Laity

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(Greeklaos, "the people"; whencelaikos, "one of the people").

Laity means the body of thefaithful, outside of the ranks of theclergy. This article treats the subject under three heads: (1) General Idea; (2) Duties and Rights of the Laity; (3) Privileges and Restrictions of the Laity.

General idea

Whereas the wordfaithful is opposed to infidel, unbaptized, one outside the pale ofChristiansociety, the wordlaity is opposed toclergy. The laity andclergy, orclerics, belong to the samesociety, but do not occupy the same rank. The laity are the members of thissociety who remain where they were placed bybaptism, while theclergy, even if onlytonsured, have been raised byordination to a higher class, and placed in the sacredhierarchy. TheChurch is a perfectsociety, though all therein are not equal; it is composed of two kinds of members (see can. "Duo sunt", vii, Caus. 12, Q. i, of uncertain origin): in the first place, those who are the depositaries of sacred or spiritual authority under its triple aspect, government, teaching, and worship, i.e. theclergy, the sacredhierarchy established byDivine law (Conc. Trid., Sess. XXIII, can. vi); in the second place, those over whom this power is exercised, who are governed, taught, and sanctified, theChristian people, the laity; though for that matterclerics also, considered asindividuals, are governed, taught, and sanctified. But the laity are not the depositaries of spiritual power; they are the flock confided to the care of the shepherds, the disciples who are instructed in the Word ofGod, the subjects who are guided by the successors of the Apostles towards the last end, which is eternal life. Such is the constitution whichOur Saviour has given to HisChurch.

This is not the place for a detailed demonstration of this assertion, theproof of which may be reduced to the following points more fully developed underCHURCH: on the one hand, a distinction between the governed and those governing isnecessary in every organizedsociety; nowJesus Christ established HisChurch as a realsociety, endowed with all the authority requisite for the attaining of its object. On the other hand, in theChurch, government has always been in the hands of those who were entrusted exclusively with the teaching ofdoctrine and the care of Divine worship. If one studies without prejudice theNew Testament and the beginnings ofChristianity, somedoubt may arise on certain matters of detail; but the conclusion will certainly be that everyChristian community had its superiors, these superiors had a stable spiritual authority, and this authority had as its end the exclusive care of religious functions (including teaching) as well as the government of the community. There have been differences of opinion concerning the origin of the monarchialepiscopacy, which soon became the sole form ofecclesiastical organization; but no one holds that the monarchialepiscopacy succeeded a period ofanarchy or of government by a community where all had equal authority. The organization of allChristian Churches under the authority of thebishops andclergy, as early as the third century, is so evident as to place beyond alldoubt the existence at that time of two distinct classes, theclergy and the laity. Moreover, in allsocieties among whichChristianity had spread, religious service had already its specialministers, and theChristian organization would have retrograded if its worship and its sacrifice had not been entrusted exclusively to a special class.

Christ selected the Apostles from among His disciples, and among the Apostles He selected Peter to be their head. He entrusted them with the furtherance of His work; to them he confided thepower of the keys, i.e. spiritual authority, for they are the keys of theKingdom of Heaven (Matthew 16:19); He gave them the mission to teach andbaptize all nations (Matthew 28:18); to them also He addressed those words at theLast Supper: Do this in commemoration of me" (Luke 22:19). As soon as theChurch begins to live, the Apostles appear as its leaders; they are distinct from the "multitude of believers"; it is into their ranks that they bring Matthias (Acts 1:15), and later, by the command of the Holy Ghost, Saul and Barnabas, whom they receive with theimposition of hands (Acts 13:2). WhereverSt. Paul founds Churches he gives them leaders "placed by the Holy Spirit to govern theChurch of God" (Acts 20:28); the Pastoral Epistles reveal to us a directing body composed of thebishops, orpriests, anddeacons (Epistle of Clement 43.4); and they it is, especially thebishops, who perform exclusively theliturgical services (Ignatius,Smyrnæans 8). If at times theChristian people participate in the Divine service or the government, they never appear acting independently nor even on an equal footing with the heads of the community (cf. Batiffol, "L'Église naissante et le catholicisme", Paris, 1909). This distinction between the two classes in theChristiansociety refers to social rank, not to individualmoral perfection. It istrue that theclergy, being dedicated to the service of the altar, are thereby bound to strive after perfection; yet neither their virtues not their failing influence in any way their powers. On the other hand, the laity, besides their right to aspire freely to admission into the ranks of theclergy, on complying with the requisite conditions, are exhorted to practise every virtue, even in the highest degree. They can also bind themselves to observe the evangelical counsels, under the guidance of theChurch, either in the world, as did the ancient ascetics, or by withdrawing from the world into one of the manyreligious houses. But ascetics,nuns, and unordained members of religious associations of men were not originally in the ranks of theclergy, and, strictly speaking, are not so even today, though, on account of their closer and more special dependence onecclesiastical authority, they have long been included under the titleclergy in its wider sense (see RELIGIOUS). The juridical condition of the laity in theChristiansociety is therefore determined by two considerations: their separation from theclergy, which excludes them from the performance of acts reserved to the latter; and second, their subjection to the spiritual authority of theclergy, which imposes certainobligations on them, while at the same time it confers on them certainrights.

