Archdiocese of Milan

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(MEDIOLANENSIS)

Located inLombardy, northernItaly. The city is situated on the Orona River, which, with three canals, the Naviglio Grande (1257-72), the Naviglio Martesana (1457), and the Naviglio di Pavia (1805-19), is the highway of the commerce of this great industrial centre, called the moral capital ofItaly. The soil is very fertile and there is extensive cattle-raising and manufacturing throughout the province. The name of Milan is probably derived from the Celticmet lan, which means "in the middle of the plain". The city was founded in 396 by the Insubres, on the site of the ruined Melpum, and became the chief centre of the Cisalpine Gauls. After the defeat of the Gauls near Clastidium, Mediolanum was taken by the consul Lucius Scipio (221) and became a Romanmunicipium. In 45B. C. it obtained Roman citizenship, and under the emperors it had famousschools and was a flourishing city, the Emperor Adrian having made it the seat of theprœfectus Liguriœ and Constantine, of thevicarius Italiœ. After 296 it was several times the capital of the emperors of the West (Maximian Herculius, Valentinian I, his son Honorius, and later, of Ricimer and of Odoacer). The edict of toleration of Constantine and Licinius (313) was agreed on and published at Milan. In 452 the town was besieged byAttila, and in 538 destroyed by Uraia, a nephew of Vitiges, King of theGoths, with a loss, according to Procopius, of 300,000 men. Perchance for this reason the Lombard kings did not thereafter select Milan for their capital, though Bertarius did so during the brief division of the kingdom between the sons of Gundobad (661). AfterCharlemagne, Milan was the seat of counts, whose authority however, was overshadowed by the prestige of thearchbishops, foremost among whom was Ansperto da Biassono (869-81), who fortified the town and adorned it with beautiful buildings. In 896-97 it endured a severe Siege by the Hungarians, and a century laterOtto II transferred the title of count to thearchbishops. The most distinguished of these was Ariberto (1018-45), who induced Conrad II to take the crown ofItaly. With the assistance of the people he madewar on Pavia and Lodi (1027), on which account he incurred the enmity of the greaterfeudal lords whom he exiled, but who, leagued together, defeated thearchbishop at Campo Malo (1035), and returning to the city, called Conrad to their assistance; the latter, however, besieged Milan in vain (1037). Though the struggle continued, a noble, Lanzano, and no longer Ariberto, headed the popular party. Finally, nobles and burghers entered into compacts, and this intermingling of the classes brought the commune into existence. At the same time studies, the industries (especially wool), and commerce flourished.

