict of Amboise granted new favours to theCalvinistic nobles, although the earlier edict oftolerance was withdrawn. Five other civilwars followed, during which occurred themassacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (24 August, 1572). It was not until the line of Valois had become extinct with Henry III (1589), andHenry of Navarre (who embracedCatholicism in 1593) of the Bourbon line had ascended the throne, that the religiouswars were brought to an end by the Edict of Nantes (13 April, 1598); this granted theCalvinists not only full religious freedom and admission to all public offices, but even a privileged position in the State. Ever-increasing difficulties of a political nature arose, andCardinal Richelieu aimed at ending the influential position of theHuguenots. The capture of their chief fortress,La Rochelle (28 October, 1628), finally broke the power of theFrench Calvinists as a political entity. Later, many of their number returned toCatholicism, although there still remained numerous adherents ofCalvinism inFrance.
While in both these lands there appeared isolated supporters of the Reformation, no strong or extensive organization arose. Here and there inItaly influentialindividuals (e.g.Vittoria Colonna and her circle) favoured the reform movement, but they desired such to occur within, not as a rebellion against theChurch. A fewItalians embracedLutheranism orCalvinism, e.g. John Valdez, secretary of the Viceroy ofNaples. In the cities ofTurin,Pavia,Venice,Ferrara (where Duchess Renata favoured the Reformation), and Florence might be found adherents of the German andSwiss Reformers, although not so extreme as their prototypes. The more prominent had to leave the country — thusPietro Paolo Vergerio, who fled toSwitzerland and thence toWittenberg; Bernardino Ochino, who fled toGeneva and was later professor atOxford; Petrus Martyr Vermigli, who fled toZurich, and was subsequently active atOxford,Strasburg, and again atZurich. By the vigorous inauguration oftrueecclesiastical reform in the spirit of theCouncil of Trent, through the activity of numeroussaintly men (such asSt. Charles Borromeo and Philip Neri), through the vigilance of thebishops and the diligence of theInquisition, the Reformation was excluded fromItaly. In some circlesrationalistic and anti-trinitarian tendencies showed themselves, andItaly was the birthplace of the two heresiarchs, Laelius Socinus and his nephew Faustus Socinus, the founders ofSocinianism.
The course of events was the same inSpain as inItaly. Despite some attempts to disseminate anti-ecclesiastical writings in the country, the Reformation won no success, thanks to thezeal displayed by theecclesiastical and public authorities in counter-acting its efforts. The fewSpaniards who accepted the new doctrines were unable to develop any reforming activity at home, and lived abroad—e.g. Francisco Enzinas (Dryander), who made a translation of theBible forSpaniards, Juan Diaz, Gonsalvo Montano, Miguel Servede (Servetus), who was condemned byCalvin atGeneva for hisdoctrine against theTrinity and burnt at the stake.
The Reformation was spread inHungary byHungarians who had studied atWittenberg and had there embracedLutheranism. In 1525 stringentlaws were passed against the adherents of theheretical doctrines, but their numbers continued to increase, especially among the nobility, who wished to confiscate theecclesiastical property, and in the free cities of the kingdom.Turkish victories and conquest and thewar between Ferdinand of Austria and John Zapolya favoured thereformers. In addition to theLutherans there were soon followers ofZwingli andCalvin in the country. FiveLutheran towns in UpperHungary accepted the Augsburg Confession.Calvinism, however, gradually won the upper hand, although the domestic disputes between the reformingsects by no means ceased. InTransylvania merchants from Hermannstadt, who had become acquainted withLuther's heresy atLeipzig, spread the Reformation after 1521. Notwithstanding thepersecution of the Reformers, aLutheranschool was started at Hermannstadt, and the nobility endeavoured to use the Reformation as a means of confiscating theproperty of theclergy. In 1529 the regular orders and the most vigorous champions of theChurch were driven from the town. At Kronstadt theLutheran preacher Johann Honter gained the ascendency in 1534, the Mass being abolished andDivine service organized after theLutheran model. At asynod held in 1544 theSaxon nation inTransylvania decided in favour of the Augsburg Confession, while the rural Magyars acceptedCalvinism. At the Diet of Klausenburg in 1556 general religious freedom was granted and theecclesiastical property confiscated for the defence of the country and the erection ofLutheranschools. Among the supporters of the Reformation far-reaching divisions prevailed. Besides theLutherans, there wereUnitarians (Socinians) andAnabaptists, and each of thesesects wagedwar against the others. ACatholic minority survived among the Greek Walachians.
