The Apostolic Fathers

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Christian writers of the first and second centuries who are known, or are considered, to have had personal relations with some of the Apostles, or to have been so influenced by them that their writings may be held as echoes of genuine Apostolic teaching. Though restricted by some to those who were actually disciples of the Apostles, the term applies by extension to certain writers who were previously believed to have been such, and virtually embraces all the remains of primitiveChristian literature antedating the great apologies of the second century, and forming the link of tradition that binds these latter writings to those of theNew Testament.

The name was apparently unknown inChristian literature before the end of the seventeenth century. The termApostolic, however, was commonly used to qualify Churches,persons, writings, etc. from the early second century, when St. Ignatius, in the exordium of his Epistle to the Trallians, saluted their Church "after the Apostolic manner." In 1672Jean Baptiste Cotelier (Cotelerius) published his "SS. Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt opera", which title was abbreviated to "Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum" by L. J. Ittig in his edition (Leipzig, 1699) of the same writings. Since then the term has been universally used.

The list of Fathers included under this title has varied, literary criticism having removed some who were formerly considered as second-century writers, while the publication (Constantinople, 1883) of theDidache has added one to the list. Chief in importance are the three first-century Bishops:St. Clement of Rome,St. Ignatius of Antioch, andSt. Polycarp of Smyrna, of whose intimate personal relations with the Apostles there is nodoubt. Clement,Bishop of Rome and thirdsuccessor of St. Peter in the Papacy, "had seen the blessed Apostles [Peter and Paul] and had been conversant with them" (Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., III, iii, 3). Ignatius was the secondsuccessor of St. Peter in the See of Antioch (Eusebius,Church History III.36) and during his life in that centre ofChristian activity may have met with others of the Apostolic band. An accepted tradition, substantiated by the similarity of Ignatius's thought with theideas of the Johannine writings, declares him a disciple of St. John.Polycarp was "instructed by Apostles" (Irenaeus, op. cit., III, iii, 4) and had been a disciple of St. John (Eusebius, op. cit., III, 36; V, 20) whose contemporary he was for nearly twenty years.

Besides these, whose rank as Apostolic Fathers in the strictest sense is undisputed, there are two first-century writers whose place with them is generally conceded: the author of theDidache and the author of the "Epistle of Barnabas". The former affirms that his teaching is that of the Apostles, and his work, perhaps the earliest extant piece of uninspiredChristian literature, gives colour to his claim; the latter, even if he be not the Apostle and companion ofSt. Paul, is held by many to have written during the last decade of the first century, and may have come under direct Apostolic influence, though his Epistle does not clearly suggest it.

By extension of the term to comprise the extantextra-canonical literature of the sub-Apostolic age, it is made to include the "Shepherd" of Hermas, theNew Testamentprophet, who was believed to be the one referred to bySt. Paul (Romans 16:14), but whom a safer tradition makes a brother ofPope Pius I (c. 140-150); the meagre fragments of the "Expositions of the Discourses of the Lord", by Papias, who may have been a disciple of St. John (Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., V, 331-334), though more probably he received his teaching at second hand from a "presbyter" of that name (Eusebius,Church History III.39); the"Letter to Diognetus", the unknown author of which affirms hisdiscipleship with the Apostles, but his claim must be taken in the broad sense of conformity in spirit and teaching. In addition to these there were formerly includedapocryphal writings of some of the above Fathers, the "Constitutions" and "Canons of the Apostles" and the works accredited toDionysius the Areopagite, who, though himself a disciple of the Apostles, was not the author of the works bearing his name. Though generally rejected, thehomily of Pseudo-Clement (Epistola secunda Clementis) is by some considered as being as worthy of a place among the Apostolic Fathers, as is its contemporary, the "Shepherd" of Hermas.

The period oftime covered by these writings extends from the last two decades of the first century for theDidache (80-100), Clement (c. 97), and probably Pseudo-Barnabas (96-98), through the first half of the second century, the approximatechronology being Ignatius, 110-117;Polycarp, 110-120; Hermas, in its present form, c. 150; Papias, c. 150. Geographically,Rome is represented by Clement and Hermas;Polycarp wrote fromSmyrna, whence also Ignatius sent four of the seven epistles which he wrote on his way from Antioch throughAsia Minor; Papias wasBishop ofHierapolis in Phrygia; theDidache was written inEgypt orSyria; the letter of Barnabas in Alexandria.

