Bohemia

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(Germ.Böhmen, or formerlyBöheim;LatinBohemia orBojohemum), a cisleithan (i.e. west of the River Leitha) crown province of theAustro-Hungarian Monarchy, which until 1526 was an independent kingdom.

Physical characteristics

Bohemia has an area of 20,058 square miles. It is bounded on the northwest by Saxony, on the northeast byPrussian Silesia, on the southeast by Moravia and the Grand duchy of LowerAustria, on the south by the Grand duchy of UpperAustria, and on the southwest byBavaria. It is enclosed on three sides by mountain ranges, namely: the Bohemian Forest (Böhmerwald), the Ore mountains (Erzgebirge), and the Sudetic mountains. The highest peaks of these ranges seldom rise above 4,593 feet. On the fourth, or southeastern, border Bohemia is separated fromMoravia by a moderately high range called the Bohemian-Moravian highlands (about 1,968 feet high). The country resembles the flat bottom of a trough with a depression towards the north. The average height above sea-level is 1,460 feet. Bohemia is drained by the Elbe, which rises in the Isergebirge, a range of the Sudetic mountain system. After receiving the waters of the Moldau, a stream from the south, the Elbe, now greatly increased in size, passes out of Bohemia at Tetschen near the most northern point of the country. Besides the Moldau, which may be called the most important river of Bohemia, the chief tributaries of the Elbe are the Iser and the Eger.

Geologically the country forms the so-called Bohemian system of mountain ranges, the spurs of which run intoMoravia and Silesia. The greater part consists of old crystalline rocks; in the south gneiss predominates, in the north the formation is chiefly cretaceous sandstone, with tertiary deposits due to the action of water from the south. This part of the country also shows volcanic action, as in the Bohemian mineral springs. The climate is moderate and, with the exception of the mountain districts, does not show great variations of temperature. The mean temperature of the year is about 46.41 Fahrenheit. Bohemia has much mineral wealth; it is especially rich in silver, tin, lead, semiprecious stones, such as Bohemian garnets, hard coal, and lignite.

Population

According to the last census (31 December, 1900), Bohemia has a population of 6,318,697. It is one of the most thickly settled provinces of the monarchy, having 315 inhabitants to the square mile. The Czechs form 63 percent of the population, and theGermans 36 per cent. The Germans live chiefly near the boundaries of the country especially near the northern and northwestern boundaries.

National history

Bohemia (home of the Boii) owes its name to the Boii, a Celtic people which occupied the country in prehistoric times. About 78 B.C. the land was occupied by a Suevic people, the Marcomanni, while the related tribe of the Quadi settled inMoravia and that part ofHungary adjoining Moravia. Some years after the birth ofChrist, Marbod King of the Marcomanni, united the German tribes as far as the North Sea and the Baltic to form a great confederation which menaced the Roman Empire. When the Marcomanni and the Quadi left Bohemia and Moravia in the sixth century, there came in from the northeast a Slavonic people which was soon to appear in history under the general name of Cechen (Czechs). Before the close of the sixth century this Slavonic people came under the domination of the Avars ofHungary. But early in the seventh century they regained their freedom with the aid of theFrank, Samo, whom the Czechs elected as their king. In 706, Bohemia paid tribute toCharlemagne. Eighty years later Borziwoi, Grand Duke of the Cechen (Czechs), seems to have been tributary to Swatopluk, King of GreatMoravia. In the confusion which followed the break-up of the Empire of GreatMoravia Spitihnev I succeeded in uniting the various tribes of Czechs under his rule. From his time there is an unbroken succession of dukes of the Premysl line. One duke of this line, Wratislaw II, received the title of King for life from the German Emperor,Henry IV. After 1158 the title of King became hereditary. Ottokar I and Ottokar II were the most conspicuous rulers of the Premysl dynasty. After this line became extinct (1306) Bohemia came under the sway of John of Luxembourg (1310-46). The Bohemian rulers of the Luxembourg line, from Charles I, of Bohemia (the Emperor, Charles IV), until the extinction of the dynasty at the death of Sigismund (1437), were all German emperors. Bohemia reached the height of its prosperity under the Emperor Charles IV who conquered Silesia and also occupied for a time the Mark of Brandenburg and the Upper Palatinate. In 1348, Charles founded theUniversity of Prague, the firstuniversity on German soil. By his GoldenBull, Charles IV gave Bohemia the highest secular electoral dignity of the Holy Roman Empire. After 1437, Bohemia was ruled by kings of various lines until the death of Ludwig II, of the Jagellon dynasty, who was King of Bohemia andHungary. He fell in the battle of Mohácz (1526). Both Bohemia andHungary after this battle came into the possession of Ferdinand I of Hapsburg who had married the sister of Ludwig II. (For the further history of Bohemia seeAustro-Hungarian Monarchy).

