Clement of Alexandria

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(Properly TITUS FLAVIUS CLEMENS, but known inchurch history by the former designation to distinguish him fromClement of Rome).

Date of birth unknown; died about the year 215. St. Clement was an early Greektheologian and head of thecatecheticalschool of Alexandria. Athens is given as the starting-point of his journeyings, and was probably his birthplace. He became a convert to the Faith and travelled from place to place in search of higher instruction, attaching himself successively to different masters: to a Greek of Ionia, to another of Magna Graecia, to a third of Coele-Syria, after all of whom he addressed himself in turn to anEgyptian, an Assyrian, and a converted PalestinianJew. At last he met Pantænus in Alexandria, and in his teaching "found rest".

The place itself was well chosen. It was natural thatChristian speculation should have a home at Alexandria. This great city was at the time a centre of culture as well as of trade. A greatuniversity had grown up under the long-continued patronage of the State. Theintellectual temper was broad and tolerant, as became a city where so many races mingled. Thephilosophers were critics or eclectics, andPlato was the most favoured of the old masters.Neo-Platonism, the philosophy of the newpagan renaissance, had aprophet at Alexandria in theperson of Ammonius Saccas. TheJews, too, who were there in very large numbers breathed its liberal atmosphere, and had assimilated secular culture. They there formed the most enlightened colony of theDispersion. Having lost the use of Hebrew, they found itnecessary to translate the Scriptures into the more familiar Greek.Philo, their foremost thinker, became a sort of JewishPlato. Alexandria was, in addition, one of the chief seats of that peculiar mixedpagan andChristian speculation known asGnosticism.Basilides and Valentinus taught there. It is no matter of surprise, therefore, to find some of theChristians affected in turn by the scientific spirit. At an uncertain date, in the latter half of the second century, "aschool of oral instruction" was founded. Lectures were given to whichpagan hearers were admitted, and advanced teaching toChristians separately. It was an official institution of theChurch. Pantænus is the earliest teacher whose name has been preserved. Clement first assisted and then succeeded Pantænus in the direction of theschool, about A.D. 190. He was already known as aChristian writer before the days ofPope Victor (188-199).

About this time he may have composed the "Hortatory Discourse to the Greeks" (Protreptikos pros Ellenas) It is a persuasive appeal for the Faith, written in a lofty strain. The discourse opens with passages which fall on the ear with the effect of sweet music. Amphion and Arion by their minstrelsy drew after them savage monsters and moved the very stones; Christ is the noblest minstrel. His harp and lyre are men. He draws music from their hearts by theHoly Spirit: nay, Christ is Himself the New Canticle, whose melody subdues the fiercest and hardest natures. Clement then proceeds to show the transcendence of theChristian religion. He contrastsChristianity with the vileness ofpagan rites and with the faint hope ofpagan poetry andphilosophers. Man is born forGod. The Word calls men to Himself. The fulltruth is found in Christ alone. The work ends with a description of the God-fearingChristian. He answers those who urge that it is wrong todesert one's ancestral religion.

The work entitled "Outlines" (Hypotyposeis) is likewise believed to be a production of the early activity of Clement. It was translated into Latin by Rufinus under the title "Dispositiones". It was in eight books, but is no longer extant, though numerous fragments have been preserved in Greek byEusebius,Oecumenius, Maximus Confessor, John Moschos, and Photius. According to Zahn, a Latin fragment, "Adumbrationes Clementis Alexandrini in epistolas canonicas", translated byCassiodorus and purged of objectionable passages, represents in part the text of Clement.Eusebius represents the "Outlines" as an abridged commentary, withdoctrinal and historical remarks on the entire Bible and on the non-canonical "Epistle of Barnabas" and "Apocalypse of Peter". Photius, who had also read it describes it as a series of explanations of Biblical texts especially of Genesis, Exodus, the Psalms, Ecclesiastes and the Pauline andCatholic Epistles. He declares the work sound on some points, but adds that it contains "impieties and fables", such as theeternity of matter, the creatureship of the Word, plurality of words (Logoi),Docetism,metempsychosis, etc. Conservative scholars are inclined to believe that Photius has thrown the mistakes of Clement, whatever they may have been, into undue relief. Clement's style is difficult, his works are full of borrowed excerpts, and his teaching is with difficulty reduced to a coherent body ofdoctrine. And this early work, being a scattered commentary onHoly Writ, must have been peculiarly liable to misconstruction. It iscertain that several of the more serious charges can rest upon nothing but mistakes. At any rate, his extant writings show Clement in a better light.

