Christian Archaeology

Please help support the mission of New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more — all for only $19.99...

Christian archaeology is that branch of thescience of archaeology the object of which is the study of ancientChristian monuments. The modern historian who endeavours to reconstruct the life of the primitiveChristians has two sources of information to draw upon, namely: literary and monumental sources. By literary sources is commonly understood the existing remains of earlyChristian literature; monumental sources consist of the various classes of objects of a material character surviving from antiquity, which were produced byChristians or underChristian influence, sepulchral inscriptions,paintings,sculptures churches, and the products of the minor arts. The principal aim ofChristian archaeology, as indicated, is to ascertain all that is possible relative to the manners and customs of the earlyChristians from the monuments ofChristian antiquity. Any attempt to determine the date when the period loosely designated "Christian Antiquity" gave place to themedieval period must of necessity be more or less arbitrary. As a consequence of this difficulty, differences of opinion exist among archaeologists as to the chronological limits to be assigned toChristian archaeology. However, such authorities asDe Rossi and Le Blant regard the beginning of the seventh century, or the death ofGregory the Great (604), as a date which marks sufficiently well the end of the ancient, and the beginning of themedieval period. In Gaul andGermanyChristian monuments preserved much of their ancient character till a century later.

Summary of its history

Thehonour of inaugurating the scientific study ofChristian antiquity belongs to an Augustinianmonk,Onofrio Panvinio, who in 1554 and 1568 published two important works on thebasilicas ofRome (De praecipuis urbis Romae sanctioribus basilicis) and on the cemeteries and sepulchral rites of the earlyChristians ("De ritu sepeliendi mortuos apud veteres Christianos et de eorum coemeteriis"). Ten years after the publication of the latter work, some labourers accidentally discovered (31 May, 1578), on the Via Salaria an ancient subterranean cemetery containing inscriptions and frescos of an unmistakablyChristian character. Among the first to visit the newly-discovered cemetery was theecclesiastical historianBaronius, who, though he recognized the importance of the find, yet took no part in contemporary explorations. He had, however, already commenced his great historical work, "Annales Ecclesiastici", the composition of which absorbed his whole attention. For fifteen years after the discovery on the Via Salaria the onlypersons to attempt any explorations in thecatacombs were aSpanishDominican, Alfonso Ciacconio and twoFlemishlaymen, Philip de Winghe and Jean l'Heureux. Ciacconio accomplished nothing of importance. The investigations of the twoFlemish explorers gave promise of better results, but their writings remained unpublished, and consequently had no influence on their contemporaries.

The first to begin the systematic exploration of the ancient Roman cemeteries orcatacombs, was the "Father of Christian Archaeology", Antonio Bosio. Born in Malta in 1575, Bosio was placed at an early age under the care of an uncle who resided atRome, asprocurator of the Knights of Malta. At the age of eighteen he was attracted to the study of the earlyChristian sepulchral monuments ofRome, and from thatdate till his death, in 1629, a period of thirty-six years, he devoted his life to the exploration of thecatacombs. Three years after his death (1632), the results of his investigations and studies were made known to the world in an Italian work entitled "Roma Sotterranea", edited by the Oratorian Severano, and published at the expense of the Order of Malta. The great merit of this work was at once recognized, and led to the publication by Aringhi, in 1651, of a Latin translation for the benefit of the savants ofEurope. The scientific character of Bosio's explorations has recently been confirmed by an interesting discovery.De Rossi, in spite of his admiration for Bosio maintained that the cemetery of Sts. Mark and Marcellianus, in whichPope Damasus wasinterred, lay to the right of the Via Ardeatina and not to the left as Bosio believed. In 1902 both thecrypts of Pope Damasus and of Sts. Mark and Marcellianus were discovered by Wilpert, and in the locality indicated by Bosio. Important as was the work of Bosio, it was, however, in one department defective. The copies ofcatacombpaintings made for his "Roma Sotterranea" have been very often found by Wilpert to be quite inaccurate. This fault must be attributed to Bosio's copyists.