Poles learned of the Reformation through some young students fromWittenberg and through theBohemian andMoravian Brethren.Archbishop Laski ofGnesen and King Sigismund I (1501-48) energetically opposed the spread ofheretical doctrines. However, the supporters of the Reformation succeeded in winning recruits at theUniversity of Cracow, at Posen, and at Dantzig. From Dantzig the Reformation spread to Thorn and Elbing, and certain nobles favoured the new doctrines. Under the rule of the weak Sigismund II (1548-72) there were inPoland, besides theLutherans and theBohemian Brethren,Zwinglians,Calvinists, andSocinians. Prince Radziwill andJohn Laski favouredCalvinism, and theBible was translated into Polish in accordance with the views of this party in 1563. Despite the efforts of thepapal nuncio,Aloisius Lippomano (1556-58) free practice of religion was secretly granted in the aforementioned three cities, and the nobility were allowed to hold private religious services in their houses. The different Reformedsects fought among one another, the formula offaith introduced at the General Synod of Sandomir in 1570 by the Reformed, theLutherans, and theBohemian Brethren producing no unity. In 1573 theheretical parties secured the religious peace ofWarsaw, which granted equalrights toCatholics and "Dissidents", and established permanent peace between the two sections. By thezealous inauguration oftrueecclesiastical reform, the diligent activity of thepapal legates and ablebishops, and the labours of theJesuits, further progress of the Reformation was prevented.
In Livonia and Courland, the territories of theTeutonic Order, the course of the Reformation was the same as in the other territory of the Order,Prussia. Commander Gotthard Kettler of Courland embraced the Augsburg Confession, and converted the land into a secular hereditary duchy, tributary toPoland. In Livonia Commander Walter of Plettenberg strove to fosterLutheranism, which had been accepted at Riga, Dorpat, and Reval since 1523, hoping thus to make himself independent of theArchbishop of Riga. When Margrave William of Brandenburg becameArchbishop of Riga in 1539,Lutheranism rapidly obtained exclusive sway in Livonia.
During the reign ofCharles V the seventeen provinces of theNetherlands remained fairly immune from the infection of the newdoctrine. Several followers ofLuther had indeed appeared there, and endeavoured to disseminate theLutheran writings and doctrines.Charles V, however, issued strict edicts against theLutherans and against the printing and spreading of the writings of the Reformer. The excesses of theAnabaptists evoked the forcible suppression of their movement, and until 1555 the Reformation found little root in the country. In this yearCharles V granted theNetherlands to his sonPhilip II, who resided in the country until 1559. During this periodCalvinism made rapid strides, especially in the northern provinces. Many of the great nobles and the much impoverished lower nobility used the Reformation to incite the liberty-loving people against the king's administration, the Spanish officials and troops, and the strictness of the government. Disaffection continued to increase, owing chiefly to the severe ordinances of theDuke of Alva and the bloodypersecution conducted by him. William of Orange-Nassau, governor of the Province ofHolland, aimed for political reasons at securing the victory forCalvinism, and succeeded in several of the northern districts. He then placed himself at the head of the rebellion against the Spanish rule. In the ensuingwar the northern provinces (Niederlande) asserted their independence, whereuponCalvinism gained in them the ascendancy. In 1581 every public exercise of theCatholicFaith was forbidden. The "Belgian Confession" of 1562 had already aCalvinistic foundation; by thesynods of Dordrecht in 1574 and 1618Calvinism received a fixed form. TheCatholics of the country (about two-fifths of the population) were subjected toviolent suppression. Among theCalvinists ofHollandviolent conflicts arose concerning thedoctrine ofpredestination.
The Reformation received its final form inEngland during the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603). On the basis of theliturgy established in the"Book of Common Prayer" under Edward VI (1547-53) and the confession of Forty-two Articles composed by Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley in 1552, and afterQueen Mary (1553-58) had failed to restore her country to union withRome and theCatholicFaith, the ascendancy ofAnglicanism was established inEngland by Elizabeth. The Forty-two Articles were revised, and, as the Thirty-nine Articles of theAnglican Church, became in 1562 the norm of its religiouscreed. Theecclesiastical supremacy of the queen was recognized, anoath to this effect (Oath of Supremacy) being required under penalty of removal from office and loss ofproperty. Severalprelates and theuniversities offered resistance, which was overcome by force. The majority of the lowerclergy took theoath, which was demanded with ever-increasing severity from all members of the House of Commons, allecclesiastics, barristers, and teachers. In externals much of the oldCatholic form of worship was retained. After the failure of the movement in favour ofMary Stuart of Scotland, who had fled toEngland in 1568, the oppression of theEnglishCatholics was continued with increasingviolence. Besides theAnglican Established Church there were inEngland theCalvinisticNonconformists, who opposed a presbyterian popular organization to the episcopalhierarchy; like theCatholics, they were much oppressed by the rulers ofEngland.