As the power of the burghers grew, that of thearchbishops waned, and with it the imperial authority which theprelate represented, so that Milan in 1110, refused to pay tribute to Henry V, who had come intoItaly. In 1116 thepublic authority passed entirely into the hands of consuls elected by the people. Milan madewar on cities faithful to the empire: Pavia,Cremona, Lodi (destroyed 1111), and Como (destroyed 1127).Frederick Barbarossa wished to remedy these evils, and in 1158obliged Milan to swear allegiance to him and to receive an imperial podestà. This officer was soon driven from the city, but in 1162 after a long siege, Milan was again reduced to obedience, and in part destroyed. The battle of Legnano (1176) secured theirrights to the Lombard cities, and to Milan its consular government; but on many occasions the authority of a foreign podestà was substituted for the native consuls. The long period of peace was favourable to agriculture (greatly furthered by theCistercians), also to the wool and the silk industries, in the former of which, throughout Milanese territory, 60,000 men were employed, while the silk industry supported 40,000persons. The struggle against the empire was renewed underFrederick II, who ignored therights won at the peace of Constance. A second Lombard League was formed, which Frederick defeated at Cortenuova, though he did not succeed in his ulterior purpose. Thereafter Milan entered into furtherwars withGhibelline cities, especially with Pavia. The nobility remained favourable to Frederick and to his successors, and this caused internal strife in Milan, and the creation of a new office, that ofcapitano del popolo. The first to hold it was Pagano della Torre, elected in 1240 by theCredenza di San Ambrogio, the executive branch of the city government, composed of twelve members representative of the three orders of citizens. The legislative power was exercised by the General Council, the number of whose members was variable. Thecapitano del popolo washated by the nobles, and when Pagano della Torre was succeeded (1247) by his nephew Martino, under the title ofanziano della Credensa, the nobility sought the assistance of Ezzelino da Romano; but Martino overcame the resistance of the nobles, and also defeated Ezzelino, introduced reforms into the public administration, and distributed the public offices with equity. A new civilwar was prevented by the "peace of St. Ambrose" (1258), at which the equality of nobles and people was agreed on. As conflicts continued, Martino called to his assistance Oberto Pelavicino, a well-known soldier with whose help Martino had finally vanquished Ezzelinoda Romano. In 1263 Filippo, brother of Martino, was real lord of Milan, though he carefully avoided any such title, and as other cities — Como,Lodi,Novara,Vercelli, also La Valtellina, were subject to Milan, he may be called the founder of the duchy. His nephew Napoleone, under the title ofanziano del popolo, exercised supreme power (1265-77), and in his later years was imperial vicar forItaly, notwithstanding the fact that he was aGuelph. Thearchbishop Ottone Visconti, who since 1262 had been prevented from taking possession of hissee, organized the nobles exiled from Milan, and after several battles, succeeded in capturing Napoleone and his relatives, whom he locked up in cages atComo.

Thearchbishop then caused himself to be proclaimed perpetual lord, thus putting an end to the Republic of Milan and founding the power of the Visconti, which aimed at the conquest of the entire peninsula, though its real domain was limited by the Alps, the river Sesia, and the Po, while the east extended as far asBrescia, conquered in 1337. From 1302 to 1311, the della Torre were again in power, Guido of thatfamily having driven Matteo I Visconti. from Milan. When the latter returned, he was made imperial vicar by Henry VII, and devoted himself to driving the leaders of theGuelph party from the Lombard cities, On this accountJohn XXII declaredwar, and sent Cardinal Bertrand du Poyet against Matteo. Galeazzo, Matteo's son, continued thewar against thelegate and theGuelphs, and adhered to the party of Louis ofBavaria. His son Azzo (1329-59) contributed to the ruin of the Scaligers, obtainedBrescia, and was succeeded by his sons Luchino (1339-49), famous for the refinement of his cruelty, and Giovanni II (1349-54),Archbishop of Milan, who obtained possession ofGenoa and Bologna, though unable to hold either of these towns, or the cities ofAsti,Parma, and Alexandria. At the death of Giovanni, Milan was divided between three brothers, his nephews: Matteo II, who died in 1355; Galeazzo II (1354-78), and Bernabò (1354-85) all patrons of literature and of the arts, but odious through their cruelty, misgovernment, and exorbitant taxes. Accordingly, a strong league was formed against them in 1367, byPope Urban V, Charles IV, the towns of Florence,Ferrara,Mantua, and others, but it was prevented, by fortuitous circumstances, from destroying the power of the Visconti. Galeazzo was succeeded by his son Giovanni Galeazzo, who was forced intowar, with his uncle Bernabò, and having taken him in ambush, cast him intoprison, where he died in 1385. The state of the Visconti was thus united again and in 1395, Giovanni Galeazzo received the title of duke. In 1387 he had conqueredVerona andVicenza. During his reign the duchy of Milan was at the height of its power, and contained the following cities: Pavia,Bergamo,Brescia,Cremona,Como,Novara,Vercelli, Alexandria, Valenza,Tortona,Piacenza,Parma,Reggio,Verona,Vicenza, Belluno,Pisa,Siena, andPerugia. Giovanni Galeazzo was eminent, both forgood andevil; theCarthusianmonastery of Pavia is a witness of his religious sentiments and of his taste for the arts. He died in 1402, leaving two Sons, minors, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria. During their minority, many conquered possessions were lost; but, Giovanni Maria having been assassinated in 1412, Filippo Maria remained sole duke, and with the assistance of Carmagnola, retook a great portion of the lost territory. The offensive proceeding of Filippo Maria caused the house of Este, the Gonzagas, andVenice to form a league against him, which led to a longwar; in the course of it, several famous battles were fought, among them that of Maclodio (1427), by which the Duke of Milan lost Bergamo andBrescia, and the naval battle of Portofino (1431) disastrous to theGenoese allies of Milan. The peace concluded in 1433 was favourable toVenice; but thewar broke out again, and continued until the death of Filippo Maria, in 1447, when the Ambrosian Republic was proclaimed (1447-50).