Duties and rights of the laity

Having come through Baptism to thesupernatural life, being members of theChristiansociety and adopted children ofGod, the laity belong to the "chosen race", the "royalpriesthood" (1 Peter 2:9) formed of all those who are born again in Christ. They have therefore aright to share in the common spiritual goods of theChristiansociety, which implies a correspondingobligation on the part of theclergy to bestow on them these goods, in as far as this bestowal requires the intervention of theministers of religion and of the spiritual authority. But if the laity are to share in these common goods they must employ more or less frequently the means of sanctification instituted byJesus Christ in HisChurch, and of which theclergy have been put in charge. Further, the laity, being subject toecclesiastical authority, must obey and respect it; but in return they have theright to obtain from it direction, protection, and service. Thus, for the laityrights andduties are, as always, correlative. The firstduty of aChristian is to believe; the firstobligation imparted to the laity is, therefore, to learn thetruths offaith and of religion, at first by means of thecatechism and religious instruction, and later by being present at sermons, missions, or retreats. If they are thusobliged to learn, they have theright to be instructed and consequently to require theirpriests to give them and their childrenChristian teaching in the ordinary way. Second, aChristian's moral conduct should be in keeping with hisfaith; he must, therefore, preserve his spiritual life by the means whichJesus has established in HisChurch; The Divine service, especially the Mass, the Sacraments, and other sacred rites.

This necessity of having recourse to the pastoral ministry gives rise to a right in the laity as regards theclergy, the right of obtaining from them the administration of thesacraments, especially Penance and theHoly Eucharist, and others according to circumstances; also all the other acts ofChristian worship, especially the Mass, thesacramentals and other rites, and lastlyChristian burial. These are the spiritual goods destined for the sanctification ofsouls; if theclergy are appointed to administer them, they are not free dispensers, and they are bound to give their services to thefaithful, as long, at least, as the latter have not by their own fault placed themselves in a condition that deprives them of theright to demand these services. Considered from the standpoint of the laity, this recourse to the ministry of theclergy is sometimesobligatory and sometimes optional, according to circumstances. It may be anobligation imposed by a command of theChurch, or necessitated by personal reasons; in other cases, it may be a matter of counsel and left to the devotion of each one. This is a subject which exhibits most clearly the difference between a precept and a counsel with regard to our outwardChristian life. Assistance at Mass onSundays and holy days ofobligation, annual confession,Easter communion, the reception of the viaticum and the last services of religion, the celebration of marriage in the prescribed form, thebaptism and religious instruction of children, and, finally, the rites ofChristian burial---all these suppose a recourse to the ministry of theclergy which is ofobligation for the laity, abstracting from individual cases when there may be a legitimate excuse. On the other hand, more or less frequent confessions and communions, hearing of daily Mass, frequenting theDivine Office, asking for special ceremonies (for instance, churching) celebration of Masses, obtaining services andprayers for the dead or for other intentions, are things that are perfectly legitimate and are counselled, but are optional. We may also mention theobligatory or free acts intended for the personal sanctification of the laity, but which do not require the help of theclergy: privateprayer,fasting and abstinence, avoidance of servile work onSundays and holy days ofobligation, and, lastly, in general all that relates to the moral life and the observance of thecommandments of God.