For more than two centuries after the death of Bosio, little advance was made in the exploration of theRoman catacombs, the great treasure-house of the monuments of primitiveChristianity.Protestant writers either altogether ignored the discoveries of Bosio or refuted them to their own satisfaction, without ever having seen the monuments. Even Bingham, whose work on Christian Antiquities was published nearly a century after the first edition of Bosio's work appeared, made no use of the results of his investigations. YetCatholic authors scarcely showed more appreciation of the monuments than theirProtestant contemporaries. UnlikeDe Rossi in our own age, Bosio founded noschool of trained archaeologists to carry on the work he so happily inaugurated; the consequence of which was that all systematic exploration ceased at his death. Fabretti, in his collection of inscriptions published in 1699, devoted only one chapter (viii) toChristian inscriptions. Twenty-one years later, Boldetti, who held the office of custodian of thecatacombs, published an apologetic work of little value on the "Cemeteries of the holy Martyrs and ancient Christians of Rome". A work of Buonarotti on cemeterial glasses (Florence, 1716) is of greater merit. But the eighteenth century will be longer remembered for the destruction ofChristian monuments than for the labours of its archaeologists. Under the direction of Boldetti numerous inscriptions were removed from the places where they were originally erected, and scattered through various Roman churches, without any clear indication of the localities from which they were taken. These inscriptions were afterwards collected byBenedict XIV (1740-58) in the Christian Museum of the Vatican, of which he was founder. Many invaluable frescoes, also, were injured or destroyed during the eighteenth century. It would be natural to expect that the establishment of a department in connection with the Vatican Library for the collection ofChristian inscriptions and other relics of the early Church would arouse the curiosity of Roman antiquarians. Such is not the fact, however. For several years after the death ofBenedict XIV no one took any interest in thecatacombs in view of later occurrences it was, perhaps, as well that this was the case. About 1780,Seroux d'Agincourt visited several of the ancient cemeteries, and copied for publication in his "Histoire de Part par les monuments" (Paris, 1823), a number ofcatacomb frescoes. But M. d'Agincourt was not always satisfied with copies. Following the example of other explorers in the same field, he was too often desirous of obtaining the originalpaintings, and their inaugurated a more systematic destruction of monuments than any of his predecessors.

With the first half of the nineteenth century began a new epoch in archaeological studies. The work ofM. Raoul Rochette "Discours sur l'origine etc. des types qui constituent l'art du Christianisme" (Paris, 1834), and his "Tableau des Catacombes de Rome" (Paris, 1837) had the merit of arousing interest in theChristian monuments ofRome, although his conclusions were not at all convincing. InItaly, Sarti, Settele, Pasquini, De Minicis, Valentini, Manara, Cordero, and others produced works of minor importance on the subterranean-cemeterial monuments, theChristian sarcophagi, and the earlybasilicas of their country. Thehonour of inaugurating really important work, however, belongs to theJesuit Father Marchi. Marchi was the first to demonstrate the essential difference between the arenaria, or sand-pits in the vicinity ofRome, and the galleries of thecatacombs. In 1841 he published the first volume of what he intended to be an exhaustive work on earlyChristian art, for various reasons he was unable to complete the undertaking. But Marchi had associated with him, from the time he began to devote particular attention to theChristian monuments ofRome (1841), a young man, not yet twenty years of age, who was destined to take up the work of Bosio and elevateChristian archaeology to the dignity of ascience. This wasGiovanni Battista De Rossi (1822-94). The important work undertaken byDe Rossi was and that results of the greatest interest and importance for the history of the early Church might be obtained by systematic investigations carried out on scientific principles. No one was better qualified than himself to execute his plans, a fact recognized byPope Pius IX, who commissioned him to begin the work destined to be so fruitful in results.

