Hierarchy

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(GreekHierarchia; fromhieros, sacred;archein, rule, command).

This word has been used to denote the totality of ruling powers in theChurch, ever since the time of thePseudo-Dionysius Areopagita (sixth century), whoconsecrated the expression in his works, "The Celestial Hierarchy" and "The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy" (P.G., III, 119 and 370). According to this author and his two commentators, Pachymeres (P.G., III, 129) and Maximus (P.G., IV, 30), the word connotes the care and control of holy or sacred things, thesacer principatus. The "Hierarcha", it is here explained, is he who has actual care of these things; who, indeed, both obeys and commands, but does not obey those he commands. There is, consequently, anecessary gradation among hierarchs; and this gradation, which exists even among theangels, i.e. in the heavenly hierarchy (on which the ecclesiastical hierarchy is modelled), musta fortiori be found in a human assembly subject tosin, and in which this gradation works for peace and harmony ("S. Gregorii Reg. Epist.", V, 54, in P.L., LXXVII, 786; "Decreta Dionysii papæ", in the Hinschius ed. of thePseudo-Isidorean Decretals, 195-6,Berlin, 1863; "Decretum" of Gratian (Pseudo-Boniface), pt. I, D. 89, c. vii). The hierarchy, therefore, connotes the totality of powers established in theChurch for the guiding of man to hiseternalsalvation, but divided into various orders or grades, in which the inferior are subject to and yield obedience to the higher ones.

Hierarchy of order and of jurisdiction

It is usual to distinguish a twofold hierarchy in theChurch, that of order and that ofjurisdiction, corresponding to the twofold means of sanctification, grace, which comes to us principally through thesacraments, andgoodworks, which are the fruit of grace. The hierarchy of order exercises its power over the Real Body of Christ in the Eucharist; that ofjurisdiction over His Mystical Body, theChurch (Catech. Conc. Trid., pt. II, c. vii, n. 6). Christ did not give to all the faithful power to administer Hissacraments, except in the case ofbaptism and matrimony, or to offer public worship. This was reserved to those who, having received the sacrament of order, belong to the hierarchy of order. He entrusted the guidance of the faithful along the paths ofduty and in the practice ofgoodworks to a religious authority, and for this purpose He established a hierarchy ofjurisdiction. Moreover, He established HisChurch as a visible, external, and perfectsociety; hence He conferred on its hierarchy theright to legislate for the good of thatsociety. For this double purpose, the sanctification ofsouls and the good or welfare of religioussociety, the hierarchy ofjurisdiction is endowed with the followingrights:

Furthermore, with thepower of jurisdiction there should be connected theright to exercise the power of order. The acts of the power of order are, it istrue, always valid (except in thesacrament of Penance, which requires in addition apower of jurisdiction). However, in a well-orderedsociety like theChurch, theright to exercise the power of order could never be a mere matter of choice. For its legitimate exercise theChurch requires eitherjurisdiction, or at least permission, even of a general character.

Ordinarily, also, the teaching power (magisterium) is connected with thepower of jurisdiction. It is possible, of course, to distinguish in theChurch a threefold power: thepotestas magisterii, or theright to teach in matters offaith andmorals; thepotestas ministerii, or theright to administer thesacraments, and thepotestas regiminis, or thepower of jurisdiction.Christ, however, did not establish a special hierarchy for the "potestas magisterii", nor does the teaching power pertain to the power of order, as some have maintained, but rather to thepower of jurisdiction. TheVatican Council, indeed, seems to connect the supreme magisterial power of thepope with his primacy ofjurisdiction (Constitutio de Ecclesiâ Christi, cap. i and iv). Moreover, thepower of jurisdiction implies the right of imposing on the faithful a realobligation to believe what theChurch proposes. Finally, in theChurch, no one can teach without amissio canonica, or authorization fromecclesiastical superiors, which brings us back again to thepower of jurisdiction. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the "potestas magisterii" belongs to those only who have also the power of order, i.e. to thepope and thebishops, and cannot be separated from the latter power; the same is equallytrue of thepower of jurisdiction (Schnell, "Die Gliederung der Kirchengewalten" in "Theologische Quartalschrift", LXXI 1889, 387 sq.). Jurisdiction is exercisedin foro interno (potestas vicaria), andin foro externo. The latter aims directly at the welfare of religioussociety, indirectly at that of its individual members; the former deals directly withindividuals, and only indirectly with the religioussociety as a whole.

