Denmark

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(LatinDania).

This kingdom had formerly a much larger extent than at present. It once included the southern provinces ofSweden: Skåne, Halland, Blekinge, Bohuslån (till 1658); the Duchies ofSchleswig (Sönderjylland) and Holstein (till 1864); the Kingdom ofNorway (from 1537 till 1814). The present kingdom comprises 16,000 square miles (between lat. 54°33' and 57°45' N.; long. 8°4' and 15°10' E.). It now includes the northern part of Jutland (anciently the Cimbric Chersonese) between the North Sea, Skager Rack, and Cattegat, whose southern part borders on theGerman Empire; the islands which lie between the Baltic and Cattegat (partly also in the latter) — Zealand (Själland), Falster, Möen, Laaland, Fünen (Fyan), Ærö, Samsö, Anholt, Læsö — together with a few smaller isles (Amager, Saltholm, Seierö, etc.) and Bornholm, which lies far towards the east in the Baltic. To this must be added the group of the Faroe Islands, situated in the Atlantic Ocean, 180 miles northwest of the Shetland Islands and 410 miles west fromBergen, and finally Iceland, whose northern coast is washed by the Arctic Ocean, and which, though very extensive (40,000 square miles), is but thinly inhabited (80,000souls). Iceland is very loosely connected with Denmark, is independent in itslaws and government, and since 1874 has its own constitution. Other Danish possessions are Greenland, which in size is almost a continent, but is very sparsely settled (only 12,000souls), and the three islands in the West Indies, St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas, with a total area of 120 square miles and a population of 30,000.

The physical character of Denmark, which geologically is a continuation of the plain of CentralEurope, shows only moderate contrasts. The Baltic Islands, surrounded by arms of the sea that are nowhere deeper than 200 feet and contain little salt, are partly monotonous flats, partly rolling ground. Only a few points, as Gyldenloeveshoei on Zealand, Aborrebjerg on Möen and Froebjerg on Fünen, rise to a height of 400 feet and more. Similar conditions prevail in Jutland. The high plateau that crosses it in a northerly direction slopes abruptly down towards the east. Here are elevations of 486 to 573 feet (Himmelsbjerg, Ejers Bavnehoej), lines of low, wooded hills, deep-cut valleys, fertile fields and meadows, bubbling rivulets, and beautiful lakes. On the other hand the dune-bound west coast of Jutland from Blaavandshuk to Skagen presents nothing to the eye but heath and moor. Bornholm resembles in its structural character the neighbouring Sweden. The northern and eastern coasts rise abruptly out of the sea, and the southern shore and the interior are monotonous, although the hill of Rytterknägten reaches a height of 543 feet. There are no large rivers in Denmark, but with its numerous islands and peninsulas — its coast-line aggregating a length of 3100 miles — there is no lack of deep brooks, and the River Gudenaa, in Jutland, is over 100 miles long. The lakes are numerous, but small and shallow, only that known as the Furusee having a depth of 300 feet. The climate is comparatively mild, hardly differing from that of SouthGermany, but somewhat more severe in Jutland than on the islands. Only one-seventh of the soil is woodland. In the last few decades, however, successful measures have been taken to husband the forest. Beech and birch trees, ash and alder, some oaks, linden, and pines are found. Three-fourths of the total area of the islands and of the east coast of Jutland is tilled land; the cultivation of grain, potatoes, and beets yields a large return. Walnuts and mulberries ripen in due season, and in some places juicy grapes ripen on trellises. The flora of Denmark, with its 1500 species of wild-growing plants, is quite extensive but the same cannot be said of its fauna. The larger beasts of prey are extinct; even the red deer and wild boar have almost disappeared. Foxes, martens, roes, and hares are still numerous, and along the shores seals may be seen. Its birds, amphibia, and fishes resemble those ofGermany. In the Little Belt, between Jutland and Fünen, the pilot whale (grindhval) is sometimes found. The domestic animals are those of CentralEurope. As the soil is for the most part made up of marl — though there are also other strata on Bornholm — the country is not rich in minerals. It yields common clay, kaolin, chalk, and some lignite. The absence of metals and still more of good anthracite coal is greatly felt. Luckily, extensive turf-bogs provide thenecessary fuel.

Denmark is inhabited by 2,600,000 people, most of them natives. Together with the Swedes andNorwegians, the Danes belong to the Germanic stock (North Germans, Scandinavians), and in body as well as character differ but little from the North Germans. Their written language has much in common with Low German. The language of the common people is divided into a number of strikingly divergent dialects. Nearly all of the population (981/2 per cent) belong officially to the EvangelicalLutheran Church, which, as the Established Church, enjoys Government support. In 1849 complete freedom of religiousbelief was legally guaranteed. Since then many have joined theBaptists,Irvingites, the Reformed Church, and othersects. Particularly gratifying is the modern revival ofCatholicism, which had disappeared from Denmark for three centuries (see below under RELIGIOUS HISTORY). With regard to generaleducation, Denmark compares well with other States. Education is compulsory. The primaryschools are kept up by the municipalities. Latinschools and modern high schools provide thenecessary preparation for theuniversity in the capital, the polytechnic institute, and the agricultural college. Very useful institutions are the "people's high schools", private continuationschools for the rural population. There is no lack oflibraries, art collections, and collections of antiquities, nor of literary and artisticsocieties with ideal aims. Many Danish scholars and poets,sculptors, and musicians have acquired fame that has spread far beyond the narrow limits of their country. We need mention only the names of Oersted, Woorsaae, Madvig, Oehlenschläger, Thorvaldsen, Gade. The relatively small number of Danish-speaking people forces many writers to compose their works in one of the four better-known languages, German, English, French, Spanish, or at least to translate them into one of these.

Denmark is a constitutional monarchy with strong democratic tendencies. By the national constitution of 1849, revised in 1866,Landsthing andFolkething share the government with the king, who has a civil list of a little more than 1,000,000 kroner ($268,000). The national colours are red, white, red; the flag shows theDanebrog, i.e., an upright white cross on a red field. Justice is administered by irremovable judges who are subject to the supreme court in Copenhagen (Hoeiesteret), and who conduct trials orally and in public. The executive power is vested in the king alone. For the sake of political administration the country is divided into eighteen districts, presided over by district judges. The larger cities have self-government and their own police. A general supervision is exercised by the head of the Copenhagen police.

The established Evangelical Church is divided into sevendioceses: Zealand, Fünen-Ærö, Laaland-Falster, Aalborg,Viborg,Aarhus, andRibe. At the head of eachdiocese is a superintendent who is called "bishop", a name that has been preserved fromCatholic times. TheBishop of Zealand isprimus inter pares. Thedioceses are made up of provostships andparishes. Theprovost exercises his office under the supervision of thebishop.

