St. Basil the Great

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Bishop ofCaesarea, and one of the most distinguishedDoctors of the Church. Born probably 329; died 1 January, 379. He ranks afterAthanasius as a defender of the Oriental Church against theheresies of the fourth century. With his friendGregory of Nazianzus and his brotherGregory of Nyssa, he makes up the trio known as "The Three Cappadocians", far outclassing the other two in practical genius and actual achievement.

Life

St. Basil the Elder, father of St. Basil the Great, was the son of aChristian of good birth and his wife, Macrina (Acta SS., January, II), both of whom suffered for thefaith during thepersecution of Maximinus Galerius (305-314), spending several years of hardship in the wild mountains ofPontus. St. Basil the Elder was noted for his virtue (Acta SS, May, VII) and also won considerable reputation as a teacher inCaesarea. He was not apriest (Cf. Cave, Hist. Lit., I, 239). He married Emmelia, the daughter of amartyr and became the father of ten children. Three of these, Macrina, Basil, andGregory arehonoured assaints; and of the sons, Peter,Gregory, and Basil attained the dignity of the episcopate.

Under the care of hisfather and his grandmother, the elder Macrina, who preserved the traditions of their countryman,St. Gregory Thaumaturgus (c. 213-275) Basil was formed in habits ofpiety and study. He was still young when hisfather died and thefamily moved to the estate of the elder Macrina at Annesi inPontus, on the banks of the Iris. As a boy, he was sent toschool atCaesarea, then "a metropolis of letters", and conceived a fervent admiration for the localbishop, Dianius. Later, he went to Constantinople, at that time "distinguished for its teachers of philosophy and rhetoric", and thence to Athens. Here he became the inseparable companion ofGregory of Nazianzus, who, in his famous panegyric on Basil (Or. xliii), gives a most interesting description of their academic experiences. According to him, Basil was already distinguished for brilliancy of mind and seriousness of character and associated only with the most earnest students. He was able, grave, industrious, and well advanced in rhetoric, grammar,philosophy,astronomy, geometry, and medicine. (As to his not knowing Latin, see Fialon,Etude historique et littéraire sur St. Basile, Paris, 1869). Weknow the names of two of Basil's teachers atAthens — Prohaeresius, possibly aChristian, and Himerius, apagan. It has been affirmed, though probably incorrectly, that Basil spent some time under Libanius. He tells us himself that he endeavoured without success to attach himself as a pupil to Eustathius (Ep., I). At the end of his sojourn atAthens, Basil being laden, saysSt. Gregory of Nazianzus "with all the learning attainable by the nature of man", was well equipped to be a teacher. Caesarea took possession of him gladly "as a founder and second patron" (Or. xliii), and as he tells us (ccx), he refused the splendid offers of the citizens of Neo-Caesarea, who wished him to undertake theeducation of the youth of their city.

To the successful student and distinguished professor, "there now remained", saysGregory (Or. xliii), "no other need than that of spiritual perfection".Gregory of Nyssa, in his life of Macrina, gives us to understand that Basil's brilliant success both as auniversity student and a professor had left traces of worldliness and self-sufficiency on thesoul of the young man. Fortunately, Basil came again in contact with Dianius,Bishop ofCaesarea, the object of his boyish affection, and Dianius seems to havebaptized him, andordained him Reader soon after his return to Caesarea. It was at the same time also that he fell under the influence of that very remarkablewoman, his sister Macrina, who had meanwhile founded areligious community on thefamily estate at Annesi. Basil himself tells us how, like a man roused from deep sleep, he turned his eyes to the marvelloustruth of the Gospel, wept many tears over his miserable life, andprayed for guidance fromGod: "Then I read the Gospel, and saw there that a great means of reaching perfection was the selling of one's goods, the sharing of them with thepoor, the giving up of all care for this life, and the refusal to allow thesoul to be turned by any sympathy towards things of earth" (Ep. ccxxiii). To learn the ways of perfection, Basil now visited themonasteries ofEgypt, Palestine, Coele-Syria, and Mesopotamia. He returned, filled with admiration for the austerity andpiety of themonks, and founded amonastery in his nativePontus, on the banks of the Iris, nearly opposite Annesi. (Cf. Ramsay,Hist. Geog. ofAsia Minor, London, 1890, p. 326).Eustathius of Sebaste had already introduced theeremitical life intoAsia Minor; Basil added the cenobitic or community form, and the new feature was imitated by many companies of men andwomen. (Cf.Sozomen,Church History VI.27; Epiphanius, Haer., lxxv, 1; Basil, Ep. ccxxiii;Tillemont, Mém., IX, Art. XXI, and note XXVI.) Basil became known as the father of Oriental monasticism, the forerunner of St. Benedict. How well he deserved the title, how seriously and in what spirit he undertook the systematizing of thereligious life, may be seen by the study of his Rule. He seems to have readOrigen's writings very systematically about this time, for in union withGregory of Nazianzus, he published a selection of them called the "Philocalia".