The work ofDe Rossi which best reveals his immense learning and the scientific manner in which his investigations were carried out is his "Roma Sotterranea" (Rome, 1864-77, 3 vols., fol.). The time that has elapsed since the publication of the last volume of this trulymagnum opus has confirmed in the main the theories of its author on the civil and religious conditions of the primitiveChristians, and on the symbolic character of earlyChristian art. In 1863 he began the publication of his "Bullettino d'archeologia cristiana", a periodical almost as indispensable to the student ofChristian archaeology as the "Roma Sotterranea".De Rossi left at his death aschool of archaeologists, trained in his scientific methods, and capable of continuing his work. The three earliest of his disciples, Armellini, Stevenson, and Marucchi, have published numerous works giving the results of their own investigations, or popularizing the general results ofChristian archaeological discoveries, besides continuing the publication of the Bullettino under the title "Nuovo Bullettino d'archeologia cristiana". A publicist who accomplished considerable work of permanent value in the domain ofChristian archaeology was theJesuitGarrucci. His most important publication was a "History of Christian Art" in six volumes, which contains five hundred tables of illustrations. Many of these, however, have been found inaccurate and must be used with caution. His text also has been in a great measure superseded by that of recent writers. The best results achieved since the death ofDe Rossi are attributable to a young Germanpriest whoselove for archaeological studies drew him toRome nearly two decades ago: Mgr. Joseph Wilpert. Wilpert has devoted himself in a special manner to the study of earlyChristian painting, a department of archaeology to whichDe Rossi was unable to give the attention the subject deserved. In 1889 Wilpert published his "Principienfragen der christlichen Archaologie", a brochure defending the principles of interpretation of the Romanschool of archeologists against the attacks of German non-Catholic authors. In 1892 appeared his study on "Die Gottgeweihten Jungfrauen", a valuable contribution on the origins of thereligious life. In 1895 he published his "Fractio Panis," wherein he describes the cycle of sacred representations in thecrypt of St. Priscilla, known as the "Capella Greca", and shows their relation to the principal scene depicted in thatchapel, the eucharistic, or sacred-banquet, scene of theapse which he appropriately named"fractio panis", the Breaking of Bread. The signification of Orantes (praying) figures so frequently depicted on earlyChristian tombs was first satisfactorily explained by this writer in his "Cyclus christologischer Gemalde" (1891). His greatest work is his "Malereign der Katakomben Roms" (Freiburg, 1903). It consists of two folio volumes, one of plates reproducing more than six hundredcatacomb frescoes, half of them in colours; the other of text, in which the author, after laying down his principles of interpretation, classifies and describes the various cycles of the cemeterialpaintings and interprets their symbolical meaning. Another Germanpriest resident inRome, Mgr. de Waal, the founder and editor of the "Romische Quartalschrift", has written extensively on archaeological subjects; one of his best known works is a description, with illustrations, of the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (Rodney 1900).

The impetus given to the study of earlyChristian monuments by the discoveries and publications ofDe Rossi was immediately felt in every country ofEurope. TwoEnglishpriests,Northcote and Brownlow, were among the first to appreciate the importance of his work, which they popularized in their excellent "Roma Sotterranea" (London, 1869; second edition, 1878).Dr. Northcote also published a useful work onearly Christian inscriptions under the title "Epitaphs of the Catacombs" (London, 1878). The former of these works was translated into French by Allard; Kraus's "Roma Sotterranea" was partly a translation ofNorthcote and Brownlow, and partly an original work. Smith and Cheetham's "Dictionary of Christian Antiquities" (London 1875-80) is an evidence of the influence onEnglishProtestants of the Roman explorations, and the recently published manual of Lowrie, "Monuments of the Early Church" (New York, 1901), bears witness to the intelligent interest of AmericanProtestants in the most recent results ofChristian archaeological studies. Among the first inFrance to be influenced by the archaeological revival ofDe Rossi was theAbbé Martigny, who in 1865 published his, for that time, remarkable "Dictionnaire des antiquités chrétiennes" (third edition.Paris, 1889). Perret's "Catacombes de Rome" (Paris, 1851-55) is a pretentious work of little value; his illustrations are inaccurate, and his text unreliable Deshassayns de Richemont's "Catacombes de Rome" appeared in 1870, and in the following year Allard's translation ofNorthcote and Brownlow. These works did good service as popular manuals, but original investigations of great importance were carried on by another French archaeologist, Edmond Le Blant. The first volume of Le Blant's "Inscriptions chrétiennes de la Gaule" appeared in 1856, the second in 1865, the third in 1892. These were followed by two volumes on theChristian sarcophagi of Arles and ofFrance (Paris, 1878-86), and various studies onChristian epigraphy. At the present time (1906) a highly useful and excellent work in course of publication, is Cabrol and Leclercq's "Dictionnaire d'archéologie et de liturgie" (since 1903). The discoveries ofCount de Vogüé in CentralSyria ["La Syrie Centrale" (Paris, 1865)], and in the Holy Land ["Les eglises de la Terre Sainte" (Paris, 1860)] were of great importance for the history of earlyChristian architecture. The writings of Pere Delattre and of Stephen Gsell are indispensable for the study of theChristian monuments of North Africa. InGermany Professor Franz Xaver Kraus did more, probably, than any other writer to popularize the results ofChristian archaeological studies. Besides his "Roma Sotterranea "Kraus edited the excellent "Real-Encyklopadie der christlichen Alterthumer" (Freiburg 1882-86, 2 vols.), and published (Freiburg, 1896-97), an (unfinished) history of Christian art in three volume), of which only the first concernsChristian archaeology. It is the most complete general work on this subject that has yet appeared.Kraus also published in two volumes (Freiburg, 1890-94), a collection ofearly Christian inscriptions from the Rhineland, besides a number of monographs of an archaeological character. Among GermanProtestant archaeologists may be mentioned Victor Schultze, whose studies on thecatacombs ofNaples andSyracuse, and "Archaologie der altchristlichen Kunst" (Munich, 1895) are of importance. Of contemporary German writers on the monuments ofChristian antiquity space will not permit more than the mention of a few of the principal: Muller,Ficker, Krumbacher, Strzygowski, Kirsch, Kaufmann, and Baumstark.