Introduction of Christianity

Fritigil, Queen of the Marcomanni, in 396 applied toAmbrose of Milan for instruction in thedoctrines of Christianity. In 846, fourteen princes of the Czechs werebaptized atRatisbon. Although the two brothers,Cyril and Methodius, the Apostles of theSlavs, never entered Bohemia, yet Methodius was able to win over the Bohemian Duke Borziwoi toChristianity when the latter was at the court of Swatopluk, Grand Duke of Moravia. In 878, Borziwoi wasbaptized by Methodius at Welehrad. Soon after this Borziwoi's wife, Ludmilla, and most of his relations were alsobaptized. The grandson of Borziwoi and Ludmilla, St. Wenzel I (Wenceslaus), wasmurdered in 935 at Alt-Bunzlau by his brother and successor Boleslaw I. Religious and national motives prompted this act.Christianity made such progress in Bohemia that in the latter part of the tenth century (973) the GermanEmperor Otto I gave the country abishop of its own with hissee atPrague, the capital of the country. Bohemia had until then formed a part of thediocese ofRatisbon. In 1344, the Diocese of Leitomischl was founded, while Prague was made anarchbishopric with theDiocese of Olmütz as suffragan. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be called the golden age ofChristianity in Bohemia. In 1384, 240ecclesiastics were attached to theCathedral of Prague. Bohemia contained at that time 1,914parishpriests with many assistants; there were one Hundredmonasteries, and almost a third of the land belonged to theChurch. But whenJohn Hus was condemned by theCouncil of Constance for spreading theerrors ofWyclif, and was burned at the stake in 1415 bysecular authorities, the Hussitewars followed (1420-34), and theChurch in Bohemia met with losses which it took centuries to repair.

The causes of this religious-national movement were the excessive numbers and wealth of theclergy, their moral decay, and, in addition, the national reaction against the disproportionate power of theGermans, and the weakness of the secular government. Notwithstanding the death of the leaders,Hus and Jerome of Prague, the fire of revolution broke out when the followers ofHus demanded theLord's Supper under both kinds (Utraquists). Those in revolt encamped with their leaders, Ziska, Procopius the Great, and Procopius the Less, upon Mount Tabor, and from 1419 to 1434 they made marauding expeditions from that point in all directions. The army of Sigismund, In theFifth Crusade, accomplished nothing. An agreement was made finally with the moderate Utraquists (called Calixtines) in 1433. By this agreement, which is called "the Compactata of Basle" or "of Prague," the cup was granted to thelaity; at the same time the teaching of theChurch as to theReal Presence of Christ under each form was insisted upon. From the descendants of the radical Taborites sprang later the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren.

A great number ofparishes and other cures ofsouls had been obliterated during the Hussitewars; in those which still remained there, was a woeful lack ofpriests especially for the German population. It was, therefore, easy forProtestantism to make rapid advances, especially as it was looked on with favor by both the nobility and the people. Desertion of theChurch was accompanied by treason against the hereditary dynasty part of the population took sides with the League of Smalkald, and in 1618 Bohemia was the starting point of theThirty Years' War which brought such terrible disasters upon the whole ofGermany. During thiswar the population of Bohemia fell from three millions to eight hundred thousand. The Hapsburg dynasty finally gained the victory. The nobility were punished for their treason, either by execution or by banishment, with confiscation ofproperty; the rebellious cities lost their freedom, the common people eitheremigrated or returned to theCatholicFaith. In 1655, theSee of Leitmeritz was founded; in 1644 the Emperor Ferdinand IV erected a newbishopric atKöniggrätz, to take the place of Leitomischl, which had disappeared during the Hussitewars. Finally, in 1784, theEmperor Joseph II made the new Bishopric ofBudweis out of the southern part of theArchdiocese of Prague.

Present state of dioceses

Bohemia is divided ecclesiastically as follows: TheArchdiocese of Prague includes the northwestern and central parts of the country, theDiocese of Leitmeritz embraces the northern part, theDiocese of Königgrätz takes in the eastern part, and theDiocese of Budweis the southern part of the country. In addition to its share of the territory of Bohemia, theArchdiocese of Prague also includes the countship (Grafschaft) of Glatz inPrussian Silesia.