From theseobligatory and optional relations existing between the laity and theclergy there arise certainduties of the former towards the latter. In the first place, respect and deference should be shown to theclergy, especially in the exercise of their function, on account of their sacred character and the Divine authority with which they are invested (Conc. Trid., Sess. XXV, c. xx). This respect should be shown in daily intercourse, and laymen inspired with a trulyChristian spirit do homage toGod in theperson of Hisministers, even when the conduct of the latter is not in keeping with thesanctity of their state. In the second place the laity areobliged, in proportion to their means and circumstances of the case, to contribute towards the expenses of Divine service and the fitting support of theclergy; this is anobligation incumbent on them in return for the right which they have to the services of theirpriests with regard to the Mass and other spiritual exercises. These contributions fall under two distinct classes: certain gifts and offerings of thefaithful are intended in general for the Divine services and the support of theclergy; others, on the contrary, are connected with various acts of the sacred ministry which are freely asked for, such as the stipends for Masses, the dues for funeral services,marriages, etc. There is no fixed sum for the former class, the matter being left to the generosity of the faithful; in many countries they have taken the place of the fixed incomes that the various churches and theclergy were possessed of, arising especially from landedproperty; they have likewise replaced thetithes, no longer recognized by the secular governments. The latter class, however, are fixed byecclesiastical authority or custom and may be demanded injustice; not that this is paying for sacred things, which would besimony, but they are offerings for the Divine service and theclergy on the occasion of certain definite acts (seeOFFERINGS;TITHES).

There remains to speak of theduties andrights of the laity towards theecclesiastical authority as such, in matters foreign to the sacred ministry. Theduties, which affect both laity andclergy, consist in submission and obedience to legitimate hierarchical authority: thepope, thebishops, and, in a proportionate degree, theparishpriests and other actingecclesiastics. The decisions, judgments, orders, and directions of our lawfulpastors, in matters ofdoctrine,morals, discipline, and even administration, must be accepted and obeyed by all members of theChristiansociety, at least in as far as they are subject to that authority. That is a condition requisite to the well-being of anysociety whatsoever. However, in the case of theChristiansociety, authoritative decisions and directions, in as far as they are concerned withfaith andmorals, bind not merely to exterior acts and formal obedience; they are, moreover, a matter ofconscience and demand loyal interior acceptance. On the other hand, seeing that in theChurch the superiors have been established for the welfare of the subjects, so that thepope himself glories in the title "servant of the servants of God", the faithful have theright to expect the care, vigilance, and protection of theirpastors; in particular they have theright to refer their disputes to theecclesiastical authorities for decision, to consult them in case ofdoubt or difficulty, and to ask for suitable guidance for their religious or moral conduct.

Privileges and restrictions of the laity

Since the laity is distinct from theclergy, and since Divine worship,doctrinal teaching, andecclesiastical government are reserved, at least in essentials, to the latter, it follows that the former may not interfere in purelyclerical offices; they can participate only in a secondary and accessory manner, and that in virtue of a more or less explicit authorization. Any other interference would be an unlawful and guilty usurpation, punishable at times with censures and penalties. We will apply this principle now to matters of worship, teaching, and government or administration.

As to the liturgy

As to Divine service, the liturgy and especially the essential act of theChristian worship, theHoly Sacrifice, the activeministers are theclergy alone. But the laity really join in it. Not only do they assist at the Sacrifice and receive its spiritual effects, but they offer it through the ministry of thepriest. Formerly they could, and even wereobliged to, bring and offer at the altar the mater of the sacrifice, i.e. thebread andwine; that is what they really do today by their offerings and their stipends for Masses. At several parts of the Mass, theprayers mention them as offering the sacrifice together with theclergy, especially in the passage immediately after theconsecration: "Unde et memores, nos servi tui (the clergy) sed et plebs tua sancta (the laity) . . . offerimus praeclare Majestati tuae, de tuis donis ac datis", etc. The laity reply to the salutations and invitations of the celebrant, thus joining in the solemnprayer; especially do they share in the Holy Victim byHoly Communion (confined for them in the Latin Liturgy to the species of bread), which they can receive also outside of the time of Mass and at home in case of illness. Such is the participation of the laity in the Liturgy, and strictly they are limited to that; all the active portion is performed by theclergy.