Basil was drawn from his retreat into the area oftheological controversy in 360 when he accompanied two delegates fromSeleucia to the emperor at Constantinople, and supported his namesake ofAncyra. There is some dispute as to hiscourage and his perfectorthodoxy on this occasion (cf. Philostorgius, Hist. Eccl., IV, xii; answered byGregory of Nyssa,Answer to Eunomius' Second Book I, and Maran, Proleg., vii;Tillemont, Mém., note XVIII). A little later, however, both qualities seem to have been sufficiently in evidence, as Basil forsook Dianius for having signed theheretical creed ofRimini. To this time (c. 361) may be referred the "Moralia"; and a little later came two books againstEunomius (363) and some correspondence withAthanasius. It is possible, also, that Basil wrote his monastic rules in the briefer forms while inPontus, and enlarged them later at Caesarea. There is an account of an invitation fromJulian for Basil to present himself at court and of Basil's refusal, coupled with an admonition that angered the emperor and endangered Basil's safety. Both incident and correspondence however are questioned by some critics.

Basil still retained considerable influence inCaesarea, and it is regarded as fairly probable that he had a hand in the election of the successor of Dianius who died in 362, after having been reconciled to Basil. In any case the newbishop,Eusebius, was practically placed in his office by the elderGregory of Nazianzus.Eusebius having persuaded the reluctant Basil to beordainedpriest, gave him a prominent place in the administration of thediocese (363). In ability for the management of affairs Basil so far eclipsed thebishop that ill-feeling rose between the two. "All the more eminent and wiser portion of the church was roused against thebishop" (Greg. Naz., Or. xliii; Ep. x), and to avoid trouble Basil again withdrew into the solitude ofPontus. A little later (365) when the attempt ofValens to imposeArianism on theclergy and the people necessitated the presence of a strongpersonality, Basil was restored to his former position, being reconciled to thebishop bySt. Gregory of Nazianzus. There seems to have been no further disagreement betweenEusebius and Basil and the latter soon became the real head of thediocese. "The one", saysGregory of Nazianzus (Or. xliii), "led the people the other led their leader". During the five years spent in this most important office, Basil gave evidence of being a man of very unusual powers. He laid down thelaw to the leading citizens and the imperial governors, settled disputes with wisdom and finality, assisted the spiritually needy, looked after "the support of thepoor, the entertainment of strangers, the care of maidens, legislation written and unwritten for the monastic life, arrangements ofprayers, (liturgy?), adornment of the sanctuary" (op. cit.). In time of famine, he was the saviour of the poor.

In 370 Basil succeeded to the See of Caesarea, beingconsecrated according to tradition on 14 June. Caesarea was then a powerful and wealthy city (Sozomen,Church History V.5). Itsbishop wasMetropolitan of Cappadocia and Exarch ofPontus which embraced more than half ofAsia Minor and comprised eleven provinces. The see of Caesarea ranked with Ephesus immediately after the patriarchal sees in the councils, and thebishop was the superior of fiftychorepiscopi (Baert). Basil's actual influence, says Jackson (Prolegomena, XXXII) covered the whole stretch of country "from the Balkans to the Mediterranean and from the Aegean to the Euphrates". The need of a man like Basil in such a see as Caesarea was most pressing, and he must have known this well. Some think that he set about procuring his own election; others (e.g. Maran,Baronius,Ceillier) say that he made no attempt on his own behalf. In any event, he becameBishop ofCaesarea largely by the influence of the elderGregory of Nazianzus. His election, says theyounger Gregory (loc. cit.), was followed by disaffection on the part of several suffraganbishops "on whose side were found the greatest scoundrels in the city". During his previous administration of thediocese Basil had so clearly defined hisideas of discipline andorthodoxy, that no one coulddoubt the direction and the vigour of his policy.St. Athanasius was greatly pleased at Basil's election (Ad Pallad., 953; Ad Joann. et Ant., 951); but theArianizingEmperor Valens, displayed considerably annoyance and the defeated minority ofbishops became consistently hostile to the newmetropolitan. By years of tactful conduct, however, "blending his correction with consideration and his gentleness with firmness" (Greg. Naz., Or. xliii), he finally overcame most of his opponents.