Religious orders

There are in the archdiocese 14 orders of men, having 35 houses; the total number of the orders is 704, of these 416 arepriests, 135 areclerics preparing for thepriesthood, and 153 arelay brothers. Special mention should be made of theBenedictines at Emans, of theJesuits atPrague, and of thePremonstratensians atTepl. There are also 21 orders forwomen, with 1,517 members. TheDiocese of Leitmeritz has 13 orders for men, with 31 houses. The members of these orders include 136priests, 15clerics preparing for thepriesthood, and 49lay brothers. TheCistercian Abbey of Osseg and theJesuitcollege at Mariascheim are worthy of special mention. There are 10 orders forwomen, with 62 houses and 651 members. TheDiocese of Königgrätz has 9 orders for men, with 88 priests; and 8 orders forwomen, with 442 members. TheDiocese of Budweis has 13 orders for men, in 32 houses; these orders include 131regular priests; the orders forwomen are 7, with 419 members. TheCistercian Monastery of Hohenfurt, founded in 1259, should be mentioned in connection with thisdiocese.

Educational and charitable institutions

In theArchdiocese of Prague there are: 1seminary forpriests, 1 private gymnasium, 3 homes foruniversity students preparing for thepriesthood, 52hospitals, homes for thepoor,orphan asylums, etc., over 200 endowments for the aid of thepoor, and 34 associations ofSt. Vincent de Paul. In theDiocese of Leitmeritz there are: 1theologicalschool, 1 high School for boys, 5 homes foruniversity students preparing for thepriesthood, 11Catholic primary Schools, 2 grammar-schools, 8 boarding-schools, 18 industrial and advancedschools, 20orphanages, 7 asylums for children, 14 kindergartens, 20 creches, and over 130 homes for thepoor,hospitals, etc., as well as 13 Conferences ofSt. Vincent de Paul. In theDiocese of Königgrätz there are: 1theologicalschool, 1seminary forpriests, 1 boys'seminary, 7 boarding-schools for girls, 2 training-schools forwomen teachers, 10 otherschools for girls and youngwomen, 21 institutions for the care of children, 67orphanages,hospitals, etc., 8 conferences ofSt. Vincent de Paul, and numerous endowments for the aid of the poor. In theDiocese of Budweis, besides 1theologicalschool and 1seminary forpriests, there are underecclesiastical control: 1 boys'seminary, 1 home foruniversity students preparing for thepriesthood, 12 public and industrialschools 23 kindergartens, 7 boarding-schools, about 140 stipends for students, 99hospitals, homes for the aged and thepoor, and 8 conferences ofSt. Vincent de Paul.

Relations of Church and state

Since the last years of the reign ofMaria Theresa, and especially since the time ofJoseph II, theCatholicChurch inAustria has suffered from state interference. According to existinglaws the State at present guarantees to the recognizeddenominations freedom from molestation in the management of their internal affairs. The State avoids every interference in matters offaith, of ritual, and ofecclesiastical discipline, but it also claims that the religious associations, like all other associations, are subject to the general statelaws in their "outward legal relations." The sore point in this condition of affairs is this: that the State assumes for itself theright to define the boundary between internal and external legal relations. At present state control shows itself in the appointment ofecclesiastical officials, in the cooperation of the State in determining and collecting church dues and taxes, in measures for the protection of theproperty of the Church, and in a certain supervision of the church press, which is hardly perceptible. The legal position of theCatholicChurch inAustria rests on the Imperial Patent of 8 April, 1861, and the Law of 7 May, 1874.

Incorporation of churches

In theArchdiocese of Prague there are 32parishes incorporated with thePremonstratensian foundation atTepl, the other orders in the diocese have 28parishes incorporated with them; in theDiocese of Leitmeritz theCistercians at Osseg control 11parishes, the other orders for men, 12; in theDiocese of Königgrätz there are 10parishes united with theBenedictine houses, and 6 with thePremonstratensian; in theDiocese of Budweis the Monastery of Hohenfurt controls 16parishes, the other orders have 13 incorporated with their foundations.

Taxation of churches

Churches, publicchapels, andcemeteries are exempt from the income tax, ground and dwelling-tax.

Privileges of the clergy

Theological students are exempt, both inwar and in peace, from all forms of military service, from military training, exercise with weapons, and reserve service; but after they have beenordained they can be called upon to serve as armychaplains in case of the mobilization of the whole army. Parishpriests are exempt from paying the direct and the local taxes, and from juryduty. Parishpriests have theright to accept an election to community and district boards of commissioners. Regularly installedecclesiastics have the right of legal residence in that community in which they live permanently. Without regard to the actual payment of taxes they are entitled to vote for the local boards, for the provincial diet and for the imperial parliament (Reichstag); as a rule they are included in the first class of the electoral body. Only one-third of the fees of aparishpriest can be attached fordebt; besides this, his income cannot be reduced below 1,600 kronen ($320), nor the income of a retiredpriest below 1,000 kronen ($200). According to thelaw of 1898, which was intended to equalizeclerical salaries, the salary of aparishpriest at Prague was set at 2400 kronen ($480); in the suburbs up to a distance of over nine miles from the capital, and in cities with over 5,000 inhabitants, at 1,800 kronen ($360); in other places at 1,600 kronen ($320) or 1,400 kronen ($280). In Prague the salary of an assistpriest was set at 800 kronen ($160) or 700 kronen ($140).