Other works of his are the "Miscellanies" (Stromateis) and "The Tutor" (Paidagogos). The "Miscellanies" comprise seven entire books, of which the first four are earlier than "The Tutor". When he had finished this latter work he returned to the "Miscellanies", which he was never able to finish. The first pages of the work are now missing. What has been known as the eighth book since the time ofEusebius is nothing more than a collection of extracts drawn frompaganphilosophers. It is likely, as von Annin has suggested, that Clement had intended to make use of these materials together with the abridgement of Theodotus (Excerpts from Theodotus and the Eastern School of Valentinus) and the "Eclogae Propheticae". Extracts from the Prophets (not extracts, but notes at random on texts or Scriptural topics) for the continuation of the "Miscellanies". In the "Miscellanies" Clement disclaims order and plan. He compares the work to a meadow where all kinds of flowers grow at random and, again, to a shady hill or mountain planted with trees of every sort. In fact, it is a loosely related series of remarks, possibly notes of his lectures in theschool. It is the fullest of Clement's works. He starts with the importance ofphilosophy for the pursuit ofChristianknowledge. Here he is perhaps defending his own scientific labours from local criticism of conservative brethren. He shows howfaith is related toknowledge, and emphasizes the superiority of revelation to philosophy.God'struth is to be found in revelation, another portion of it inphilosophy. It is theduty of theChristian to neglect neither. Religiousscience, drawn from his twofold source, is even an element of perfection, the instructedChristian — "thetrue Gnostic" is the perfectChristian. He who has risen to this height is far from the disturbance of passion; he is united toGod, and in a mysterious sense is one with Him. Such is the line of thought indicated in the work, which is full of digressions.

"The Tutor" is a practical treatise in three books. Its purpose is to fit the ordinaryChristian by a disciplined life to become an instructedChristian. In ancient times thepaedagogus was the slave who had constant charge of a boy, his companion at all times. On him depended the formation of the boy's character. such is the office of the Word Incarnate towards men. He first summons them to be HIS, then He trains them in His ways. His ways are temperate, orderly, calm, and simple. Nothing is too common or trivial for the Tutor's care. His influence tells on the minute details of life, on one's manner of eating, drinking, sleeping, dressing, taking recreation, etc. The moral tone of this work is kindly; very beautiful is the ideal of a transfigured life described at the close. In the editions of Clement "The Tutor" is followed by two short poems, the second of which, addressed to the Tutor, is from somepious reader of the work; the first, entitled "A Hymn of the Saviour Christ" (Hymnos tou Soteros Christou), is, in themanuscripts which contain it, attributed to Clement. Thehymn may be the work of Clement (Bardenhewer). or it may be of as early a date as the Gloria in Excesis (Westcott).

Some scholars see in the chief writings of Clement, the "Exhortation", "The Tutor", the "Miscellanies", a great trilogy representing a graduated initiation into theChristian life —belief, discipline,knowledge — three states corresponding to the three degrees of theneo-Platonic mysteries — purification, initiation, and vision. Some such underlying conception was doubtless before the mind of Clement, but it can hardly be said to have been realized. He was too unsystematic. Besides these more important works, he wrote the beautiful tract, "Who is the rich man who shall be saved? (tis ho sozomenos plousios). It is an exposition of St. Mark, x, 17-31, wherein Clement shows that wealth is not condemned by the Gospel as intrinsicallyevil; its morality depends on the good or ill use made of it. The work concludes with the narrative of the young man who wasbaptized, lost, and again rewon by theApostle St. John. The date of the composition cannot be fixed. We have the work almost in its entirety. Clement wrotehomilies onfasting and onevil speaking, and he also used his pen in the controversy on thePaschal question.