For military reasons, Francesco Sforza was madecapitano del popolo, and succeeded in taking possession of the fortress and in having himself recognized duke (1450). This event led to a newwar withVenice and the King ofNaples, closed by the peace ofLodi in 1454. Francesco was succeeded in 1466 by his son Galeazzo Maria, who,hated by his subjects, was stabbed to death in 1476. His son Giovanni Galeazzo had as regent, first his own mother, and then (1480), his ambitious uncle Ludovico il Moro, who succeeded his nephew, at the latter's death in 1494. Louis XII, who pretended torights over Milan, entered into a compact withVenice for the division of the duchy. Ludovico il Moro attempted to resist them, but was constrained to seek refuge inGermany, and Milan came under the power of the French. In 1500, Duke Ludovico returned to his dominions for a time, but other French troops were sent against him, and he died aprisoner inFrance. The expulsion of the French fromItaly ensued upon the death of Gaston de Foix, the victor ofRavenna (1512), and Milan was given to Maximilian Sforza, a son of Ludovico il Moro, although theSpaniards were its real masters. After the battle of Marignano, Maximilian surrendered Milan at the end of a brief siege, and remained aprisoner. The French had been definitively excluded from the peninsula by the battle of Pavia when Francis II, a brother of Maximilian, became duke, and at his deathCharles V took the Duchy of Milan for himself, and bequeathed it to his successors on the Spanish throne. The peace ofUtrecht (1713) gave Milan toAustria, which power had occupied the duchy since 1706. During thewar of the Austrian succession,Austria's dominion over Milan was interrupted for a time (1745), andFrance even offered the duchy toSavoy. UnderMaria Theresa andJoseph II much was done for the prosperity of the Milanese, and civil andecclesiastical reforms were also introduced. In 1796 Milan became the capital of the Cispadan Republic, soon transformed into the Cisalpine Republic, and (1805) into theKingdom of Italy; the Cispadan Republic was supported entirely by French arms, which checked byAustria (1799), returned victorious, after Marengo. In 1814 the Austrian domination was re-established, and lasted until 1859. Encouraged by the revolution ofVienna in 1848, Milan revolted, in an effort to throw off the foreign yoke; and the five days (18 to 22 March of that year) remain famous; a provisional committee was formed and the Austrians were compelled to retreat; but the consequentwar,Piedmont having taken up the cause ofItaly, was disastrous to the insurgents; and Milan (withLombardy) again became subject toAustria. Thewar of 1859, however, decided the final annexation ofLombardy to theKingdom of Italy.