Literary sources

Theknowledge of earlyChristiansociety derived from the study of the oldest existingChristian monuments has thrown light on many obscurities in theChurch's early history, as it was known from the literature that has come down to us from the first age ofChristianity. It is equallytrue that the study ofChristian monuments would be impossible apart from the study of the various literary sources ofChristian antiquity.Christian literature andChristian monuments supplement one another. First among the literary sources indispensable for the study of the monuments is theChristian art from the first century was inspired by theSacred Scriptures. After this primary source, the Acts of the Martyrs,Christianliturgies, certainliturgicalprayers, particularly those relative to death, Churchcalendars, the so-called Pontifical Books, especially the famous Roman"Liber Pontificalis" ancientmissals andsacramentaries, and in general allChristian literature, till well on inmedieval times, haveproved invaluable aids in the interpretation of the monuments. Especially useful were themedievalpilgrims' itineraries, the Baedekers of their time, because of the indications they contain relative to the topography of the ancient subterranean cemeteries ofChristianRome.

Character of the earliest monuments. Principal results of Christian archaeological investigations.

The principal monuments of the earliestChristian ages have been found in the sub-terranean cemeteries ofRome. The oldest portions of several of these cemeteries date from the first century of theChristian Era, so that, within their range, whatever information they supply bears the stamp of theApostolic Age. The fact that these monuments are of a sepulchral character must always be borne in mind. No one would expect to find in the inscriptions andsculptures of a modernCatholic cemetery a complete exposition ofCatholictheology; neither should such an exposition ofdogma be looked for in the inscriptions and frescoes of thecatacombs. Any information we might reasonably expect, therefore, from sepulchral monuments should have some relation to theideas concerning death that were uppermost in the minds of those who erected them. Within this range and to a certain extent beyond it, the monuments are perfectly clear. The inscriptions andpaintings of thecatacombs, as well as the sculptured sarcophagi of the fourth and subsequent centuries, exhibit in the most unequivocal manner thebeliefs of their authors in the momentous question of existence beyond the grave.

Inscriptions

The earliestChristian inscriptions are simple in the extreme: they barely mention the name of the deceased, with a briefprayer for hissoul — "Regina, mayest thou live in theLord Jesus", "Peace be with you", "In peace", "InGod". By the third century these formula had developed so far as to expressbelief in the Trinity and thecommunion of saints; the Sacrament ofbaptism is implicitly alluded to in the mention ofneophytes, tend in such inscriptions as "Fidem accepit", "post susceptionem suam" (he received the Faith, after his reception); the Eucharist in the two famous epitaphs of Abercius of Hieropolis (q.v.) andPectorius of Autun. The three highest orders of thehierarchy, and several of theminor orders, are also mentioned, as well asconsecrated virgins andwidows; frequent reference is, of course, made to the lay members of the community. Still more interesting, perhaps, are the deductions which may legitimately be drawn from certain peculiarities of these very earlyChristian memorials. The equality of all beforeGod, for example, is taught by the eloquent silence of the epitaphs as to the worldly rank or titles of the deceased. Allusions to slaves and freedmen, so common in contemporarypagan inscriptions, are found in only a few instances onChristian epitaphs, and then in the kindliest manner. Even more remarkable, in an age whenpersecution was even imminent, is the silence ofChristian inscriptions on that subject. No thought was given to thepersecutors, the attention of the followers of Christ was wholly absorbed by the world beyond thetomb. And with regard to this better world they entertained a perfect confidence; the very name of cemetery given by them to their last resting-place (koimeterion, dormitorium), "a sleeping-place") reveals their confidence in the promises of theSaviour. The metrical inscriptions erected in the latter part of the fourth century by Pope Damasus (366-384) manifest the great veneration in which themartyrs were then held, and at the same time supply valuable data as to their history.