Finally,jurisdiction is either ordinary or delegated; the first is acquired by the acceptance of specified functions to which thelaw itself attaches this power, that the possessor must exercise in his own name; the second is obtained by virtue of a special delegation fromecclesiastical authority, in whose name it is to be exercised.

Hierarchy of order

TheCouncil of Trent has defined the Divine institution of the first three grades of the hierarchy of order, i.e. the episcopate,priesthood, anddiaconate (Sess. XXIII, De sacramento ordinis, cap. iv, can. vi). The other orders, i.e. those ofsubdeacon,acolyte,exorcist,lector, and porter, are ofecclesiastical institution. There is some controversy about thesubdiaconate. TheCouncil of Trent did not decide the question, but only declared that Fathers and councils place thesubdiaconate among the major orders (loc. cit., cap. ii). It is now pretty generally held that thesubdiaconate is ofecclesiastical institution, chiefly because of the lateness of its appearance inecclesiastical discipline. Its introduction was due to the unwillingness of certain Churches to have more than sevendeacons, conformably to Apostolic practice in theChurch ofJerusalem (Acts 6:1-6). Furthermore, theordination rite ofsubdeacons does not seem sacramental, since it contains neither theimposition of hands nor the words "Receive the Holy Ghost". Finally, in the EasternCatholic Churches thesubdiaconate is reckoned among theminor orders. For this opinion may be quotedUrban II in the Council ofBenevento in 1091 (Hardouin "Acta Conc.", VI, ii, 1696, Paris, 1714), the "Decretum" of Gratian (pars I, dist. xxi, init.),Peter Lombard ("Sent.", Lib. IV, dist. xxiv), and others; seeBenedict XIV, "De Synodo Di cesanâ.", VIII, ix, n. 10). This hierarchy ofecclesiastical origin arose at the end of the second and the beginning of the third century, and appears definitely fixed atRome underPope Cornelius (251-252), who tells us that in his day theRoman Church counted 46priests, 7deacons, 7subdeacons, 42acolytes, and 52clerics of lower grades,exorcists,lectors, and porters (Eusebius,Church History VI.43). In the primitive Church there were alsodeaconesses,widows, and virgins, but these did not belong to the hierarchy properly so called, nor doesPope Cornelius include them in his list of the Romanclergy. Their principal functions wereprayer, the practice ofworks of charity, and of hospitality; while they performed certainliturgical functions, as in thebaptism ofwomen and at the agape, they never took any part, except by unauthorized abuse, in the ministry of the altar strictly speaking (Duchesne, "Christian Worship", London, 1904). Finally, althoughabbots ofmonasteries may confer the fourminor orders, they do not constitute a special order or grade in the hierarchy. It is not by virtue of the blessing they receive from thebishop that they may confer orders, but by virtue of a privilege which canon law grants toabbots who have received such solemn blessing from abishop (Gasparri, "Tractatus Canonicus de sacrâ ordinatione", I, iv, Paris, 1893). TheLatin Church, therefore, counts eight grades in the hierarchy of order, the episcopate being counted a separate order from that of thepriesthood, andecclesiastical tonsure not being an order.