Basil's letters tell the story of his tremendous and varied activity; how he worked for the exclusion of unfit candidates from the sacred ministry and the deliverance of thebishops from the temptation ofsimony; how he required exact discipline and the faithful observance of the canons from bothlaymen andclerics; how he rebuked thesinful, followed up the offending, and held out hope of pardon to the penitent. (Cf. Epp. xliv, xlv, and xlvi, the beautiful letter to a fallen virgin, as well as Epp. liii, liv, lv, clxxxviii, cxcix, ccxvii, and Ep. clxix, on the strange incident of Glycerius, whose story is well filled out by Ramsay,The Church in the Roman Empire, New York, 1893, p. 443 sqq.) If on the one hand he strenuously defendedclericalrights andimmunities (Ep. civ), on the other he trained hisclergy so strictly that they grew famous as the type of all that apriest should be (Epp. cii, ciii). Basil did not confine his activity todiocesan affairs, but threw himself vigorously into the troublesometheological disputes then rending the unity ofChristendom. He drew up a summary of theorthodoxfaith; he attacked by word of mouth theheretics near at hand and wrote tellingly against those afar. His correspondence shows that he paid visits, sent messages, gave interviews, instructed, reproved, rebuked, threatened, reproached, undertook the protection of nations, cities,individuals great and small. There was very little chance of opposing him successfully, for he was a cool, persistent, fearless fighter in defence both ofdoctrine and of principles. His bold stand againstValens parallels the meeting ofAmbrose withTheodosius. The emperor was dumbfounded at thearchbishop's calm indifference to his presence and his wishes. The incident, as narrated byGregory of Nazianzus, not only tells much concerning Basil's character but throws a clear light on the type ofChristian bishop with which the emperors had to deal and goes far to explain whyArianism, with little court behind it, could make so little impression on the ultimate history ofCatholicism.

While assistingEusebius in the care of hisdiocese, Basil had shown a marked interest in the poor and afflicted; that interest now displayed itself in the erection of a magnificent institution, the Ptochoptopheion, or Basileiad, a house for the care of friendless strangers, the medical treatment of the sick poor, and the industrial training of the unskilled. Built in the suburbs, it attained such importance as to become practically the centre of a new city with the name ofhe kaine polis or "Newtown". It was the motherhouse of like institutions erected in otherdioceses and stood as a constant reminder to the rich of their privilege of spending wealth in a trulyChristian way. It may be mentioned here that the socialobligations of the wealthy were so plainly and forcibly preached by St. Basil that modern sociologists have ventured to claim him as one of their own, though with no more foundation than would exist in the case of any other consistent teacher of the principles ofCatholic ethics. Thetruth is that St. Basil was a practical lover ofChristian poverty, and even in his exalted position preserved that simplicity in food and clothing and that austerity of life for which he had been remarked at his first renunciation of the world.

In the midst of his labours, Basil underwent suffering of many kinds.Athanasius died in 373 and the elder Gregory in 374, both of them leaving gaps never to be filled. In 373 began the painful estrangement fromGregory of Nazianzus. Anthimus,Bishop ofTyana, became an open enemy, Apollinaris "acause of sorrow to the churches" (Ep. cclxiii),Eustathius of Sebaste a traitor to the Faith and a personal foe as well.Eusebius of Samosata was banished,Gregory of Nyssa condemned and deposed. When Emperor Valentinian died and theArians recovered their influence, all Basil's efforts must have seemed in vain. His health was breaking, theGoths were at the door of the empire, Antioch was inschism,Romedoubted his sincerity, thebishops refused to be brought together as he wished. "The notes of the church were obscured in his part ofChristendom, and he had to fare on as best he might,--admiring, courting, yet coldly treated by the Latin world, desiring the friendship ofRome, yet wounded by her reserve,--suspected ofheresy by Damasus, and accused byJerome ofpride" (Newman, The Church of the Fathers). Had he lived a little longer and attended the Council of Constantinople (381), he would have seen the death of its first president, his friend Meletius, and the forced resignation of its second,Gregory of Nazianzus. Basil died 1 January, 379. His death was regarded as a public bereavement;Jews,pagans, and foreigners vied with his own flock in doing himhonour. The earlier Latinmartyrologies (Hieronymian andBede) make no mention of a feast of St. Basil. The first mention is by Usuard and Ado who place it on 14 June, the supposed date of Basil'sconsecration to the episcopate. In the Greek "Menaea" he is commemorated on 1 January, the day of his death. In 1081, John,Patriarch of Constantinople, in consequence of a vision, established a feast in commonhonour of St. Basil,Gregory of Nazianzus, andJohn Chrysostom, to be celebrated on 30 January. TheBollandists give an account of the origin of this feast; they also record as worthy of note that norelics of St. Basil are mentioned before the twelfth century, at which time parts of his body, together with some other very extraordinaryrelics were reputed to have been brought toBruges by a returningCrusader.Baronius (c. 1599) gave to theNaples Oratory arelic of St. Basil sent from Constantinople to thepope. TheBollandists andBaronius print descriptions of Basil's personal appearance and the former reproduce two icons, the older copied from a codex presented to Basil, Emperor of the East (877-886).