Marriage and divorce

Marriage, forCatholics, rests on the Law of 25 May, 1868, with which the second main section of the civil code, treating of thelaw of marriage, came again into force. According to this anyone can enter into a marriage contract when there is no legal impediment. Apart from the impediments arising from theduties of certain positions and those due to the armylaws these impediments rest on: (1) lack of consent; (2) lack of ability for the married state, and (3) lack of thenecessary formalities.

Under the first head are (a) impediments from inability to give consent, asmental disease (violent mania, lunacy, imbecility); minority, and control of guardians, or lack of free choice; (b) impediments resting on lack of actual consent, as compulsion through well-grounded fear, seduction, mistake in the identity of the future consort, pregnancy of thewoman before marriage by anotherperson.

Under (2) belong (a) the impediment of impotency and (b) impediment from the lack of moral ability, such as an unexpired sentence ofimprisonment for felony; a still existing previous marriage;consecration toHoly orders, or a solemnvow ofcelibacy; difference in religion (e.g. the marriage of aChristian and a non-Christian); relationship in the ascending and descending line, or closefamily connection (as brothers and sisters, cousins, uncle and niece, aunt and nephew); degrees of affinity parallel to the forbidden degrees ofconsanguinity;adulteryproved before the contracting of the new marriage; andmurder or attemptedmurder of a consort.

In (3) are (a) the impediments arising from the lack of publication of thebanns, and (b) those from lack of the prescribed formalities of a marriage contract. Lastly, there should also he mentioned the impediments, enacted by theCatholicChurch (forCatholics), of participation in the cause ofdivorce, and the impediment caused by the lack of a certificate of birth. A temporary impediment exists forwidows, who are not allowed, as a rule, to marry again before the expiration of six months after the death of the husband. Some of theseecclesiastical impediments to marriage can be set aside; others are irremovable. Among the latter are all those which would give an appearance of guilt to a marriage contracted under the existing circumstances. Dispensation from these impediments are granted by thecivil authorities.Catholic married couples can be separated from bed and board. A dissolution of the bond of marriage does not take place; that is, no marriedCatholic, either husband or wife, can enter upon a new valid marriage before the death of the consort.

Testamentary laws

A secular cleric has theright to free disposal of hisproperty both in life and at death. Thebishop of adiocese has no testamentary control over those objects which belong to his office and which by law descend to his successor, such as mitres, vestments intended to be worn during Mass, etc. In consequence of thevow of poverty, members ofreligious orders are incapable of inheriting or disposing ofproperty. Large legacies to a church, a religious or charitable foundation, or a public institution must be announced at once by the court to the governor or president of the province. A half-yearly list of smaller legacies must be sent to these authorities. Legacies for the benefit of thepoor, those intended for religious or charitable foundations, for churches,schools,parishes, public institutions, or other religious and benevolent purposes must be paid over or secured before the Heirs can inherit theproperty.

Burial laws

Old graveyards are ordinarily regarded as dependencies of theparish church, and as such are considered, even by the Law of 30 April, 1870, as beingecclesiastical institutions. But in sanitary regards, as places of burial, they are controlled by the police regulations of the community. Denominational cemeteries can be enlarged or laid out anew. For this, however, the consent of thecivil authorities and of the parties interested isnecessary, although, if theparish community refuses to enlarge the cemetery, the responsibility for providing a proper burial-place falls on the civil community. But aparish community or a church vestry cannot be compelled by the authorities to enlarge or lay out a church cemetery. If in the same community both a town cemetery and aCatholic cemetery exist, the burial of the dead in the public cemetery is notobligatory, but everyCatholic has theright to bury the members of hisfamily in theCatholic cemetery. When aCatholic cemetery serves also for the burial of non-Catholics, a part of the cemetery is to be set apart for the exclusive use of the non-Catholic community. Where a part of aCatholic cemetery is used for non-Catholic burial without the formal separation of the parts, the non-Catholicclergyman must follow the regulations of thelaw; he may conduct the burial withprayer and benediction, but there can be no singing nor address.

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