Since 1892 theCatholics of Denmark, who (including about 7000 Polish labourers) number 57,000, are under avicar Apostolic (Johannes von Euch, TitularBishop ofAnastasiopolis). Of these 3000 live in Copenhagen, and they are found in other important towns. Communities of good size are found in Fredericksborg (1500),Aarhus,Odense, Horsens, Fredericia, Ordrup, Sundby (400). Besides these, missions have been established in Aalborg, Esbjerg, Glorup, Grenaa, Elsinore, Kolding, Köge, Ledreborg, Næstved, Randers, Ringsted, Röskilde, Silkeborg, Slagelse, Struer, Svendborg, Thisted, Vejle and Viborg, also in Bornholm and Iceland. These are equipped with churches orchapels, some of them handsome, in which secular orregularclergy act aspastors. Among the cities Copenhagen far surpasses all others in importance. Its population, including that of the suburbs, was in 1906 over half a million. It is the residence of the king, the seat of the ministries of public affairs and of the stateuniversity; it is the centre of industry and commerce, ofscience and the arts. Formerly unprotected, it was a few years ago strongly fortified. Besides Copenhagen, only few places claim particular attention: Randers in Jutland, for its domestic trade; Aarhus, for its commerce andcathedral; Aalborg, for its ancient buildings; Horsens for its manufactures; Odense for itscathedral and commerce; Svendborg on Fünen for its manufactures. The ancient towns ofRibe,Viborg, and Röskilde bask in the glory of the past; their stately churches, built in the time ofCatholicism, are yet reminders of their former splendour.

Bimetallism prevails in Denmark. The standard coin is the krone ($0.268). In weights and measures the country has not yet adapted itself to the decimal system of Southern and CentralEurope. The Government finances are in a good condition; the nationaldebt is small. The principal means of livelihood is agriculture. Its products (oats, barley, rye, wheat) represent a value of 400 million kroner ($107,200,000). Of late, a change is going on in favour of cattle-raising and of dairy industry (domestic animals, 1903: horses 490,000; beeves 1,900,000; hogs 1,600,000; sheep 900,000; goats 40,000; chickens 12,000,000. In 1903, 300 million pounds of pork and butter alone were exported. Eggs to the value of 24 million kroner were shipped to foreign countries. The fishing industry is less prominent than might be expected; still, the total income from this branch amounts to 10 million kroner. Manufactures give occupation to about one-fourth of the population and are rapidly increasing. However, only the smaller part of the products is exported; by far the greater part is used to supply the home demand. In some branches of manufacture Denmark excels, and the royal porcelain factory of Copenhagen rivals successfully those of the best establishments inFrance andGermany.

The high standing of Denmark as a commercial country may be inferred from the one fact that its yearly business transactions are almost one-half of those ofItaly, which is thirteen times as large. In 1903 the merchant marine could boast a total of 430,000 tons, and it increases from year to year. To safeguard navigation, which is exposed to many dangers, especially along the coasts of Jutland, there are 350 lighthouses, 15 lightships, and 50 life-saving stations. Being shallow, most of its harbours admit only small vessels. For the same reason the canals are of small importance, but 2000 miles of railways, telegraph connexions, etc. amply supply the country with the conveniences of modern traffic.

Beside the gigantic armies and fleets ofGermany andEngland, Denmark's fighting strength appears insignificant. Military service is compulsory. The period of service is, however, considerably shorter than in other states. The peace footing is 800 officers and 9000 men; thewar strength is given as 1500 officers, 60,000 rank and file. The naval strength aggregates 50,000 tons, about 80,000 horse power, and 400 guns. Army and navy combined entail an outlay of 20 million kroner.

The Royal House belongs to the dynasty of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and is, consequently, of German origin. At present (1908), Frederick VIII (born 3 June, 1843) wears the crown, having succeeded hisfather, Christian IX, 29 January, 1906. His consort, Louise, is a princess ofSweden; his son Charles governs the Kingdom ofNorway under the name of Haakon VII. His brother William has occupied the throne of Greece as King George since 6 June, 1863. A second brother of the sovereign, Prince Waldemar, is married to theCatholic Princess Marie ofOrléans Bourbon; their sons are, according to the constitution, brought up in theProtestantfaith, while their daughter Margaret follows the religion of her mother.

Religious history

The first attempts to win the rough Danish warriors over to the mild yoke of Christ are said to have been made by the Frisian Bishop Willibrord, who died in 739. But for this there is no reliable evidence. A missionary journey which Archbishop Ebbo ofReims undertook to Jutland, in 823,proved a failure. But when, a few years later, the Danish chief Harold (Klack) went to Ingelheim to ask aid from Louis the Pious, he wasbaptized with his whole retinue, and on his return took theFrankishmonk Ansgar (Anschar, q.v.) as missionary. Interior disturbances made it impossible for the apostle to work successfully. In 831 thezealouspriest was nominatedBishop ofHamburg and thereby recognized asApostolic delegate to the Scandinavian nations. In 849 he was also appointed to thesee ofBremen. From this place he laboured untiringly for the extension of the Faith and was able toconsecrate a church in Schleswig (Hedeby). Owing to the expulsion of Erik (854), who had favoured his cause,heathenism regained its ground for a while, and many of the faithful lost their lives andproperty. Two years later affairs took a turn for the better. The church in Schleswig was reopened, and a new one was built inRibe. When the saintly man died, in 865, he beheld a flourishing band ofChristians around him. So far,Christianity had gained no no entrance to the islands, and when Gorm the Old, a fanatical worshipper of Odin, succeeded in extending his power over Jutland, he raged with fire and sword against theChristians. He met his master in Henry I ofGermany, who conquered him, in 934, in a bloody battle, and forced him to at least tolerateChristianity. Gorm himself died aheathen. Under his sonHarold (Bluetooth), who was compelled to acknowledge the supremacy ofOtto I, it became possible to erect thedioceses ofSchleswig,Ribe, andAarhus. During the reign of Canute the Great (1014-35)Christianity gradually spread all over the country. The newdioceses ofViborg and Börglum were formed in Jutland, and to these were added Odense in Fünen and Röskilde in Zealand. At this time also the firstmonasteries arose. When, under Sven Estridson, theDiocese of Lund was founded, the whole kingdom had been won for the Faith. Under Canute II (the Saint) thebishops became powerfulfeudal lords, ecclesiastical dignitaries, and commanders of armies. Absorbed by their secular occupations, they not seldom lost sight of their spiritualduties. Some, likeBishop Absalon (Axel) of Lund and Odense, who died at Soröe, 1201, largely contributed to the extension and influence of the State by their shrewdness and energy. Others, however, became involved in conflicts with king himself, in which cases theRoman See often imposed the severest spiritual punishments. At the same time the number ofmonasteries increased almost too rapidly, so that towards the end of theMiddle Ages there were 134 belonging to different orders.