Milan is anarchiepiscopal see. According to an eleventh-century legend the Gospel was brought there by St. Barnabas, and the firstBishop of Milan, St. Anathalon, was a disciple of that apostle. But adiocese cannot have been established there before 200, and possibly not till much later, for the list of thebishops of Milan names only five predecessors of Merocles, who was at the Council ofRome (313). During the persecutions severalChristians sufferedmartyrdom at Milan; among themSaints Gervasius and Protasius (firstpersecution ofDiocletian), St. Victor (304),Sts. Nabor and Felix, andSts. Nazarius and Celsus. Among itsbishops should be named St. Eustorgius, St. Protasius, and St. Dionysius, who firmly opposed theArian emperor Constantius, and was exiled to Cappadocia (355), while theArian Auxentius was put on the episcopal throne of Milan. But the people remained faithful to theCatholic religion. At the death of St. Dionysius, the great St. Ambrose was electedbishop (375-97), vanquishedpaganism andArianism, and was the guide of those good princes Gratian,Valentinian II, andTheodosius. He was succeeded by St. Simplicianus (397), and Venerius (400); Lazarus (438-49) appears to have amplified the Ambrosian rite of Milan; Laurentius (490-512) presided over the Roman councils in the cause of Pope Symmachus; St. Datius (530-52), lived almost always in exile at Constantinople, on account of the Gothic War; Vitalis (552) adhered to theschism caused by the"Three Chapters", but Auxanus (556) re-established the union of thediocese withRome. Honoratus (568) sought refuge inGenoa, with a great number of hisclergy, during the siege of Milan by the Lombard Alboin, and at his death the Milanese atGenoa elected to succeed him Laurentius II, while Fronto (elected at Milan) was not recognized. When Laurentius died, King Agilulfus wished to secure the election of anArianbishop, in which, however, he was thwarted by the vigilance ofSt. Gregory the Great, and both atGenoa and at Milan, Constantius was elected to the vacant see; under him, thecathedral of Monza was erected, Agilulfusbecame aCatholic, and the conversion of the Lombards to the Faith was begun, while the episcopal residence was again taken up at Milan. The firstprelate of thisdiocese who bore the title ofarchbishop was St. Petrus (784), but it iscertain that St. Ambrose had already exercisedmetropolitanjurisdiction over northernItaly, from Bologna toTurin, and that theFrankish king Childebert gave to Bishop Laurentius II the title of Patriarch. St. Petrus established an asylum for foundlings, one of the first institutions of its kind inEurope. Mention has been made above of Ansperto da Biassono.

In 980 Landolfo, a son of the imperial vicar, Bonizo, becamearchbishop throughsimony; he was driven from the city on account of his abuse of power, but was taken back by the emperorOtto II, and repaired theevil that he had done. He was succeeded by Arnolfo II (998) and Ariberto d'Intimiano (1018), mentioned above. The latter was succeeded by Guido (1045), also asimoniac. At this time themorals of theclergy were deplorable:simony andconcubinage were common, and out of these conditions developed the famouspataria, a popular movement for social andecclesiastical reform, headed by thepriest Anselmo da Biaggio, laterBishop ofLucca, and by the cleric Arialdo, both of whom used force to compel theclergy to observe continence, and to drive its members frombenefices obtained bysimony. From this great confusion ensued. In 1059Nicholas II sent to MilanSt. Peter Damian and the same Anselmo, at which the people murmured, demanding that the church of Milan be not subject to that ofRome. Archbishop Guido, however, promised amendment, and accepted the conditions imposed upon him, but soon relapsed, and Arialdo, with whom the noble warrior Erlembaldo was associated, began again to agitate the people, in consequence of which he was brutally assassinated 27 June, 1066. Erlembaldo then gave a military organization to thepataria, and Guido, who wasexcommunicated, was compelled to leave the city. While the election, of his successor was being discussed, Guido sold thearchiepiscopal dignity to his secretary. Until 1085 there were several pretenders to thesee; and in one of the many tumults caused by this condition of affairs Erlembaldo was killed (1074). Under Anselm III order was re-established.