Duchesne (Hist. ancienne de l'Église, I, 334 sqq.) thus summarizes the remaining years of Clement's life. He did not end his life at Alexandria. Thepersecution fell uponEgypt in the year 202, andcatechumens were pursued with special intent of law. Thecatecheticalschool suffered accordingly. In the first two books of the "Miscellanies", written at this time, we find more than one allusion to the crisis. At length Clement feltobliged to withdraw. We find him shortly after at Caesarea in Cappadocia beside his friend and former pupil Bishop Alexander. Thepersecution is active there also, and Clement is fulfilling a ministry oflove. Alexander is inprison forChrist's sake, Clement takes charge of theChurch in his stead, strengthens thefaithful, and is even able to draw in additional converts. We learn this from a letter written in 211 or 212 by Alexander to congratulate theChurch of Antioch on the election Asclepiades to thebishopric. Clement himself undertook to deliver the letter in person, being known to the faithful of Antioch. In another letter written about 215 toOrigen Alexander speaks of Clement as of one then dead.

Clement has had no notable influence on the course oftheology beyond his personal influence on the youngOrigen. His writings were occasionally copied, as byHippolytus in his "Chronicon", by Arnobius, and byTheodoret of Cyrus.St. Jerome admired his learning.Pope Gelasius in the catalogue attributed to him mentions Clement's works, but adds, "they are in no case to be received amongst us". Photius in the "Bibliotheca" censures a list oferrors drawn from his writings, but shows a kindly feeling towards Clement, assuming that the original text had been tampered with. Clement has in fact been dwarfed in history by the towering grandeur of the greatOrigen, who succeeded him at Alexandria. Down to the seventeenth century he wasvenerated as a saint. His name was to be found in themartyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December. But when the Roman Martyrology was revised byPope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of CardinalBaronius.Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known that he had never obtained public cultus in theChurch, and that some of his doctrines were, if noterroneous, at least suspect. In more recent times Clement has grown in favour for his charming literary temper, his attractive candour, thebrave spirit which made him a pioneer intheology, and his leaning to the claims ofphilosophy. He is modern in spirit. He was exceptionally well-read. He had a thoroughknowledge of the whole range of Biblical andChristian literature, oforthodox andheretical works. He was fond of letters also, and had a fineknowledge of thepagan poets andphilosophers; heloved to quote them, too, and has thus preserved a number of fragments of lost works. The mass of facts and citations collected by him and pieced together in his writings is in fact unexampled in antiquity, though it is not unlikely that he drew at times upon theflorilegia, or anthologies, exhibiting choice passages of literature.

Scholars have found it no easy task to sum up the chief points of Clement's teaching. As has already been intimated, he lacks technical precision and makes no pretense to orderly exposition. It is easy, therefore, to misjudge him. We accept the discriminating judgment of Tixeront. Clement'srule of faith was sound. He admitted the authority of theChurch's tradition. He would be, first of all, aChristian, accepting "the ecclesiastical rule", but he would also strive to remain aphilosopher, and bring his reason to bear in matters of religion. "Few are they", he said, "who have taken the spoils of the Egyptians, and made of them the furniture of the Tabernacle." He set himself, therefore, with philosophy as an instrument, to transformfaith intoscience, and revelation intotheology. TheGnostics had already pretended to possess thescience offaith, but they were, in fact, mererationalists, or rather dreamers of fantastic dreams. Clement would have nothing butfaith for the basis of his speculations. He cannot, therefore, be accused of disloyalty in will. But he was a pioneer in a difficult undertaking, and it must be admitted that he failed at times in his high endeavour. He was careful to go toHoly Scripture for hisdoctrine; but he misused the text by his faultyexegesis. He had read all the Books of theNew Testament except the Second Epistle of St. Peter and the Third Epistle of St. John. "In fact", Tixeront says, "his evidence as to the primitive form of the Apostolic writings is of the highest value." Unfortunately, he interpreted the Scripture after the manner of Philo. He was ready to find allegory everywhere. The facts of theOld Testament became mere symbols to him. He did not, however, permit himself so much freedom with theNew Testament.