The external constitution of theChurch in Denmark was settled definitely in 1104, when the country was separated from themetropolitan See of Hamburg-Bremen, and its sevenbishops were subordinated to theArchbishop ofLund asprimate. About thereligious life of theclergy andlaity we are not sufficiently informed, much historical material having been lost during the later changes inecclesiastical government. The conditions were, however, hardly satisfactory. The higherecclesiastics, supported by the lowerclergy and the people, led a sumptuous life and did little to cultivate the minds andmorals of their flocks. We must not forget, however, that, previous to the invention of the printing press,education, as we understand it at present, was not possible. Only thus can we explain the fact that the earlierzeal of the Danish people,proved by the erection of many splendid churches, rich donations, and countless foundations for the benefit of thepoor, was swept away, as it were, in a few years by the hurricanes of theReformation. Christian II was the first who tried to overthrow the power of the princelyhierarchy, and for this purpose invited (1520) a German, Martin Reinhard, to preach in Copenhagen in the spirit ofLuther, but as the people did not understand him, he remained in the country only a short time. His successor, thenotorious Karlstadt, met with the same fate. After the deposition of King Christian, his uncle Frederick I ascended the throne. Contrary to his sworn promise at the election, he at once allowed theLutheran preachers to spread the new creed. Prominent among them was a disciple ofLuther, Hans Tausen, who seems to have found a worthy and effective adversary in only one man, the learnedCarmelite Paulus Eliæ (Helgesen), the first historian of Denmark. Soon (1526) the king openly professed theLutheran heresy, and after he had secured its triumph in the duchies ofSchleswig and Holstein, he proclaimed at the Diet ofOdense (1527) religious freedom for Denmark proper, but, as a matter of fact, systematically undermined theChurch. Three years later the adherents of the newdoctrine accepted theConfessio Hafnica as their symbol. It was Frederick's son, Christian III, who after the overthrow of his political enemies madeLutheranism the established religion. On the same day he cause allbishops to beimprisoned and to be deprived of their possessions; themonks andnuns were permitted to leave themonasteries; if they preferred to remain, they were forced to admitLutheran preachers and to suffer all possiblepersecution. Thechurch property, when not appropriated by the nobility, was confiscated and added to the royal treasury. In 1539 John Bugenhagen came to Denmark with the avowed purpose of establishing a new liturgy and toconsecrateLutheranbishops. A Danish translation of theBible, done in the spirit of theprophet ofWittenberg, was begun and completed in 1550. (For an earlier Danish translation see below.) With the exception of Bishop Joachim Roöñow of Röskilde, all theprelates yielded to force; one of them even became aProtestant. Many religious fell away and married, but most of them went into exile. A shining example of loyalty to theirfaith was set by thenuns of St. Bridget at Maribo on Laaland. Also severalpriests andmonks, like Iversen, a canon ofLund, theCarmelite prior Kristinsen, theFranciscan Ludolf Naaman, of Flensburg, theparishpriest Anders Jepsen, and numerouslaymen clung to thetrue Church in spite of all persecutions.

TheCatholic customs and usages never died out completely. Thus theProtestant historian Vedel (d. 1616) held himself bound by the commandment offasting. To some extent the rural population even yetbelieve in the assistance of thesaints; theLutheran names for religiouspersons and ceremonies have never been in common use; as in former times, the people speak ofbishops andpriests, of saying mass, etc. Theministers wear vestments similar to those used in theCatholicChurch, and the altars are decorated with lighted candles. For a long time the elevation of the Host, auricular confession, and the ancienthymns were retained. All this was calculated to confirm the people in thebelief that nothing essential had been changed in their religion.

Though, towards the end of the sixteenth century,Catholicism may in general be considered as suppressed in the Danish kingdom, it still counted some adherents in the higher circles, whose sons occasionally frequented theJesuitcollege of Braunsberg, and there were strengthened in theirfaith or led back to it. At the beginning of the seventeenth century therefore, an attempt was made by thePropaganda to provide in a regular way for the spiritual welfare of the scattered faithful, and several mission stations were established. We are not sufficiently informed about these missions, but they seem to have been by no means insignificant. The royalrescript of 10 June, 1613, which forbadeCatholicpriests to perform any religious functions, under penalty of death, and theDanske Lov of Christian V (1683), which threatened converts with the confiscation of theirproperty and with banishment, were evidently intended to prevent conversions. While theCatholic religion was thus excluded for a time from Denmark proper, it could never be wholly extirpated in Holstein, then a Danish province, but within theGerman Empire. As early as 1597 a smallCatholic community was formed at Altona, followed, in 1625, by a second at Friedrichstadt. To these was added, in 1661, a church on Nordsrand; in 1662 achapel at Glückstadt. As to Denmark proper, French diplomacy succeeded (1630) in obtaining permission to erect atCopenhagen achapel for the French embassy;Catholic services were allowed at Fredericia in 1682.

After the Treaty ofWestphalia (1648), which abolished thejurisdiction ofbishops over the North-GermanProtestant territory, an Apostolic vicariate was erected to govern these scatteredparishes and those in Scandinavia. Valerius Maccioni, TitularBishop ofMorocco, was the first vicar; his successor was the famous Danish scholar and convert Niels Steno. Theduties of this office were subsequently discharged by theBishop ofHildesheim (1686) and by theBishop ofOsnabrück; in 1761 the vicariate was entrusted to Joseph Gondola,Bishop ofPaderborn. When Dr. Lüpke, coadjutor ofOsnabrück, was chosen Pro-vicar Apostolic of the North German missions (1841), he was allowed to exercise his authority only under severe restrictions. The number ofCatholics amounted at that time to 865, of whom 550 lived in Copenhagen and 58 on Fredericia; the rest were scattered in the cities and over the country. So far conditions had been deplorable; they underwent, however, an unforeseen change when, by the new Danish constitution (Danmarks Riges Grundlov) of 5 June, 1849, complete religious freedom was granted, and political andecclesiastical equality was guaranteed to all dissenters. Even before the enactment of thislaw theCatholics had succeeded in building atCopenhagen (1843) a church inhonour of St. Ansgar. Newreligious life began to spring up under thepastors Zurstrassen and Grüder; in 1853 the latter, for the first time since theReformation, preached aCatholic sermon in Danish. The number of the faithful now grew visibly. Severalsocieties and fraternities sprang into life. ACatholic paper (now the "Nordisk Ugeblad") endeavoured to unite theCatholics more closely and at the same time to enlightenProtestants. The beginnings of aCatholic literature appeared (translations of the Scriptures, catechisms, polemics). In the summer of 1859 theBishop ofOsnabrück (latercardinal),Melchers, made his first visit as pro-vicar Apostolic, and on several occasions officiated clad in his episcopal robes. A mission held by theJesuits in 1862 bore rich fruit.

Conditions in Schleswig-Holstein, where the Danish constitution was not in force, improved only after its annexation byPrussia in 1866 (see Kleffner-Woker, "Der Bonifatiusverein", Paderborn, 1899). Progress was rapid in Denmark itself. As early as 1867 the station ofOdense was founded, in 1870 Randers; 1872 saw Horsens added; 1873, Aarhus; and several missions quickly followed.Pius IX raised the mission (1869) to a prefecture (first prefect, Hermann Grüder, d. 1883).Leo XIII made it (1892) a vicariate, and nominated the prefect, Johannes von Euch,Bishop ofAnastasiopolis andvicar Apostolic. Thereby were secured thenecessary conditions for a solid growth of theChurch. Since then the number ofCatholics has considerably increased. Today it is estimated at over 8000, to which number we must add 7000 Polish workmen. There are in Copenhagen threeparishes and fourchapels with connected institutions. In the Stenosgade theJesuits have established a high school and, close to the city, the fine college of St. Andrew at Ordrupshoi, both institutions numerously attended by pupils of every denomination. For a complete list of the present stations see above. Among thesecular clergy there are several native Danes and converts. Theregularclergy are represented by foundations of theSociety of Jesus,Redemptorists,Marists,Lazarists,Premonstratensians, Camillans, etc. Hundreds of sisters are engaged in teaching and in nursing the sick in thehospitals. Among the converts are prominent Count Holstein-Ledreburg andfamily, Count Moltke Hvitfeld, and the gifted author and poet John Jörgensen.