Unfortunately, thepataria had created an anticlerical sentiment in the people, and had prepared them to accept the doctrines ofManichæism. In fact, theCathari ofItaly were more frequently called Patari, and in Milan, one of their chief centres, they maintained a kind ofuniversity. Archbishop Oberto was exiled byBarbarossa in 1162; and though his successor St. Galdino, was elected atRome by theemigrated Milanese, he was able to take possession of hissee in 1167; he reorganized thehospital del Broglio. Archbishop Uberto Crivelli becamePope Urban III in 1185. At anarchiepiscopal election, in 1263 no agreement could be reached, for the people wanted Raimondo della Torre, and the nobles a member of thefamily of Settala; thereforeUrban IV appointed Ottone Visconti, who was prevented by the Milanese from taking possession of hissee until 1277, when he entered Milan, both asarchbishop and as lord. Roberto Visconti, who succeeded John in 1354, wasobliged to enter into litigation with his brothers for theproperty of the Church, which they regarded as the personalproperty of their uncle. Among otherarchbishops of Milan were Pietro Filargo (1402), who becameAlexander V; Fra Gabriele Sforza (1454), an Augustinian, brother of Duke Francesco and founder of theOspedale Maggiore; and the cardinals Stefano Nardini (1461), Giovanni Arcimboldi (1448), Ippolito d'Este (1497), also the latter's nephew Ippolito (1520). During the incumbency of thisprelate, always absent from hisdiocese, great abuses grew up which Giovanni Angelo Arcimboldo (1550) andSt. Charles Borromeo sought to remedy (1561). Here it is enough to mention the latter'szeal for the reformation ofmorals, his earnestness in preserving the Ambrosian Rite and extending its use throughout the archdiocese (Monza alone retaining the Roman rite), and his foundation of the Oblates fordiocesan missions. His work was continued by Gaspare Visconti (1584) and by a nephew ofSt. Charles, Federigo (1594-1631), who was acardinal, as were all of his successors, to Filippo Visconti (1784-1801), whosenomination byJoseph II, made without the consent of theHoly See, nearly brought on aschism. He was followed by Cardinal Caprara, well-known asApostolic legate to the court ofNapoleon. After the death of thisprelate in 1811 the See of Milan remainedvacant for six years; the nextarchbishop, Cardinal Carlo Gætano Gaisruck, was appointed in 1818 and governed the diocese until 1848 "more as a soldier than as aprelate". He was especially opposed to the re-establishment of thereligious orders. Archbishop Paolo Angelo Ballerini (1859-67) was never able to take possession of hissee, because the Italian Government denied him theexequatur; and hisauxiliary bishop Dominioni was alsopersecuted.

Councils were held at Milan in 343 and 347, against Photinus; in the cause ofSt. Athanasius, at which the Emperor Constans menaced thebishops; 390, againstJovinian; 451, against theRobber Council of Ephesus; 680, against theMonothelites; 1060, 1098, 1117, 1287, forecclesiastical reforms. Thediocesansynods ofSt. Charles Borromeo and those of 1636 and of 1669 were also reformsynods. Diocesansynods were held in 1609 and 1850 respectively. The suffraganbishops of Milan were wont to meet each year at Rò; their sees areBergamo,Brescia,Como,Crema,Cremona,Lodi,Mantua, and Pavia. Thearchdiocese has 788parishes, with 1,828,000 inhabitants, 27religious houses of men, and ofwomen nearly 80 in the city and 220 throughout thediocese; it has 43educational establishments for boys and 176 for girls, 2Catholic daily papers, and many important periodicals. In theMiddle Ages there was amonastery at Milan, St. Cosmas, forArmenianmonks of theRule of St. Basil; they depended, however, on a similarmonastery inGenoa, and had no relation withArmenia. This order, which used the so-called Aquileian rite, was suppressed in 1650.