Regularly, no layman may sit within thepresbyterium, or sanctuary, nor may he read any part of the Liturgy, much lesspray publicly, or serve thepriest at the altar, or, above all, offer the Sacrifice. However, owing to the almost complete disappearance of the inferiorclergy, there has gradually arisen the custom of appointing lay persons to perform certain minorclericalduties. In most of our churches, the choirboys, schoolboys,sacristans, and chanters, serve low Masses andMissae cantatae, occupy places in the sanctuary, and act asacolytes, thurifers, masters of ceremonies, and even aslectors. On such occasions they are given, at least in solemn services, aclerical costume, the cassock andsurplice, as if to admit them temporarily to the ranks of theclergy and thus recognize and safeguard the principle of excluding the laity. These remarks apply not only to the celebration of Mass, but to allliturgical services: the laity are separated from theclergy. In processions especially, confraternities and other bodies of the laity precede theclergy; thewomen being first, then the men, nextregularclergy, and lastly thesecular clergy.

In the administration of thesacraments, thesacramentals, and other likeliturgical offices, the same principle applies, and ordinarily everything is reserved to theclergy. But it should be mentioned that the laity may administerbaptism in cases of necessity, and though not of practical importance with regard to adults, this frequently occurs when children are in danger of death. In the early ages, the faithful carried away the Blessed Eucharist to their homes and gave themselves theHoly Communion (cf.Tertullian, "Ad uxorem", ii, 5). That was a purely material administration of the sacrament, and hardly differed from the communionceremony in the church, where theconsecrated host was placed in the hand of each communicant. We should mention also that the use of the blessed oil by those who were sick, if that be considered an administration of extreme unction (cf. theDecretal ofInnocent I to Decentius of Eugubium, n. 8; serm. cclxv and cclxxix; append. of the works ofSt. Augustine, really the work of St. Caesarius of Arles). But those practices have long since disappeared. As to matrimony, if the sacrament itself, which is none other than the contract, has as its authors the lay persons contracting, theliturgical administration is reserved today, as formerly, to theclergy. With these exceptions, there is nothing to prevent the laity from using theliturgicalprayers in theirprivate devotions, from reciting theDivine Office, or the various Little Offices drawn up particularly for them, or from joining in associations or confraternities to practise together and according to rule certainpious exercises, the confraternities having been formed lawfully in virtue of episcopalapprobation.

As to doctrine

The body of the faithful is strictly speaking theEcclesia docta (the Church taught), in contrast with theEcclesia docens (the teaching Church), which consists of thepope and thebishops. When there is question, therefore, of the official teaching of religiousdoctrine, the laity is neither competent nor authorized to speak in the name ofGod and theChurch (cap. xii et sq., lib. V, tit. vii, "de haereticis"). Consequently they are not allowed to preach in church, or to undertake to defend theCatholic doctrine in public discussions withheretics. But in their private capacity, they may most lawfully defend and teach their religion by word and writing, while submitting themselves to the control and guidance ofecclesiastical authority. Moreover, they may be appointed to givedoctrinal instruction more or less officially, or may even become the defenders ofCatholictruth. Thus they give excellent help to theclergy in teachingcatechism, the lay masters in ourschools give religious instruction, and some laymen have received a missio canonica, or dueecclesiastical authorization, to teach the religioussciences inuniversities andseminaries; the important point in this, as in other matters, is for them to be submissive to the legitimate teaching authority.