Paintings

Following the custom then in vogue of decorating thetombs of deceased friends, theChristians ofRome, from the first century, began to adorn with frescoes the burial chambers of thecatacombs. Thecatacombs were, therefore, "the cradle ofChristian art". Although some of theearly Christian writers looked upon artistic productions with suspicion, theRoman Church never seems to have had any misgivings in this regard. Art in itself was indifferent; why not adopt and purify it? This was precisely what was done. Even in the oldestpaintings of thecatacombs, which date from the end of the first century, the process of purification has already begun. The pictorial ornamentation of the Acilian and Flavianfamilytombs, which belongs to this period, though chiefly decorative in characters like that of contemporarypagantombs is yet wholly free fromidolatrous or indelicatemotifs. The foundations of a specificallyChristian art were also laid in the first century, in a few frescoes representing Daniel in the lions' den,Noah in the ark, and the Good Shepherd. All of these subjects were symbols, and symbolism was the special characteristic ofChristian art down to the fourth century. The source of inspiration of the symbolicpaintings of thecatacombs was theBible. In selecting their subjects from the Sacred Writings the artists, or those who directed their operations, did not proceed at random, but followed certain definite regulations. These regulations were suggested by the fact that the frescoes were to form a sepulchral ornamentation. The dominantidea, therefore, in making a selection of subjects was that the latter, according to the views prevailing amongChristians should be adaptable, as symbols, to the condition after death of those on whosetombs they were to be erected. The funeralliturgies, consequently,prayers for the dying, and invocations of like tenor served as guides in the choice of symbols. Thus for example, in theLitany for a Soul Departing, still in use, we have the invocation "Deliver, O Lord, thesoul of Thy servant, as Thou didst deliver Daniel from the den of the lions". The figure of Daniel standing between the two lions, so frequently depicted in thecatacombs, is an early pictured form of thisprayer. The cycles of sacred representations of thecatacombs were, therefore, selected because of their appropriateness to the condition of theChristiansoul after death. From the point of view ofdoctrine and discipline, many of them are of the greatest importance. For instance, with regard to thesacraments, the cycle of frescoes relative tobaptism, some of which date from the early second century, show clearly thatbaptism was administered by effusion; while several of the cycle referring to the Eucharist indicate quite plainly abelief in the sacrificial character of the Mass. In numerous frescoesbelief in the divinity of Christ is manifested, and the prominent place occupied by the Blessed Virgin in the thoughts of theChristians of the first three centuries is apparent in the many representations of Mary (the most ancient belongs to the first half of the second century), with the Infant Saviour in her arms. The gradual development of theidea of Mary's important place in the scheme ofredemption is ascertained by comparison of the earlier with the later frescoes of theMother and Child; apainting of the latter half of the third century in thecatacomb of St. Priscilla represents her in the character of model for a virgin taking the veil; while in a fresco of the middle of the fourth century in theCoemeterium majus, she is seen in the attitude ofprayer, interceding, according to the interpretation of Wilpert, with herDivine Son, for the surviving friends of the deceasedpersons on whosetomb this representation appears. Thedogma of thecommunion of saints is as clearly expressed in thepaintings, as in the inscriptions of thecatacombs. The various Orantes, orpraying figures, are symbols of the deceased inheaven interceding withGod for friends still members of theChurch Militant. Other frescoes represent the particular judgment, withsaints in the attitude of advocates pleading with the Judge for their admission toheaven. St. Peter andSt. Paul were also favourite subjects with theChristian artists ofRome, especially in the fourth century. The earliest fresco of St. Peter, in the cemeteryAd Duas Lauros, represents the Prince of the Apostles reading from an open roll, in the character of "Legislator of the New Covenant". The high place in which theecclesiastical authorities were held is indicated by the special garb in which they are represented, thepriests administeringbaptism are clad in tunic andpallium, two articles of apparel which, with sandals, constituted the dress reserved to personages of a sacred character.