How little thereligion of Luther has penetrated the hearts of the Danish people, is witnessed by theProtestant Bishop Pontoppidan almost 200 years after the establishment ofheresy. Thisbishop expressly admits in a pastoral (translated into German by Schonfeldt, Rostock, 1756) that an "almostpagan blindness" prevailed throughout the country. This is easily understood when we bear in mind that at the end of the seventeenth century the mass of the country population were unable to read and write,catechetical instruction was lacking, and the sermons, mostly of a polemical nature, were not understood by the people. On the other hand this state of affairs had prevented the formation ofsects. For a time all spiritual life appeared to have died among theclergy, completely subject to the will of the royal "Sumepiskopus". Towards the end of the eighteenth century, rigidLutheranorthodoxy gave way quite generally to arationalistic tendency. Bishop Balle of Zealand (1783-1808) and his successor Jacob Peter Münster tried in vain to stem this current. Grundtvig (d. 1872) was the first who earnestly endeavoured to restore to their former position ofhonour theLibri Symbolici, orecclesiastical creeds. Afterwards he changed his views and came so near theCatholic doctrine that he found himself forced to renounce entirely theProtestant view of theBible. His contemporary Sören Kierkegaard (d. 1855), at first an opponent of bothRationalism and theorthodoxtheology, then an enemy of the State Church and of official, or rather of all positive,Christianity, did more than Grundtvig to shatter to its very foundation the Danish Church as reconstructed by the kings of theReformation period. As mentioned above, the legislation of 1849 and 1852 granted complete religious liberty. Thereby theEvangelical-Lutheran church ceased to be the "established church". Since, however, the greater part of the nation exteriorly still adheres to it, the State guaranteed to it a subsidy as being the people's Church; this leaves theChurch subordinate to thecivil authority; itsministers may be nominated and deposed by the Government. It exercises no influence over its own legislation. Itslaws are made by the majority of the Reichstag, which has already enacted many that threaten an internal dissolution. Attendance in the city churches is slender, and the frequentation of the Lord's Supper is not large. The people incline strongly to infidelity and Socialism, or find a substitute for religion insecret societies. Of theProtestantsects the following may be mentioned:Baptists,Mormons,Methodists, andIrvingites. A few thousandJews are scattered over the land.

TheProtestantclergy is divided, generally speaking, into three parties: the infidel-rationalisticschool, no longer very numerous; the conservative majority, holding fast to the "symbolic books", or creeds, of the sixteenth century; lastly, the Grundtvigites, who recognize the necessity of anecclesiastical tradition in addition to theBible, and in this way come closer to theCatholicChurch. The revival ofCatholicism not unnaturally called forth protests. The first to raise his voice was Bishop Martensen, who published divers little pamphlets and in particular a small work translated into German (Gütersloh, 1874). The feud was also taken up by the Copenhagen preacher Schepelern, more particularly by Professor, now Bishop, Nielsen, the author of various polemical works and essays (cf. Hermens-Kohlschmidt, "Protest. Taschenbuch", col. 508). In conclusion it may be mentioned that, at the request of Frederick IV, the firstProtestant mission was opened (1705) at Trankebar (EastIndia) and another followed (1730) inGreenland.

Political history

Many thousands of years ago the northern countries were were covered with slowly moving masses of ice and snow, just as inland ice occupies the greater part ofGreenland even today. Only after these masses had melted could the land be settled. At the end of the Glacial Period, the Baltic was at first one immense landlocked sea, for South Sweden was still joined to Denmark andGermany. The ocean later forced its way through and separated the Danish islands by the Sound and the two Belts. Frequent risings and subsidences of the ground gave it its present appearance. Denmark was settled very early. In Maglemoor near Mullerup, on Zealand, a habitation was discovered which was built during the Stone Age, and numerous are the Kjükkenmödinger (piles of refuse) from that age, which contain not only remnants of meals — clams, shells, bones of fishes and other animals — but also implements of flint, kaolin, and horn. The so-called Later Stone Age must be placed between 5000 and 2000 B.C. That forestry, fishing, and agriculture were then flourishing, is shown by axes, sickles of flint, nets, and similar finds. The attention paid to the repose of the dead and thesacrifices at the graves indicate that a life after death was recognized. At some period between 2000 B.C. and 500 B.C. stone was superseded by bronze, which was thenceforth used for vessels, tools, weapons, and ornaments. The dead were commonly buried in oaken coffins. Chairs, bowls, boxes, and similar articles were constructed of wood. The art of weaving clothes from wool and of making caps was not unknown, as excavations at Trindhöi and Borum-Eshöi, in Jutland, have shown. Scandinavian bronze objects, the raw material for which was imported, were always cast. The Iron Age lasted from 500 B.C. to about A.D. 1100, and is divided into four periods: the ante-Roman, the Roman, the time of the migrations, theViking epoch. At first the use of bronze prevailed. In the course oftime, however, iron became more general. As early as in the fourth century B.C. vessels were built of wood, like those which are in use nowadays.

It seems that the Germanic North began hostilities with the civilized nations ofEurope at a comparatively late date. A serious conflict arose for the first time whenCharlemagne, after the overthrow of the Saxons, set his face against the Danes who, as allies of the Saxons, had inflicted great damage on him (seeCHARLEMAGNE). After their warlike king Gottfried had been assassinated, thewar was ended (811). It was decided that in future the Eider River should be the boundary between the two kingdoms. Quarrels shortly arose in the interior; one of the pretenders (Harold) sought the protection of Louis the Pious and wasbaptized. At his request, Ansgar, amonk of Corbie, preached for the first time, though with small success, theChristian Faith among theheathen nations of the North. Even before his arrival, some of them had begun the so-called viking expeditions, predatory incursions under their chiefs, which were directed as well against theSlavic kingdoms in the East as against the German and Roman peoples in the West and South. The Danish freebooters infested especially the coasts ofEngland and ofFrance. In time they gained a footing in both countries and founded new States which gradually coalesced with the native, civilized population into one powerful whole. This cut off the possibility of predatory expeditions for their fellow-tribesmen who had remained at home.

Meanwhile theGerman Empire had acquired new strength, and King Henry I endeavoured, no less from conviction than from politicalprudence, to persuade his northern neighbour to embrace theChristian religion. Gorm the Old, under whom the famous Danawerk was built as a protection against theGermans, was the lastpagan King of Denmark. Under his successors,Christianity became firmly established and outwardly well organized (see above). After the treacherousmurder of Canute Lavard, son of King Erik Ejgod (1131), bloody civilwars broke out, which ravaged the country for more than twenty-eight years and greatly weakened its strength. It was not until Waldemar the Great ascended the throne (1157) that better times dawned, especially through the co-operation of ArchbishopAbsalon of Lund, who was equally prominent as prince of theChurch, statesman, and warrior. The fleets of Wendish sea-robbers were destroyed, the Wends themselves were attacked in their own land, and the island of Rügen subdued. At the same time, the power of the ecclesiastical dignitaries and nobles increased, a fact which on the one hand ensured better order, but on the other also provoked thehatred of the oppressed classes. Waldemar's son, Canute VI, added to his possessionsPomerania and Mecklenburg, and assumed the title of King of theSlavs. This childless prince was succeeded by his brother, Waldemar II (1202), who extended his sway along the Baltic especially by means of acrusade against Esthonia, for which feat he became known asSejr (Conqueror). This apparently splendid power was, however, of short duration. One of the German vassals, Count Henry of Schwerin, raised the standard of revolt and madeprisoner his Danish lord (1223), whereupon the subjugated nations cast off the yoke. Later on Waldemar sought revenge, but lost the battle of Bornhöved in Holstein (1227). Most of his conquests eventually melted away, and the Eider became once more the southern boundary. This noble king, who deserves great praise for his improvement of thelaws of Denmark, died in 1241. His sons Erik, Abel, and Christopher wagedwar with one another, and all died a violent death. Murder and arson were of daily occurrence, and the land groaned under the wickedness of its rulers, who brought it to the brink of ruin. Erik Glipping, Christopher's successor, died at the hands of an assassin (1286). His heir apparent, Erik Menved, succeeded in restoring order for a time. Meanwhile important parts of the kingdom were pledged to German nobles, whose power was steadily on the increase. His brother, Christopher II, was compelled to swear to a capitulation, at his election, and, since he did not abide by it, was expelled by the magnates under Count Gert of Holstein, who obtained the election of his sister's son, Duke Waldemar, as the third king of that name. The legitimate prince indeed soon recovered his dominions, but held only the shadow of sovereignty. The real power lay in the hands of the nobles. New civilwars ended with the victory of the Danish element, which chose again, in Christopher's youngest son, Waldemar IV, a national ruler. By diplomacy and force he regained the pledged districts and added Gotaland to his kingdom; thereby, however, he became involved in awar with the Hanseatic League,Sweden, and the Count of Holstein. Hard conditions were imposed on him in the Treaty of Stralsund (1370). Waldemar IV died in 1375.