By common consent, Basil ranks among the greatest figures inchurch history and the rather extravagant panegyric byGregory of Nazianzus has been all but equalled by a host of other eulogists. Physically delicate and occupying his exalted position but a few years, Basil did magnificent and enduring work in an age of more violent world convulsions thanChristianity has since experienced. (Cf.Newman,TheChurch of the Fathers). By personal virtue he attained distinction in an age ofsaints; and his purity, his monastic fervour, his stern simplicity, his friendship for the poor became traditional in the history ofChristian asceticism. In fact, the impress of his genius was stamped indelibly on the Oriental conception ofreligious life. In his hands the greatmetropolitansee of Caesarea took shape as the sort of model of theChristian diocese; there was hardly any detail of episcopal activity in which he failed to mark out guiding lines and to give splendid example. Not the least of his glories is the fact that toward the officials of the State he maintained that fearless dignity and independence which later history has shown to be an indispensable condition of healthy life in theCatholic episcopate.

Some difficulty has arisen out of the correspondence of St. Basil with theRoman See. That he was in communion with the Westernbishops and that he wrote repeatedly toRome asking that steps be taken to assist theEastern Church in her struggle with schismatics andheretics is undoubted; but the disappointing result of his appeals drew from him certain words which require explanation. Evidently he was deeply chagrined thatPope Damasus on the one hand hesitated to condemn Marcellus and the Eustathians, and on the other preferred Paulinus to Meletius in whose right to the See of Antioch St. Basil most firmly believed. At the best it must be admitted that St. Basil criticized thepope freely in a private letter toEusebius of Samosata (Ep. ccxxxix) and that he was indignant as well as hurt at the failure of his attempt to obtain help from the West. Later on, however, he must have recognized that in some respects he had been hasty; in any event, his strong emphasis of the influence which theRoman See could exercise over the Easternbishops, and his abstaining from a charge of anything like usurpation are great facts that stand out obviously in the story of the disagreement. With regard to the question of his association with theSemi-Arians, Philostorgius speaks of him as championing theSemi-Arian cause, andNewman says he seems unavoidably to haveArianized the first thirty years of his life. The explanation of this, as well as of the disagreement with theHoly See, must be sought in a careful study of the times, with due reference to the unsettled and changeable condition oftheological distinctions, the lack of anything like a final pronouncement by theChurch's defining power, the "lingering imperfections of the Saints" (Newman), the substantialorthodoxy of many of the so-calledSemi-Arians, and above all the great plan which Basil was steadily pursuing of effecting unity in a disturbed and dividedChristendom.

Writings

Dogmatic

Of the five books againstEunomius (c. 364) the last two are classed as spurious by some critics. The work assails the equivalentArianism ofEunomius and defends the Divinity of the Three Persons of the Trinity; it is well summarized by Jackson (Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, Series II, VIII). The workOn the Holy Spirit, or treatise on the Holy Spirit (c. 375) was evoked in part by the Macedonian denial of the Divinity of the Third Person and in part by charges that Basil himself had "slurred over the Spirit" (Gregory Naz., Ep. lviii), that he had advocated communion with all such a should admit simply that the Holy Ghost was not a creature (Basil, Ep. cxiii), and that he had sanctioned the use of a noveldoxology, namely, "Glory be to the Father with the Son together with the Holy Ghost" (De Sp. S., I, i) The treatise teaches thedoctrine of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost, while avoiding the phrase "God, the Holy Ghost" for prudential reasons (Greg. Naz., Or. xliii). Wuilcknis and Swete affirm the necessity of some such reticence on Basil's part. (Cf. Jackson, op. cit., p. XXIII, note.) With regard to Basil's teaching on the Third Person, as expressed in his work againstEunomius (III, i), a controversy arose at theCouncil of Florence between the Latins and the Greeks; but strong arguments both external and internal, availed to place Basil on the side of the "Filioque". The dogmatic writings were edited separately by Goldhorn, in his "S. Basilii Opera Dogmatica Selecta" (Leipzig, 1854). TheOn the Holy Spirit, was translated into English by Johnston (Oxford, 1892); by Lewis in the Christian Classic Series (1888); and by Jackson (op. cit.).