This latter point, formerly controverted by canonists, is no longer indoubt: thetonsure is, in the present discipline, a simple rite by which alayman becomes an ecclesiastic, anecessary antecedent condition for the lawful reception of orders proper, and not an order itself, except in a very inaccurate way of speaking, since theceremony conveys no "potestas ordinis". In theMiddle AgesScholastictheologians denied that the episcopate was a distinct order frompriesthood, alleging that the former is only the complement and perfection of the latter. In respect of the offering of theHoly Sacrifice thebishop, it istrue, has no more power than apriest; on the other hand, it is only abishop who can ordain apriest; and this difference of power implies a distinction of order. Against this distinction it has been objected that an episcopalordination would be invalid unless the subject had first of all receivedsacerdotalordination. It istrue that, according to the modern practice, one should admit this theory; but formerly, especially in the case of theordination of thebishops ofRome, the practice of theChurch was different. The titleDe septem ordinibus, which we read in the editions of theCouncil of Trent (Sess. XXIII, De sacramento ordinis cap. ii), is an addition of a later period, and the council expressly declares thatbishops have a power of order superior to that ofpriests. The ByzantineCatholicChurch, as a general rule, only counts two grades ofecclesiastical institution: thesubdiaconate and the lectorship. Nevertheless,ordination to thesubdiaconate implies also theminor orders ofacolyte and porter, andecclesiastical tonsure is given when thebishop confers the lectorship. The order ofexorcist is in reality the only one not known to theGreek Church. It considers the power ofexorcising as a special gift of Divinegoodness, not as something acquired byordination. By the Constitution "Etsi pastoralis"Benedict XIV derogated from the decision ofInnocent IV, and completely approved the discipline of theGreek Church on this matter (Papp-Szilàgyi, "Enchiridion juris Ecclesiæ Orientalis catholicæ",Grosswardein, 1862, 405-7). It is probable that no otherminor orders were originally known to theGreek Church. InChristian antiquity, it istrue, especially among theGreek Christians, we meet with many subordinate functionaries, e.g. singers ("cantores", or "confessores"); "parabolani", who cared for the sick; "copiatæ" (fossores), orsextons who buried the dead; "defensores", who attended toecclesiastical trials; notaries and archivists; "hermeneutæ", or interpreters, whoseduty it was to translate for the people the Scriptures, also thehomilies of thebishop; with these, however, there is not question of orders, but of functions entrusted, withoutordination, either toclerics orlaymen (Benedict XIV, "De Synodo Diœcesanâ.", VIII, ix, n. 8; Gasparri, "op. cit.", I, vii).

Hierarchy of jurisdiction

In the hierarchy ofjurisdiction the episcopate and thepapacy are of Divine origin; all the other grades are ofecclesiastical institution. According to theVatican Council theBishop of Rome, assuccessor of St. Peter, has been established by Christ as the visible head of the whole Church militant, and possesses a real primacy ofjurisdiction, in virtue of which he has supremepower of jurisdiction over the universal Church in matters offaith,morals, discipline, and the government of theChurch. This power is ordinary and immediate over all the Churches, and over each one in particular, over all thepastors and faithful, collectively and individually (Const. de Eccl. Christi, cap. i-3). The government of theChurch is strictly monarchical. Thebishops are the successors of the Apostles, but do not inherit their personal prerogatives, such as universaljurisdiction andinfallibility (Conc. Trid., Sess. XXIII, De sacramento ordinis, cap. iv). Thepope is bound to establishbishops who enjoy genuine ordinary power in theChurch (potestas ordinaria), and who are not merely his delegates or vicars, as somemedievaltheologians held. On the other hand, the theory proposed in the fifteenth century at the Councils ofConstance and Basle, which made thepope subject to an œcumenical council; the Gallican theory, that would impose limits on his power by the ancient canons received in theChurch, and requiring the acceptance or consent of theChurch before his decisions could become irreformable; and the theory ofFebronius, who maintained that theHoly See had usurped manyrights which properly belonged to thebishops and that ought to be restored to them, are all equallyfalse and opposed to the monarchical constitution of theChurch (seeGALLICANISM;FEBRONIANISM). An œcumenical council does, indeed, possess sovereign authority in theChurch, but it cannot be œcumenical without thepope.

It will suffice to mention the now universally rejected opinion ofGerson and a few otherdoctors of theUniversity of Paris in theMiddle Ages, who held thatparishpriests were of Divine institution, being (in this opinion) the successors of the (72) disciples of Christ. This opinion was defended, in more recent times, by certainJansenists, by Van Espen, and a few other canonists (Houwen, "De parochorum statu", Louvain, 1848, 7 sqq.).