Meanwhile Danish affairs had undergone a great change. King Hakon ofNorway and Sweden had married (1362) Waldemar's daughter, Margaret, a child of eleven, and thus the three Scandinavian kingdoms had become united. In 1389 this ablewoman caused her relative, Duke Erik ofPomerania, who was only seven years old, to be acknowledged as King ofNorway. Seven years later the Swedes and Danes also paid him homage. At Calmar (1397) representatives of the three kingdomsswore allegiance to him. But Margaret's attempt to perpetuate the Union of Calmarproved unsuccessful. She succeeded, however, by reclaiming fiefs, in strengthening the power of the Crown, and in compelling the adhesion of bothecclesiastical and secular magnates. Erik's imprudence thwarted her plans and sapped the promising structure. As early as 1410 new conflicts arose with the Counts of Holstein, which, after Margaret's death (1412), led to a sanguinarywar, lasting twenty-five years; at its close the Counts of Holstein retained their Schleswig possessions, and the Hanseatic cities their ancient privileges. While Erik's rule was thus unfortunate abroad, hisavarice and harshness alienated the hearts of his subjects. The Swedes were the first to fall away; then an insurrection broke out inNorway, and the Danes themselves assumed such a threatening attitude that he thought it best to leave the kingdom.Abjuring their allegiance, the vassals now besought his sister's son, Duke Christopher ofBavaria (of the house of Wittelsbach) to take up the reins of government. TheSwedish crown also fell to his lot, but under conditions that greatly limited his power. With the help of the nobility he checked the uprising in Jutland. It was Christopher, also, who in 1443 removed the residence of the Danish kings from Röskilde to Copenhagen. Though a German by birth, he tried to check the power of the Hanseatic League, but did not succeed. He met with an untimely end in 1448.

Immediately the weak bond which had united Sweden and Denmark was rent. In the former kingdom Charles Knutsson was raised to the throne; in Denmark and inNorway Count Christian of Oldenburg, the husband of Christopher'swidow, and with him the house ofOldenburg, succeeded to the sovereignty. A feud sprang up between the countries. In 1452 the Swedes ravaged Skåne; the following year the Danes sought revenge, but in vain. A conspiracy among his nobles drove Knutsson fromSweden, which was subdued by Christian. During the latter's reign the union between Holstein and Schleswig, which was later to have such disastrous consequences for Denmark, became an acknowledged fact. Christian's rule over Sweden was only nominal. Internal troubles made it illusory, and after the battle of Brunkeberg, nearStockholm, he wasobliged to evacuate the kingdom. Even in his own State he washated for his extravagance. He deserves credit, however, for founding theUniversity of Copenhagen (1479). His son Hans succeeded him in Denmark, while Frederick remained Duke of Holstein. The former was also acknowledged King of Sweden andNorway (1483), but with notable restrictions. Thus, inSweden, the regent Sten Sture was the actual ruler until an unlucky campaign against the Russians drew on him the contempt of the people. King Hans thereupon recovered his authority, but maintained it only for a short time, as Bishop Hemminggad ofLinköping succeeded in arousing his countrymen against the foreigner. King Hans died before he was able to overpower the rebels. His son Christian II relied on the middle class, tried to break the power of the nobles, and in repeated expeditions against the Swedes, succeeded in crushing their resistance (1521). But his excessive cruelty towards theSwedish leaders caused the Swedes to rise unanimously against him. Gustavus I (Gustavus Vasa) not only drove the Danes out of theSwedish provinces, but moreover invaded their country. Christian's efforts in favour of the peasantry led to a conspiracy among the nobles. With their aid his uncle Frederick seized the reins of government, and even forced his nephew to flee to a foreign country (1523). After the former's death the Hanseatic League made an attempt to restore Christian to the throne. He conquered, indeed, the greater part of his country, but the activity of Gustavus Vasa, on the one hand, and the combined action of the nobility on the other, soon changed the condition of affairs. In spite of this, Christian III, son of the deceased Frederick, could take Copenhagen only after a siege of twelve months (1536).

Under King Frederick, the teachings ofLuther had already struck root in Denmark, but they did not entirely prevail either here or inNorway until the reign of his son.

Immediately after the capture of Copenhagen thebishops wereimprisoned, the churches confiscated, themonks andnuns expelled, and a new form of worship introduced (see above). Instead of the relatively mild rule of thebishops, the country now suffered under the galling tyranny of the nobles, who kept the lion's share of theecclesiastical property and reduced the peasantry to helpless helots. Despite these facts, partialProtestant writers still laud Christian III as the benefactor of his people, as a noble and godly man; Scandinavian historians blame him only for introducing too many Germans and for sharing Schleswig-Holstein with his brothers. He died in 1559.

His successor, Frederick II, was a very warlike character. His four-year'swar withSweden, in which the countries on the Baltic took part, ended in the barren Treaty of Stettin (1570).

Christian IV, his son, and recognized as the heir apparent during the lifetime of hisfather, succeeded him, though aminor (1588), but did not enter upon the government till 1596. During his long life (he died in 1648) he left nothing undone to perfect the administration of the country and to increase its power. He advanced trade and industry, founded colonies inIndia and supplied them with missionaries. He established higher institutions of learning, and did everything in his power to improve thecondition of the peasantry. Hostile complications withSweden began anew. They ended with the Peace of Knäröd, whichproved favourable to Denmark. As Duke of Holstein the king belonged to the Estates of the lower Saxon circle. These relations to NorthGermanyobliged Christian to take an active part in theThirty Years' War. His hesitation was his bane. When, in spite of the repeated warnings ofTilly, the general of the Catholic League, he did not discontinue his military preparations,Tilly crossed the Weser with his troops (June, 1625). After someminor engagements and long manoeuvrings, a decisive battle was fought near Lutter (27 Aug., 1626), which ended in the total defeat of Christian. Wallenstein,Tilly's successor, changed the defensive into an offensivewar. He fought his way into Holstein, stormed Rendsburg, Flensburg, and subdued the whole of Jutland. Nothing remained to the king but to retreat to the islands, and he was forced to conclude the relatively favourable Treaty of Lübeck. The subsequent thirteen years of peace so restored Denmark's military strength that in 1643 it could resist honourably, if not successfully, theunjust attack of itsSwedish neighbor. The peace of Brömsebro nevertheless demanded freshsacrifices from the unhappy kingdom (1645).