InScotland the social and political situation gave a great impetus to the Reformation, aided by theignorance and rudeness of theclergy (to a great extent the result of the constant feuds). The nobility used the Reformation as a weapon in theirwar against the royal house, which was supported by the higherclergy. Already under James V (1524-42) supporters of theLutheran doctrines e.g. Patrick Hamilton, Henry Forest, and Alexander Seton, the king's confessor, came forward as Reformers. The first two were executed, while the last fled to the Continent. However, theheretical doctrines continued to find fresh adherents. On the death of James V his daughter and heiress was only eight days old. The office of regent fell to James Hamilton, who, though previously ofProtestant sentiments, returned to theCatholicChurch and supportedArchbishop David Beaton in his energetic measures against the innovators. After theexecution of the Reformer George Wishart, theProtestants formed a conspiracy against thearchbishop, attacked him in his castle in 1545, and put him to death. The rebels (among themJohn Knox), joined by 140 nobles, then fortified themselves in the castle.Knox went toGeneva in 1546, there embracedCalvinism, and from 1555 was the leader of the Reformation inScotland, where it won the ascendancy in the form ofCalvinism. The political confusion prevailing inScotland from the death of James V facilitated the introduction of the Reformation.
The fundamental forms of the Reformation wereLutheranism,Zwinglianism,Calvinism, andAnglicanism. Within each of these branches, however, conflicts arose in consequence of the diverse views of individual representatives. By negotiations, compromises, and formulae of union it was sought, usually without lasting success, to establish unity. The whole Reformation, resting onhuman authority, presented from the beginning, in the face ofCatholic unity offaith, an aspect of dreary dissension. Besides these chief branches appeared numerous other forms, which deviated from them in essential points, and gradually rise to the countless divisions ofProtestantism. The chief of these forms may be shortly reviewed.
Besides these best-known secondary branches of the Reformation movement, there are many differentdenominations; for from the Reformation the evolution of new forms has always proceeded, and must always proceed, inasmuch as subjective arbitrariness was made a principle by theheretical teaching of the sixteenth century.
The Reformation destroyed the unity offaith andecclesiastical organization of theChristian peoples ofEurope, cut many millions off from thetrueCatholicChurch, and robbed them of the greatest portion of the salutary means for the cultivation and maintenance of thesupernatural life. Incalculable harm was thereby wrought from the religious standpoint. Thefalse fundamentaldoctrine ofjustification byfaith alone, taught by the Reformers, produced a lamentable shallowness inreligious life.Zeal for goodworks disappeared, theasceticism which theChurch had practised from her foundation was despised,charitable andecclesiastical objects were no longer properly cultivated,supernatural interests fell into the background, and naturalistic aspirations aiming at the purely mundane, became widespread. The denial of the Divinely instituted authority of theChurch, both as regardsdoctrine andecclesiastical government, opened wide the door to every eccentricity, gave rise to the endless division intosects and the never-ending disputes characteristic ofProtestantism, and could not but lead to the complete unbelief which necessarily arises from theProtestant principles. Of real freedom ofbelief among the Reformers of the sixteenth century there was not a trace; on the contrary, the greatest tyranny in matters ofconscience was displayed by the representatives of the Reformation. The most baneful Caesaropapism was meanwhile fostered, since the Reformation recognized thesecular authorities as supreme also in religious matters. Thus arose from the very beginning the variousProtestant "national Churches", which are entirely discordant with theChristian universalism of theCatholicChurch, and depend, alike for theirfaith and organization, on the will of the secular ruler. In this way the Reformation was a chief factor in the evolution of royal absolutism. In every land in which it found ingress, the Reformation was thecause of indescribable suffering among the people; it occasioned civilwars which lasted decades with all their horrors and devastations; the people were oppressed and enslaved; countless treasures of art and pricelessmanuscripts were destroyed; between members of the same land and race the seed of discord was sown.Germany in particular, the original home of the Reformation, was reduced to a state of piteous distress by theThirty Years' War, and theGerman Empire was thereby dislodged from the leading position which it had for centuries occupied inEurope. Only gradually, and owing to forces which did not essentially spring from the Reformation, but were conditioned by other historical factors, did the social wounds heal, but the religious corrosion still continues despite the earnest religious sentiments which have at all times characterized many individual followers of the Reformation.
APA citation.Kirsch, J.P.(1911).The Reformation. InThe Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12700b.htm
MLA citation.Kirsch, Johann Peter."The Reformation."The Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 12.New York: Robert Appleton Company,1911.<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12700b.htm>.
Transcription.This article was transcribed for New Advent by Marie Jutras.
Ecclesiastical approbation.Nihil Obstat. June 1, 1911. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor.Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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