Religious edifices

The wonderful Italian Gothiccathedral is built of white marble, has fivenaves, and is 486 feet in length; it is surmounted by 98 slender turrets, on the principal one of which is a bronze-giltstatue of the Madonna; there are, in all, 6000statues, 2000 of which are on the exterior. Thecathedral is situated on the site of the ancient basilica ofSanta Maria Maggiore (fourth or fifth century), and was begun in 1386 by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti. Thetomb ofSt. Charles is under thecupola. The treasury of thecathedral contains, among other valuable objects, twostatues, ofSt. Charles and of St. Ambrose, made of silver and set with precious stones, the gift of the city. Thehigh altar is a gift ofPius IV. Thechurch of St. Ambrose, built by itspatron saint in 386, and often restored, especially in the twelfth century, contains thetomb of the Emperor Louis II; in thechapel of St. Satyrus is amosaic that dates, probably, from the fifth century, while the central door, with wood-carvings representing scenes from the life ofDavid, is held, on seemingly good grounds, to be of the time of St. Ambrose; the church possesses also a golden altar-front (palliotto) of Angilbert (835). Themonastery annexed to this church had a finelibrary, and belonged at first to theBenedictines, later to theCistercians; it serves now as a militaryhospital. Thechurch of St. Eustorgius contains the mausoleums of Stefano Visconti, Martino della Torre, and others. The church of St. Stefano Maggiore is of the fifth century; that of San Vittoreal corpo is the Basilica Portiana, dating from before the time ofSt. Ambrose; it contains the body of themartyr St. Victor, and also valuablepaintings. San Nazaro Maggiore (382?) has avestibule byBramante, and contains thetombs of the Trivulziofamily. In thechurch of St. Aquilinus there is a beautifulmosaic and the sarcophagus of a lady of thefamily of theEmperor Theodosius. Santa Maria delle Grazie is a church in the style of theRenaissance (1465), with acupola byBramante; it has valuable frescoes, beautiful carvings, and inlaid work in the choir; in the ancientmonastery, which formerly belonged to theDominicans, is the famous Last Supper ofLeonardo da Vinci. On the site of the principal hall of the baths of Maximiam, the peristyles of which remain, is built the church of San Lorenzo, containing ancientmosaics. The church of San Marco (1254) has a beautifulhigh altar, and valuablepaintings; that of San Maurizio, said to have been built by Queen Theodelinda, is covered with frescoes byLuini between 1503 and 1509. San Satiro, a church that dates from 876, was restored byBramante. There are also the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and others.

Secular edifices

Among these are the Palazzo di Corte (1228), restored several times; whose garden contains the Royal Villa (1790); the Broletto Nuovo, from 1228 to 1786 the palace of the commune; the Palazzo della Ragione (1233); the Broletto (1413-24), at present containing public offices; the Collegio Elvetico, founded bySt. Charles Borromeo, and now the seat of the Court of Assizes; the Vittorio Emanuele gallery and the Castello Sforzesco.

Schools, etc

There are two episcopalseminaries, and the Lombard Seminary for foreign missions; the Academy of Sciences and Letters; the Technical Institute; the Superior Institute of Commerce; 3 royal and 6 private gymnasia; many otherschools, 17 of which are under religious direction; the Verdi Conservatory of Music; the Lombard Institute for Sciences and Letters; the Royal Pinacoteca della Brera, formerly aJesuitcollege, rich inpaintings of the old Lombardschool, and possessing a valuablenumismatic collection. In the Castello Sforzesco is a museum of ancient andmedieval art, while many of the private palaces, such as those of the Borromeos and of the Trivulzios, contain valuable collections ofpaintings. The National Library in the Brera (1770) and theAmbrosian Library are famous. The latter was founded byCardinal Federigo Borromeo (1609) and contains 200,000 volumes, besides 8300manuscripts, 126 of which are illuminated with miniatures. The State and the municipal archives are important; so, also, in their sphere, are theastronomical and the meteorological observatories. Milan has 14 theatres, of which the Scala is world-famous. There are 17hospitals and 5 polyclinics, also asylums for the insane, the blind, the deaf-mute, etc. There are nearly 5000 industrial establishments, with 150,000 workmen; the textile, typographic, and pharmaceutic industries are especially well represented.

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