Hardly ten years had elapsed, when theSwedes fell again upon Christian's successor, Frederick III, without any previous declaration ofwar. King Charles X (Gustavus) marched 8,000 pickedSwedish troops into Jutland and, profiting by an unusually hard frost, which had covered the straits between the Danish islands with a thick crust of ice, crossed over to Zealand. He forced the capital to surrender and the king to accept the peace of Röskilde (1658), by which Denmark forever lost the provinces of Skåne, Halland, Blekinge, Bohuslän. Not content with these successes, Charles immediately regretted his leniency towards King Frederick, embarked at Kiel, and landed again on Zealand. Too weak to storm the capital at once, he was compelled to wait and in the meantime behold his adversary's active measures of defence. ADutch fleet also approached, forced its way through the Sound, brought troops and provisions to the defenders, andobliged theSwedes to erect a fortified camp. Meanwhile an auxiliary army, consisting of Poles,Austrians, andBrandenburgers, drove theSwedish garrisons out of Jutland. Moreover, the population of the newly acquired provinces assumed a menacing attitude; on Bornholm all theSwedes were slain in one night. Nevertheless Charles Gustavus did not give up the siege of Copenhagen, and in February, 1659, undertook a night attack which was repelled by the heroism of the besieged. Soon after, the allies crossed over to Fünen and captured theSwedish garrison. The early death of theSwedish king (13 Feb., 1660) preserved Denmark from impending ruin; the guardians of theSwedish heir apparent, then only five years of age, were content that the Peace of Copenhagen (1660) guaranteed them the possession of the newly acquired territory with the exception of Bornholm and a fewNorwegian districts. These disastrous years had onegood effect on the Danish people: theclergy, middle classes, and peasants upheld their king; his crown was declared hereditary, and with their help he annihilated the power of the nobility and secured for himself absolute authority. The government was altered to meet the needs of the times; the tax system was regulated, and the growing revenue made it possible to increase the nation's military strength. At the same time the pitifulcondition of the peasants remained unchanged.

Christian V (1670-1699) adopted the French regime as far as possible, invited German nobles into his country, and granted them extensiveprivileges. Naturally, the youthful sovereign attempted to bring back to Denmark its former greatness; in 1675 he beganwar withSweden. His fleet destroyed that of the enemy off Oeland (1676). He himself crossed over to Skåne, and hisNorwegian troops made an inroad into Westgötland. The loss of the battle ofLund (8 Dec., 1676) forced him to make peace in that city.Sweden kept its possessions, and Denmark received only a small indemnity (1679).

King Christian survived these events twenty peaceful years. His son, Frederick IV (1690-1730), had to take an active part in the Northern War; but no great battles took place, nor was Denmark subject to grievous devastation. Eventually (1720) the Gottorp section ofSchleswig was retained by Denmark.

Frederick was succeeded by the pietistic Christian VI, under whose rule hardly any changes took place. His consort induced him, however, to erect extravagant structures, which proved a heavy burden on the finances.

Under Frederick V (1746-1766) commerce and industry,sciences and arts throve, though theeconomic situation was very unsatisfactory.

His son, Christian VII, ruined himself by his debaucheries. Theinfidel German physician Strünse, in whom the queen reposed her entire confidence, gained a great, and partly baleful, influence over the administration. He fell a victim to a conspiracy, whereupon the queen had to leave Denmark.

The crown prince, who had been actual ruler during the lifetime of hisfather, reigned fifty-five years as Frederick VI. In concert with his excellent minister Bernstorff, he devoted himself to the welfare of his people, abolished serfdom (1788), and advanced, as far as lay in him, thehappiness of his subjects. In 1801, however, he was involved in a conflict with Great Britain, which resented Denmark's resolution to remain neutral in the conflict between Great Britain andFrance. An indecisive naval engagement took place before Copenhagen. After the Treaty of Tilsit,England sought to paralyze Denmark, then under the influence ofRussia andFrance, and disembarking 30,000 men nearCopenhagen, forced the Danes to surrender their splendid fleet. The ensuingwar with Great Britain ruined Denmark financially. Moreover, it was forced to cedeNorway toSweden by the treaty of Kiel (1814). The modern tendency towards the increase of civil liberty prevailed also in Denmark.

In 1835 the monarch granted a constitution which remained in force under King Christian VIII (1838-48). In the latter reign occurred the first friction of the Danes with the German element inSchleswig, where the latter constituted a strong majority. Still, an open rupture was avoided during the king's life. The contest began in earnest when Frederick VIII ascended the throne. The Germans desired that the two duchies ofSchleswig and Holstein should be made one State, which should belong to the German Confederation and be connected with Denmark only by a personal union. The Government sought to counteract this movement by various measures, partly of an odious character. Representatives of the German party at last (23-24 March, 1848) proclaimed the independence of the duchies and appointed a provisional government whose head was Prince Frederick of Sonderburg-Augustenburg. The garrisons at Kiel, Eckernförde, and Glückstadt went over to him, and the fortress of Rendsburg fell into his hands without a blow. Volunteers from all sides rallied round his standard.

As the King of Denmark did not yield to the wishes of the rebels,war began. The army of Schleswig-Holstein was at first worsted (at Bau and Flensburg), but whenPrussian reinforcements under Wrangel arrived, the Danes were forced to retreat. The intervention of King Oscar of Sweden brought about the truce of Malmö, but its negotiationsproved fruitless. Hostilities began again in the spring of 1849, and were continued with varying success (defeat of the Danes at Eckernförde, Düppel, Kolding, their victory of Fredericia). The diplomatic intrigues of the Great Powers compelledPrussia to make peace with Denmark (2 July, 1850) and to withdraw her soldiers. Unassisted, the small army of the duchies now opposed the Danes, but was completely routed in the battle of Idstedt (29 July, 1850). On 27 August of the same year theEuropean Powers signed a declaration atLondon by which the unity of the Danish monarchy was guaranteed. An Austrian contingent occupied Holstein, restored Danish rule, and dissolved the army of the duchies.

During the truce of Malmö (1848) the first Danish Parliament was assembled by the king. After long and excited debates, a really liberal constitution was accepted 5 June, 1849, according to which the administrative power is substantially divided between the king and the representatives of the people (Folkething and Landsthing). All efforts to regulate the relations with the duchies were fruitless. In the autumn of 1863, therefore, the Government proposed a bill according to which Denmark and Schleswig should receive a common constitution, while Holstein-Lauenburg, as a member of the German Confederacy, was not included. This so-called "November Law", which was to go into effect the first day of January, 1864, was accepted by an overwhelming majority. After the death of Frederick VII, King Christian IX, in spite of many warnings, approved of this new law. For this reason complications arose with the German Confederacy and later with its principal members,Prussia andAustria. Saxon andHanoverian troops now occupied Holstein. An army consisting ofPrussians and Austrians crossed the Eider (6 Feb., 1864) and, within three months, occupied the whole ofSchleswig and Jutland as far as Lymfjord. A conference inLondon produced no results, and thewar started anew. Düppel soon fell, Alsen was occupied, and even the island of Fünen was threatened. At this juncture the Treaty ofVienna was signed, by which the duchies were ceded toAustria andPrussia. By its victoriouswar of 1866Prussia became finally the sole possessor of these Danish territories.