Sculpture

During the first age of theChurch a specificallyChristiansculpture was almost unknown. Many reasons have been given to account for this circumstance, the chief of which, besides that of cost, is the practical difficulty encountered in producing works distinctivelyChristian without theknowledge of a hostile public and Government. Only a fewstatues and sarcophagi with representations inspired by the Scriptures survive from the first three centuries.Christiansculpture, consequently, began its real development in the fourth century, in the age of peace inaugurated by Constantine. The principal sculptured monuments of this period consist of the many sarcophagi, mostly found inRome,Ravenna, and in various parts ofFrance, in whichChristians of the Constantinian and post-Constantinian epochs wereinterred. Being sepulchral monuments, the symbolic subjects of thecatacomb frescoes were equally appropriate onChristian sarcophagi. ButChristiansculptors quickly felt the influence of the new development ofChristian art first seen in thebasilicas erected under Constantine. The triumphant symbols of the basilicas, and the historical scenes depicted on their walls, are also found onChristian sarcophagi, side by side with some of the earliest and most venerable symbols of thecatacombs. The transition from symbolic to historic art is, consequently, nowhere better represented than in the carved sarcophagi of the fourth and following centuries.

Basilicas

According to theActs of the Apostles the firstChristians were accustomed to meet in private houses for the celebration of the liturgy: "Breaking bread from house to house" (Acts 2:46). The first separate places of worship of theChristians were, therefore, the homes of those among them which were sufficiently large to accommodate a considerable number of people. Down to the reign of Constantine the custom thus established in theChurch ofJerusalem, of assembling for the celebration of the liturgy in private residences, seems to have been generally followed. It is very probable, however, that there were churches of the basilica type inAsia Minor before Constantine. The church atNicomedia, destroyed in thepersecution ofDiocletian, was erected in the third century. According to an ancient tradition, the house of Senator Pudens atRome, as well as that ofSaint Cecilia, was used for such a purpose. The third-century romance known as the "Clementine Recognitions" has two references of interest in this regard: the author tells of a certain Maro who invited St. Peter to preach in a hall of his mansion, capable of holding five hundredpersons (Recog., iv, 6), and, in another place, he speaks of a man named Theophilus who had a similar hall of his houseconsecrated as a church (ibid., x, 71). TheChristian churches of the fourth century, known asbasilicas, derived their name, and some of their principal features, either from the publicbasilicas, like those of the Roman forum, or from the privatebasilicas of great mansions, such as the halls of Maro and Theophilus. These churches consisted of a large oblong hall, divided by columns into a centralnave and two or fouraisles. Theapse at the extremity of the hall opposite the entrance derives, according to Kraus and others, from such early structures as the three-apsed cemeterial churches, two of which may still be seen in the cemetery of St. Callistus. Theapse, however, is a feature of the two civilbasilicas ofTrajan andMaxentius. The atrium, or court-yard before the entrance is a feature of theChristian basilica not seen in the civilbasilicas, and is evidently a reminiscence of thedomus ecclesiae of the first the three centuries.

Thebaptisteries erected adjacent tobasilicas, were, as a rule, circular or polygonal in form. Circular edifices were also erected as mausoleums; two of the best examples are thechurch of St. Costanza inRome and the mausoleum ofKing Theodoric atRavenna. Following the precedent of the church of the Holy Sepulchre atJerusalem, circular or octagonal churches also were sometimes erected; thechurch of St. Vitale atRavenna is the best known Western structure of this type. The inferior decoration of the earliestChristianbasilicas exhibits a new development inChristian art. The symbols depicted in thecatacombs were perfectly appropriate for the purpose for which they were intended, but a different style of adornment was demanded in edifices whose object was not so immediately associated with death. Moreover, theChurch of Christ had at length triumphed overpaganism, and this triumph suggested to theChristian artists of the Constantinian Age theidea of commemorating the victory in the newbasilicas. In this way a new symbolism, representing Christ triumphant on His thrones came into existence. Historical scenes from the life of Christ or from theOld Testament were frequently represented in the frescoes andmosaics ofbasilicas, and these served not only as all appropriate adornment, but also as an excellent illustration of theSacred Scriptures.

The minor arts

Under this heading are usually classified such remains of earlyChristian times as textile fabrics,liturgical clothing and implements, objects of devotion, domestic articles,coins andmedals, and illustrations in miniature. The last named are of especial importance for the history of art in theMiddle Ages. (SeeCATACOMBS, andGIOVANNI BATTISTA DE ROSSI.)

CONTACT US |ADVERTISE WITH NEW ADVENT