The composition of the hierarchy ofjurisdiction in the (Western)CatholicChurch is indicated, in summary form, as follows. By virtue of his primacy, supreme authority over the whole Church belongs to thepope, who is at the same timePatriarch of the West,Primate ofItaly,metropolitan of theecclesiastical province ofRome, andbishop of the city ofRome. In the actualdiscipline of the Church, thecardinals hold second place. They are thepope's advisers in the more important matters concerning the universal Church, and exercise theirjurisdiction in the various congregations, tribunals, and offices instituted by thepope for the government of the universal Church. (For the recent reorganization of theRoman Curia and theRoman Congregations, see articles under those headings; and cf. the "Sapienti Consilio" ofPius X, 29 June, 1908.) Next in order come thepatriarchs. The Councils of Nicæa (325), of Constantinople (381), of Chalcedon (451) recognized in theBishop of Rome for the West, in those of Alexandria,Antioch,Jerusalem, and Constantinople for the East, over the territories included within theirpatriarchates, ajurisdiction higher than that ofarchbishops. The four Easternpatriarchates, as a consequence of theMohammedian invasion and theGreek schism, gradually lost communion withRome, but were re-established in theLatin Rite at the time of theCrusades.

After the Fall of Constantinople (1453) theHoly See contented itself with nominating for these sees four titularpatriarchs resident inRome; however, since 1847, the LatinPatriarch ofJerusalem resides in that city. Besides these ancient or "greater"patriarchs there are, in theLatin Rite, minorpatriarchs, whose title is purely honorary. They are: thePatriarch ofVenice (formerlyPatriarch of Grado); thePatriarch of the West Indies, who resides inSpain; thePatriarch of the East Indies (Archbishop ofGoa); and thePatriarch ofLisbon. The Patriarchate ofAquileia was suppressed in 1751.

In the West the dignity ofprimate corresponds to that ofexarch in the East. With the exception of thePrimate ofGran (Strigonensis) inHungary,primates have a mere pre-eminence ofhonour overmetropolitans. Among theprimates are theArchbishop ofSalzburg (Germany), Prague (Bohemia), Gnesen-Posen and Warsaw (Poland), Toledo and Tarragona (Spain), Rouen (France), Armagh (Ireland),Venice (forDalmatia),Mechlin (Belgium), and Carthage (Africa). Metropolitans, on the other hand, have realrights over thebishops within theirecclesiastical province, and over the province itself. Thebishops subject to theirjurisdiction are calledepiscopi comprovinciales orprovinciales, alsosuffraqanei or suffragans. Since the sixth centurymetropolitans have been also known asarchbishops, which title they share with titulararchbishops. By this term are meantarchbishops who administer adiocese but have no suffragans, alsoarchbishops merely titular, i.e. who have nojurisdiction, but only the title of some extinct archdiocese. Metropolitans areobliged at stated times to summonprovincial synods, to legislate for the whole province.

After thearchbishops come thebishops, who of Divine right administer thedioceses entrusted to them by theHoly See, which may determine or in a measure limit theirrights. If they are not subject to the authority of anarchbishop, they are known as exemptbishops, and are directly subject to theHoly See. Besides thediocesanbishops there are alsotitularbishops, formerly calledbishopsin partibus infidelium. These receive episcopalconsecration, but have nojurisdiction over thedioceses of which they bear the title. They may be appointed by thepope asauxiliary bishops or coadjutors todiocesanbishops. In the eighth century there are found, in the West,chorepiscopi, i.e.auxiliary bishops and substitutes fordiocesanbishopssede vacante. They had no distinct territory and ceased to exist in the ninth century.

After thebishops in the hierarchy ofjurisdiction come theprælati nullius; they are more correctly styledprælati nullius cum territorio separato, and exercise episcopal authority over a territory not belonging to any diocese; they must be carefully distinguished from theprælati nullius cum territorio conjuncto, and from superiors of exempt religious colleges, whether secular or regular. "Prælati nullius cum territorio conjuncto" exercise a quasi-episcopal authority over a territory which forms part of adiocese, whereas superiors of exempt colleges have authority only over the personnel of their own community.

In the government of hisdiocese thebishop is assisted by variousecclesiastics. Chief among these formerly was thearchdeacon, i.e. the principaldeacon of thecathedral church. In timedioceses came to be divided into several archdeaconries, the titulars of which exercised a right of surveillance over their particular territory and enjoyed extensive judicial power. TheCouncil of Trent (1547-65) limited their powers, after which they gradually disappeared. At present thebishop's chief assistant is known as hisvicar-general, an institution dating back to the thirteenth century. The members of thecathedral chapter, or canons, make up the council of thebishop, and in certain matters he may not act without their consent. Where there is no chapter, theconsultores cleri diœcesani take their place, but have only a consultative voice. To the chapter belongs the right of nominating thevicar capitular, charged with administering the diocese during a vacancy. After the ninth century archpriests or deans appear, charged with the supervision of theclergy andlaity in their districts; it was theirduty to enforce the observance of the canons in the administration ofchurch property.