The loss ofSchleswig having made useless the November law, the Constitution of 1849 was modified 26 July, 1866, and it is this revised and more liberal constitution which is still in force. Years of internal discord now followed, as the Radicals strove constantly to diminish therights of the king, and as he was compelled to adopt extraordinary measures owing to his non-acceptance of the proposed budget. Not till the resignation of the conservative ministry of Estrup (1894) was there a temporary cessation of strife. Party rivalries and the steadily increasing propaganda of Socialism kept the country in a state of turmoil, and caused no little difficulty both to Christian IX and to Frederick VIII, who succeeded to the throne on the death of his aged father (29 January, 1906).

Literary history

It is manifest that no literature proper could exist in Denmark in pre-Christian times. There exist, however, some 200 rune-stones, some of whose inscriptions possess historical value. The exploits of the vikings were first recorded by Saxon and someIcelandic chroniclers. These records are not always original, but are partly influenced by foreign myths. The principal subject is piratical exploits. With the adoption ofChristianity the influence and use of the Latin tongue becomes predominant. The first products (twelfth century) here, as everywhere else, were lives ofsaints, followed inLund and Röskilde by annalistic necrologies. The energeticArchbishop Absalon, a man of muchintellectual power, fostered greatly the growth of historical literature. To his initiative we owe two important works: the "Compendiosa historia regum Daniæ", by Svend Aageson, and the voluminous "Gesta Danorum", bySaxo Grammaticus, the latter part of which chronicles events of his own personal experience or such as were related to him by eyewitnesses, while its introductory chapters often rest on pure tradition. Among the poetical creations of the earliest times must be mentioned the didactic poem "Hexaemeron", by Anders Suneson (b. 1165), who also composed a poem, now lost, on the sevensacraments, and varioushymns. The first attempts to put the ancient "folk-law" into writing were made in the thirteenth century. The "Jydske Lov", also accepted inSchleswig, was reduced to writing by order of Waldemar the Victorious (1241). Simultaneously the ancientlaws of Skåne and Zealand were written down. The ecclesiastical law also was soon a subject for literary treatment. The thirteenth century, moreover, saw the appearance of popular treatises on herbs and stones, cookery-books, and a kind of encyclopedia, the "Lucidarius", whose pages contain not onlycatechetical instruction, but also information as to geography and nature. Fanciful descriptions of voyages and translations of French romances of knightly adventures gained a wide circle of readers. The "Rhymed Chronicle" (supposed to be written by amonk of Soröe) sought to kindle in the hearts of its readerslove for their country. From Peter Laale's "Collection of Proverbs" we obtain a fairly definite picture of the contemporary civilization of Denmark.

Religious literature owes much to theBrigittines (seeBRIDGET OF SWEDEN). Apart from the "Revelations" of their foundress, they producedhomilies,prayer-books, lives of thesaints,hymns to the Blessed Virgin; a translation of theBible was also undertaken (1480). The most important religious poet of the DanishMiddle Ages was Michael Nicolai,parishpriest ofSt. Alban's atOdense. There is still extant a large work by him entitled "Rosary of the Most Bl. Virgin" (1496), not entirely original, however. He also composed short poems. Some of his writings, printed atCopenhagen (1514), were incorporated with changes in theLutheran hymn-book.

In literature, Denmark, for easily intelligible reasons, has accomplished less than the great nations ofEurope. Folk-songs of varied character, however, were always abundant. These compositions were not written down till late, and even now they are a rich mine for Danish poets. When the religious upheaval carried Denmark away from theCatholicChurch, the Scandinavians had reached a comparatively low degree of culture. Since 1497 there had been auniversity atCopenhagen, but this was scarcely more than an enlargedcathedral-school, and was even discontinued for a time (1531). TheReformation did little to raise the plane of general culture. After theproperty of theChurch had been confiscated, literature andscience were no longer maintained, and there arose a universal complaint of the encroachment of barbarism. Few were willing to send their children toschool; still smaller was the number of those who matriculated at theuniversity. More than half of the forty professors whom Christian III appointed at its reopening were Germans. The king and his court never used the Danish language. Students oftheology were forced to frequentWittenberg orRostock. A denationalized civilization and an exaggerated interest intheology were the natural consequences. For literature it was a poor and barren epoch, and in it, apart from Bible-translations, churchhymns, and polemical essays, there appeared only lifeless academic dramas and spiritless, imperfect poetry.

Towards the middle of the seventeenth centurytheology lost its sway over men'sminds. Other fields, especially the exactsciences, began to absorb the attention of scholars. During this period Denmark produced men like Steno and his relative Minslöw (both of whom becameCatholics), Tycho Brahe, and others, all of whom may be regarded as pioneers in their respective branches. At the same time, a keeninterest was displayed in antiquarian research, and called forth the first editions ofIcelandic sagas. By contact with other countries, secular poetry, uncultivated during theReformation period, began to awake. However, the poets of the seventeenth century were unable to rise above the purely formal conception of poetry; they slavishly followed German writers and were satisfied with translations and adaptations. Even the hymn-writer Ringo was not free from foreign influence. At last the conflict betweenEnglishutilitarianism and the rapidly growing pietism under Christian IV prepared the way for genuine national poetry. The first Danish poet, in the proper sense of the word, is Holberg (1684-1754). His comedies and epistles faithfully mirror the conceptions of the Danish provincial townsman. The sensualism of Bellman and otherSwedish poets did not find a favourable soil in Denmark. Neither did the French illuministic literature at first strike deep roots. It was not till the end of theFrench Revolution that the new tendencies found an enthusiastic champion in Heiberg, who created a stir as a satirist and composer of political poems. Then, also, was inaugurated thenecessary reaction against the undueintellectual sway ofGermany. Though the dramatist John Ewald (1743-1781) was unable to throw off the yoke of German influence, he succeeded in eliciting purely national strains from his lyre. The same istrue of Hens Baggesen (b. 1764), whose tales show clearly the influence of Wieland. Married to a German lady, and on friendly terms with the prominent German poets of his time, he produced almost as many and as good lyrics in that language as in his mother tongue. Both in success and popularity he was surpassed by the greatest poetical genius of Denmark, Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger (1779-1850), the son of a German father. Oehlenschläger first became famous as a lyric poet, then treated myths in an epic form, and later cultivated the drama. It was his purpose, no less than his merit, to breathe new life into the heroic tales of olden times. But even he did not use Danish exclusively. Rich inhonour and glory, he died in 1850, atCopenhagen. J. G. Hauch (1790-1872) a writer of mystical drama succeeded him. Ad. Will. Schack of Stafeld (1764-1826), whose ancestors were German, won renown as a lyric poet. While these men may be regarded as fathers and representatives of romanticism in Denmark, Nik. Fred. Sev. Grundtvig (1783-1872) was more "Old Scandinavian" than Ohlenschläger, and of course occasionally blundered. Far superior to his dramatic works are his religious and secular songs. (For his relation toChristianity andtheology, see above.)