The special field which Clement cultivated led him to insist on the difference between thefaith of the ordinaryChristian and thescience of the perfect, and his teaching on this point is most characteristic of him. The perfectChristian has an insight into "the great mysteries" of man, of nature, of virtue — which the ordinaryChristian accepts without clear insight. Clement has seemed to some to exaggerate the moral worth of religiousknowledge; it must however be remembered that he praises not mere sterileknowledge, butknowledge which turns tolove. It isChristian perfection that he extols. The perfectChristian — thetrue Gnostic whom Clement loves to describe — leads a life of unalterable calm. And here Clement's teaching is undoubtedly colored byStoicism. He is really describing not so much theChristian with his sensitive feelings and desires under due control, but the idealStoic who has deadened his feelings altogether. The perfectChristian leads a life of utter devotion thelove in his heart prompts him to live always in closest union withGod byprayer, to labour for the conversion ofsouls, tolove his enemies, and even to enduremartyrdom itself.

Clement preceded the days of the Trinitarian controversies. He taught in theGodhead three Terms. Some criticsdoubt whether he distinguished them as Persons, but a careful reading of him proves that he did. The Second Term of the Trinity is the Word. Photius believed that Clement taught a plurality of Words, whereas in reality Clement merely drew a distinction between the Father's Divine immanent attribute of intelligence and the Personal Word Who is the Son. The Son iseternally begotten, and has the very attributes of the Father. They are but oneGod. So far, in fact, does Clement push this notion of unity as to seem to approach Modalism. And yet, so loose a writer is he that elsewhere are found disquieting traces of the very oppositeerror of Subordinationism. These, however, may be explained away. In fact, he needs to be judged, more than writers generally, not by a chance phrase here or there, but by the general drift of his teaching. Of the Holy Ghost he says little, and when he does refer to theThird Person of the Blessed Trinity he adheres closely to the language of Scripture. He acknowledges two natures in Christ. Christ is the Man-God, who profits us both asGod and as man. Clement evidently regards Christ as one Person — the Word. Instances of the interchange of idioms are frequent in his writings. Photius has accused Clement ofDocetism. Clement, however, clearly admits in Christ a real body, but he thought this body exempt from the common needs of life, as eating and drinking, and thesoul of Christ exempt from the movement of the passions, ofjoy, and of sadness.

Editions

The works of Clement of Alexandria were first edited by P. Victorius (Florence, 1550). The most complete edition is that of J. Potter, "Clementis Alexandrini opera quae extant omnia" (Oxford, 1715; Venice, 1757), reproduced inMigne, P.G. VIII, IX. The edition of G. Dindort (Oxford, 1869) is declared unsatisfactory by competent judges. A new complete edition by O. Stahlin is appearing in the Berlin "Griechisehen christlichen Schriftsteller", etc. So far (1908) two volumes have been published: the "Protrepticus" and the"Paedagogus" (Leipzig, 1905), and the"Stromata" (Bks. I -VI, ibid., 1906). The preface to the first volume (pp. 1-83) contains the best account of themanuscripts and editions of Clement. Among the separate editions of his works the following are noteworthy: Hort and Mayor, "Miscellanies", Bk. VII, with English translation (London, 1902); Zahn, "Adumbrationes" in "Forschungen zur Geschiehte des Neutestamentlichen Kanons", III, and "Supplementum Clementinum" (Erlangen, 1884); Köster, "Quis dives salvetur?" (Freiburg, 1893). The last-mentioned work was also edited by P.M. Barnard in "Cambridge Texts and Studies" by W. Wilson (1897), and translated by him in "Early Church Classics" for the S.P.C.K. (London, 1901). For an English translation of all the writings of Clement see Ante-Nicene Christian Library (New York).

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