Finally, at the head of aparish is thepastor (parochus), with ordinaryjurisdiction. Whereparishes have not been canonically erected, his place is taken by a "rector", whosejurisdiction is merely delegated, but whoserights andduties are those of aparishpriest (seeRECTOR). A few words are here pertinent concerning the manner in which thepope exercises his immediatejurisdiction in the various parts of theCatholic world. This is done principally throughlegates, of whom there are three kinds:

In mission countries, i.e. where the hierarchy is not established, thepope delegatesvicars Apostolic, who are, as a rule,titularbishops, and whoserights resemble, in general, those ofbishops. Prefects Apostolic govern a mission, whether subject to avicar Apostolic or not; a final category is known as missionaries Apostolic, who differ from simple missionaries in that they receive their powers directly from theHoly See, and not from a vicar orprefect Apostolic. When the latter has no coadjutor with the right of succession, he is bound to appoint a pro-vicar or pro-prefect.

In the EasternCatholicChurch the hierarchy in general resembles that of the West; the variations are few, and may be briefly stated as follows. TheHoly See exercises its authority over Churches of the Eastern Rite through a "Congregatio pro negotiis rituum Orientalium", attached toPropaganda, but charged exclusively with questions concerning theEastern Churches; theHoly See acts also through Apostolic delegates. While the patriarchic organization is preserved, allpatriarchs have not equal powers; some of them are even subject to Apostolic delegates. In theMaronite Church we find among thebishop's assistants anarchdeacon who is alsovicar-general, but has no authority over the priests; an "œconomus", who looks after theproperty and revenue of the church, subject to thebishop's supervision; a "periodeuta" or bardût, charged with the supervision of the churches and theclergy of thediocese (he has also theright toconsecratebaptisteries,churches, and altars, and, with the consent of the patriarch, to administer confirmation). The "chorepiscopus" resembles the bardût, but may also giveminor orders. Thebishop has theright to establish achorepiscopus wherever there is a numerousclergy; in thecathedral city itself he is known as thearchipresbyter, orchûri-episcoupe. These various functions are conferred by a rite resembling that ofordination (Silbernagl-Schnitzer, "Verfassung und gegenwärtiger Bestand sämtlicher Kirchen des Orients", Ratisbon, 1904, 346 sqq.).

The Hierarchy of the Anglican Church

The organization of theAnglican closely resembles that of theCatholicChurch. In its hierarchy of order it counts three grades of Divine institution, episcopate,priesthood, anddiaconate. In its hierarchy ofjurisdiction come first thearchbishops, some of whom have the title ofprimate, are at the head of anecclesiastical province, and may convene a provincial synod or Convocation (seeCONVOCATION OF THE ENGLISH CLERGY). Thebishop rules hisdiocese with the aid of a chancellor orvicar-general; in the largerdioceses there are suffragan orauxiliary bishops. Chapters and deans ofcathedral churches have survived, but are not active indiocesan administration. Thebishop may convene adiocesan synod. TheAnglicans have also retainedarchdeacons, deans, andpastors. At present theAnglican Church counts 15 ecclesiastical provinces, comprising 216dioceses; there are 33dioceses belonging to no province, of which 24 acknowledge to some extent theArchbishop ofCanterbury, 2 theArchbishop ofYork, 3 thePrimate ofCanada, 4 thePrimate of Australia. There are also 42 suffraganbishops. At the time of theschismHenry VIII proclaimed himself head of theAnglican Church; but the authority of the sovereign in church matters, even within his own dominion, has greatly lessened. TheArchbishop ofCanterbury enjoys a sort of pre-eminence ofhonour. Since 1867 a Lambeth Conference is held every ten years atLondon, to which all theAnglicanbishops of the world are invited. In 1897 it established a "Central Consultative Body", reorganized in 1908, but without judicial authority. In spite of many efforts to unify theAnglican Church this aim has not yet been realized. (Siegmund-Schultze in "Deutsche Zeitschrift für Kirchenrecht", 1909, XLI, 52-63.)

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