The path pointed out by Oehlenschläger was pursued by many younger writers. Among them Ingemann (1789-1862), by his elegant dramas and popular historical romances, was the acknowledged favourite of large circles, especially of ladies. Some became famous outside of their country. Bredahl (1784-1860), an imitator ofShakespeare; Blicher (1782-1842); and the poet of sensuallove, Winther (1796-1876), whose novels strikingly reproduce the peculiar charms of the Danish landscape. A world-wide fame rewarded the renowned author of fairy-tales, Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875). In opposition to the poetry of the Romanticists. Louis Heiberg (1791-1860) wrote his satires and theatrical pieces. Frederick Paludan Müller (1809-1876) showed traces of the influence of Byron. The vigorous, highly original Soeren Kirkegaard (1815-65) showed how poor a substitute for religion is æsthetics. Molbech, Boegh,Rumohr, Etlar, finally the DanishJew Meir Goldschmidt and William Bergsoe must be considered as the heralds and pioneers of that Anglo-Gallic realism which under the favour of the Jewish critic George Brandes (b. 1842) found its way to the North, and has ever since influenced the literature of Denmark in every direction. Its controlling power is seen in the novels of the pessimist Jacobsen, whose "Marie Grubbe" and "Niels Lyhne" created a newschool. Among other representatives of thisschool of literature (Gyennembruds literature) may be mentioned the lately deceased marinepainter and poet Holger Drachmann, Sophus Schandorf, Erik Gram, Hermann Bang. Drachmann (b. 1846) was in his youth influenced by Socialism, but later changed his views and wrote lyrics and prose successfully. Great popularity was attained by his patriotic work "Derovre fra Gransen" and his collections of poems "Sange ved Havet", "Ranker och Roser", "Gamle Guder og nye". Schandorf's power lies in his vivid portrayal of peasants and the lower middle class. Erik Gram, in his novel "Gertrude Colbjörnsen", follows in the footsteps of Jacobsen, while a warm patriotism breathes in his book "Hinsides Grensen". Hermann Bang's writings have force, but his style is at times obscure. He has shown his many-sidedness as a dramatist, journalist, critic, actor, and lecturer.

Among the many modern Danish authors may be mentioned Pontoppidan, Topso, Mariager, Bauditz, Nielsen, and Amalie Skram (novels); von der Recke, Magdalene Thoresen (lyrics and dramas), Budde (juvenile works), Lange (translations). Within the last two decades have appeared numerous works of more or less value in different fields. We mention here only twoCatholics: John Jörgensen and John Fredericksen; the former is now reckoned among the most fertile writers of his nation, while the delicate "Digte" (poems) of the latter are worthy of wider recognition.

The fine arts

Architecture

As mentioned above, the firstChristian temple on Danish soil was the church at Hedeby (Schleswig). According toAdam of Bremen (d. 1075), Denmark possessed in his time 300 churches in Skåne, 250 in Zealand, 100 on Fünen; probably all were constructed of wood. Even thecathedral of Röskilde was originally of this material. The same holds good for the churchesad S. Mariam andad S. Albanum atOdense, in which Saint Canute met his death and which was not torn down till after theReformation. The woodencathedral ofSt. Olaf atAarhus fell down in 1548. Wooden churches remained long in use in South Jutland (Schleswig). But in North Jutland and on the islands, as early as the middle of the twelfth century, other material was used, according as the quarries were close at hand or easily accessible, e.g. granite, sandstone, limestone, or chalk-stone; sometimes tufa from the Rhine was employed. Frequently only the exterior of the walls was constructed of stronger material, the intervals were filled up with a mixture. The use of burned brick was soon adopted everywhere. Waldemar I (d. 1182) substituted for the wooden palisades of theDanawerk (see above) a wall of brick. After him most of the new buildings were exclusively constructed of this material, e.g., the churches atAarhus, Randers, Elsinore, Röskilde, Ringsted, Næstved, Maribo, etc. Often free-stone was used for the foundations (up to a certain height), while walls and arches were built of brick. In some places (e.g. in Kjöge) layers of different stone alternate. The variations of style (basilica, round arches, pointed arches) succeed each other as in the rest ofEurope, though they were partly influenced byCistercian andBrigittine forms. Alongside of churches with parallelnaves are others withtransepts, and even round churches. Church steeples seem to have occasionally served as means of defence. After the religiousschism, people confined themselves in the main to preserving the existing buildings. The beautifultemples now used inProtestant worship were all built inCatholic times. On the other hand, the Evangelical kings spent large amounts in erecting and furnishing splendid castles, among which we may mention Kronborg (sixteenth) and Frederiksborg (seventeenth century). Only Copenhagen exhibits important edifices of modern times, e.g. St. Mary's church, the Thorwaldsen museum; Peter Fenger, who won fame as a designer of churches and as an author; Chr. Fr. Hansen, builder of churches and public buildings; Theophilus Hansen, an eminent master whose works embellishAustria and Greece; Henry Hansen, whose influence on artistic handicrafts in Denmark can hardly be over-estimated; finally, Harsdorf, Melbye, and Uldall; the last deserves special credit as the historian of bell-casting.

Sculpture

That the art of carving and chiselling was practised diligently and with some success ever since the introduction ofChristianity, isproved by altars, crucifixes, choir stalls, etc. still found in churches or museums. The names of the masters can, however, rarely be ascertained with any degree ofcertainty. Weknow, e.g., that a certain Liutger is the maker of a very fine crucifix carved from a walrus-tooth. This cross now adorns the Danish National Museum and bears the inscription: "Qui in Christum crucifixum credunt, Liutgeri memoriam orando faciant". The sixteenth century seems to have been barren of skilfulsculptors. We onlyknow that a certain Berg, a German born inLübeck, carved beautifulivory ornaments and also distinguished himself as apainter. Many artists from various countries worked either permanently or temporarily in Denmark (Germans: as Rössler, Preisler, Reinhardt, Schwabe; Englishmen: as Stanley;Frenchmen: as Villars, Boudan, Prieur;Italians: as Gianelli, Miani, Guioni;Spaniards: as Molinedo, de Corte; Dutchmen: as Vermehren, van Egen;Jews: as Levi, Levisohn, Saly, Salamon). Among the nativesculptors, Bissen, Jerichau, Peters, and Wiedewelt deserve mention, and above all the famous Thorwaldsen (1770-1844); the engravers Clemns and Lund; the engravers Adzer and Christiansen.

Painting

There was never a lack ofpainters in Denmark. This isproved by the great number of beautiful frescoes in thecathedrals ofAarhus,Ribe, Röskilde,Viborg, etc., whitewashed in the sixteenth century, but re-discovered of late and restored at great cost. Abildgaard (1743-1809), himself a notable artist (historicalpainter), must be considered as the father of the Danishschool ofpainting in modern times, which has produced excellent works of art along various lines. Among the historicalpainters are Eckersberg, C. C. C. Hansen,Christ, Höyer, Marstrand, Müller, Paulsen, Simonsen, and Albert Küchler (died aCatholic andFranciscan lay-brother atRome 1886). The pictures of his youth exhibit ajoyous mood; the creations of his later life show a deep earnestness. Skilful portrait-painters are Bache, Bendz, Baerentzen, Copmann, H. Hansen, Juel, Roed; genrepainters are Exner, Hammer, Sönne; Ottesen was distinguished as a flower-painter; miniature-painters: Höyer as a miniaturist. Especial preference is given to landscapes, marine and animal canvases. Excellent landscapepainters were (or are) Aegard, Kröyer, Lundbye, Hens Müller, Skovgaard; marinepainters: Larsen, Melbye, Neumann; beautiful reproductions of animal life are to be credited to Gebauer and Lundbye.

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