Exegetical

These include ninehomilies "On the Hexaemeron" and thirteen (Maran) genuinehomilies on particular Psalms. A lengthy commentary on the first sixteen chapters of Isaias is ofdoubtful authenticity (Jackson), though by a contemporary hand. A commentary on Job has disappeared. "The Hexaemeron" was highly admired byGregory of Nazianzus (Or. xliii, no. 67). It is translated entire by Jackson (op. cit.). Thehomilies on the Psalms are moral and hortatory rather than strictlyexegetical. In interpreting the Scripture, Basil uses both the literal and the allegorical methods, but favours the literal system of Antioch. His secondhomily contains a denunciation ofusury which has become famous.

Homiletical

Twenty-four sermons,doctrinal, moral, and panegyrical in character, are looked upon as generally genuine, certain critical difficulties, however, remaining still unsolved. Eight of these sermons were translated into Latin by Rufinus. The discourses place Basil among the very greatest ofChristian preachers and evince his special gift for preaching upon the responsibilities of wealth. The most noteworthy in the collection are thehomilies on the rich (vi and vii) copied by St. Ambrose (De Nabuthe Jez., v, 21-24), and thehomily (xxii) on the study ofpagan literature. The latter was edited by Fremion (Paris, 1819, withFrench translation), Sommer (Paris, 1894), Bach (Münster, 1900), and Maloney (New York, 1901). With regard to Basil's style and his success as a preacher much has been written. (Cf. Villemain, "Tableau d'éloq. Chrét. au IVe siècle", Paris, 1891; Fialon, "Etude Litt. sur St. B.", Paris, 1861); Roux, "Etude sur la prédication de B. le Grand",Strasburg, 1867; Croiset, "Hist. de la litt. Grecque", Paris, 1899.)

Moral and ascetical

This group contains much of spurious or doubtful origin. Probably authentic are the latter two of the three prefatory treatises, and the five treatises: "Morals", "On the Judgment of God", "On Faith", "The Longer Monastic Rules", "The Shorter Monastic Rules". The twenty-four sermons onmorals are a cento of extracts from the writings of Basil made bySimeon Metaphrastes. Concerning the authenticity of the Rules there has been a good deal of discussion. As is plain from these treatises and from thehomilies that touch upon ascetical or moral subjects, St. Basil was particularly felicitous in the field of spiritual instruction.

Correspondence

The extant letters of Basil are 366 in number, two-thirds of them belonging to the period of his episcopate. The so-called "Canonical Epistles" have been assailed as spurious, but are almost surely genuine. The correspondence withJulian and with Libanius is probablyapocryphal; the correspondence withApollinarus is uncertain. All of the 366 letters are translated in the "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers". Some of the letters are really dogmatic treatises, and others are apologetic replies to personal attacks. In general they are very useful for their revelation of thesaint's character and for the pictures of his age which they offer.

Liturgical

A so-called"Liturgy of St. Basil" exists in Greek and in Coptic. It goes back at least to the sixth century, but its connexion with Basil has been a matter of critical discussion (Brightman, "Liturgies, Eastern and Western", Oxford, 1896, I; Probst, "Die Liturgie des vierten Jahrhunderts und deren Reform", Münster, 1893, 377-412).

Editions of St. Basil

Theeditio princeps of the original text of the extant works of Basil appeared at Basle, 1551, and the first complete Latin translation atRome, 1515 (autographmanuscript in the British Museum). The best edition is that of theMauristBenedictines, Garnier and Maran (Paris, 1721-30), republished with appendixes byMigne (P.G., XXIX-XXXII). For fragments attributed to Basil with more or lesscertainty, and edited by Matthaei,Mai, Pitra, and others, see Bardenhewer, "Patrologie" (Freiburg, 1901), 247. Portions of letters recently discovered inEgyptian papyri were published by H. Landwehr, "Grieschische Handschriften aus Fayûm", in "Philologus", XLIII (1884).

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