As to jurisdiction and administration

The principle is that the laity as such have no share in thespiritual jurisdiction and government of theChurch; but they may be commissioned or delegated byecclesiastical authority to exercise certainrights, especially when there is no question of strictlyspiritual jurisdiction, for instance, in the administration ofproperty. The laity are incapable, if not byDivine law at least by canon law, of realjurisdiction in theChurch, according to chap. x, "De constit." (lib. I. tit. ii): "Attendentes quod laicis etiam religiosis super ecclesiis et personis ecclesiasticis nulla sit atributa facultas, quos obsequendi manet necessitas non auctoritas imperandi", i.e., the laity have no authority over things orpersonsecclesiastical; it is theirduty to obey not to command. Therefore no official acts requiring realecclesiastical jurisdiction can be properly performed by the laity; if performed by them, they are null and void. A layman therefore cannot be at the head of a Church or anyChristian community, nor can he legislate in spiritual matters, no act as judge in essentiallyecclesiastical cases. In particular, the laity (and by this word we here include thesecular authority) cannot bestowecclesiastical jurisdiction onclerics under the form of an election properly so called, conferring theright to an episcopal or otherbenefice. An election by the laity alone, or one in which the laity took part, would be absolutely null and void (c. lvi, "De elect.") (seeELECTION). But this refers to canonical election strictly so called, conferringjurisdiction on theright to receive it; if it is merely a question, on the other hand, of selecting an individual, either by way or presentation or a similar process, the laity are not excluded, for thecanonical institution, the source ofspiritual jurisdiction, is exclusively reserved to theecclesiastical authority. That is why no objection can be raised against the principle we have laid down from the fact that the people took part in the episcopal elections in the first ages of theChurch; to speak more accurately, the people manifested their wish rather than took part in the election; the real electors were theclerics; and lastly, thebishops who were present were the judges of the election, so that in reality the final decision rested in the hands of theecclesiastical authority. It cannot be denied that in the course oftime thesecular power encroached on the ground ofspiritual jurisdiction, especially in the case of episcopal elections; but theChurch always asserted her claim to independence wherespiritual jurisdiction was involved, as may be clearly seen in the history of the famous dispute about investitures (q.v.).

Whenjurisdiction properly so called is duly protected, and there is question of administering temporal goods, the laity may and do enjoy as a fact realrights recognized by theChurch. The most important is that of presentation or election in the wide sense of the term, now known asnomination, by which certain laymen select for theecclesiastical authorities theperson whom they wish to see invested with certainbenefices or offices. The best known example is that ofnomination to sees and otherbenefices by temporal princes, who have obtained that privilege byconcordats. Another case recognized and carefully provided for in canon law is the right of patronage. This right is granted to those who from their own resources have established abenefice or who have at least amply endowed it (contributing more than one-third of the revenue). The patrons can, from the moment of foundation, reserve to themselves and their descendants, the right of active and passive patronage, not to mention other privileges rather honorary in their nature; in exchange for theserights, they undertake to protect and maintain their foundation. The right of active patronage consists principally in the presentation of the cleric to be invested with thebenefice by theecclesiastical authorities, provided he fulfils the requisite conditions. The right of passive patronage consists in the fact that the candidates for thebenefice are to be selected from the descendants or thefamily of the founder. The patrons enjoy by right a certain precedence, among other things theright to a more prominent seat in the churches founded or supported by them; sometimes, also, they enjoy other honours; they can reserve to themselves a part in the administration of theproperty of thebenefice; finally, if they fall uponevil days, theChurch isobliged to help them from theproperty that was acquired through the generosity of their ancestors. All theserights, it is clear, and particularly that of presentation, are concessions made by theChurch, and not privileges which the laity have of their own right.

It is but equitable that those who furnish the resources required by theChurch should not be excluded from their administration. For that reason the participation of the laity in the administration ofchurch property, especiallyparishproperty, is justified. Under the different names such as, "building councils", "parish councils", "trustees", etc., and with rules carefully drawn up or approved by theecclesiastical authorities, and often even recognized by thecivil law, there exist almost everywhere administrative organizations charged with the care of the temporal goods of churches and otherecclesiastical establishments; most of the members are laymen; they are selected in various ways, generally co-option, subject to the approval of thebishop. But this honourable office does not belong to the laity in their own right; it is a privilege granted to them by theChurch, which alone has theright to administer her ownproperty (Conc. Plen. Baltim. III, n. 284 sq.); they must conform to the regulations and act under the control of the ordinary, with whom ultimately the final decision rests; lastly and above all, they must confine their energies to temporal administration and never encroach on the reserved domain of spiritual things (Conc. Plen. Baltim. II, n. 201; seeECCLESIASTICAL BUILDINGS). Lastly, there are manyeducational andcharitable institutions, founded and directed by laymen, and which are not strictlychurch property, though they are regularly subject to the control of the ordinary (Conc. Trid., Seess. VII, c. xv; Sess. XXII, c. viii); the material side of these works is not the most important, and to attain their end, the laity who govern there will above all be guided and directed by the advice of theirpastors, whose loyal and respectful auxiliaries they will prove themselves to be.

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