The writings of the Apostolic Fathers are generally epistolary in form, after the fashion of the canonical Epistles, and were written, for the greater part, not for the purpose of instructingChristians at large, but for the guidance ofindividuals or local churches in some passing need. Happily, the writers so amplified their theme that they combine to give a precious picture of theChristian community in the age which follows the death of St. John. Thus Clement, in paternal solicitude for the Churches committed to his care, endeavours to heal a dissension atCorinth and insists on the principles of unity and submission to authority, as best conducive to peace; Ignatius, fervent in his gratitude to the Churches which solaced him on his way tomartyrdom, sends back letters of recognition, filled with admonitions against the prevailingheresy and highly spiritual exhortations to keep unity offaith in submission to thebishops;Polycarp, in forwarding Ignatian letters toPhilippi, sends, as requested, a simple letter of advice and encouragement. The letter of Pseudo-Barnabas and that toDiognetus, the one polemical, the other apologetic in tone, while retaining the same form, seem to have in view a wider circle of readers. The other three are in the form of treatises: theDidache, a manual of moral andliturgical instruction; the "Shepherd", a book of edification, apocalyptic in form, is an allegorical representation of theChurch, the faults of her children and their need of penance; the "Expositions" of Papias, anexegetical commentary on the Gospels.

Written under such circumstances, the works of the Apostolic Fathers are not characterized by systematic expositions ofdoctrine or brilliancy of style."Diognetus" alone evidences literary skill and refinement. Ignatius stands out in relief by his strikingpersonality and depth of view. Each writes for his present purpose, with a view primarily to the actual needs of his auditors, but, in the exuberance of primitive charity and enthusiasm, his heart pours out its message of fidelity to the glorious Apostolic heritage, of encouragement in present difficulties, of solicitude for the future with its threatening dangers. The dominant tone is that of fervent devotion to the brethren in the Faith, revealing the depth and breadth of thezeal which was imparted to the writers by theApostles. The letters of the threebishops, together with theDidache, voice sincerest praise of the Apostles, whose memory the writers hold in deep filial devotion; but their recognition of the unapproachable superiority of their masters is equally well borne out by the absence in their letters of that distinctly inspired tone that marks the Apostles' writings. More abrupt, however, is the transition between the unpretentious style of the Apostolic Fathers and the scientific form of the treatises of the Fathers of the subsequent periods. The ferventpiety, the afterglow of the day of Apostolic spirituality, was not to be found again in such fullness and simplicity. Letters breathing such sympathy and solicitude were held in high esteem by the earlyChristians and by some were given an authority little inferior to that of the Scriptures. TheEpistle of Clement was read in the Sunday assemblies atCorinth during the second century and later (Eusebius,Church History III.16 andIV.23); the letter of Barnabas was similarlyhonoured at Alexandria; Hermas was popular throughoutChristendom, but particularly in the West.Clement of Alexandria quoted theDidache as "Scripture". Some of the Apostolic Fathers are found in the oldestmanuscripts of theNew Testament at the end of the canonical writings: Clement was first made known through the"Codex Alexandrinus"; similarly, Hermas and Pseudo-Barnabas are appended to the canonical books in the"Codex Sinaiticus". Standing between theNew Testament era and the literary efflorescence of the late second century, these writers represent the original elements ofChristian tradition. They make no pretension to treat ofChristian doctrine and practice in a complete and scholarly manner and cannot, therefore, be expected to answer all the problems concerningChristian origins. Their silence on any point does not imply theirignorance of it, much less its denial; nor do their assertions tell all that might beknown. The dogmatic value of their teaching is, however, of the highest order, considering the high antiquity of the documents and the competence of the authors to transmit the purest Apostolicdoctrine. This fact did not receive its due appreciation even during the period ofmedievaltheological activity. The increased enthusiasm forpositive theology which marked the seventeenth century centred attention on the Apostolic Fathers; since then they have been the eagerly-questioned witnesses to thebeliefs and practice of theChurch during the first half of the second century. Their teaching is based on the Scriptures, i.e. theOld Testament, and on the words ofJesus Christ and HisApostles. The authority of the latter was decisive. Though theNew Testament canon was not yet, to judge from these writings, definitively fixed, it is significant that with the exception of the Third Epistle of St. John and possibly that ofSt. Paul to Philemon, every book of theNew Testament is quoted or alluded to more or less clearly by one or another of the Apostolic Fathers, while the citations from the "apocrypha." are extremely rare. Of equal authority with the written word is that of oral tradition (Eusebius,Church History III.39;Epistle of Clement 7), to which must be traced certain citations of the"Sayings" of Our Lord and the Apostles not found in the Scriptures.

Meagre as they necessarily are in their testimony, the Apostolic Fathers bear witness to thefaith ofChristians in the chief mysteries of the Divine Unity and Trinity. The Trinitarian formula occurs frequently. If the Divinity of the Holy Ghost is but once obscurely alluded to in Hermas, it must be remembered that theChurch was as yet undisturbed by anti-Trinitarianheresies. The dominanterror of the period wasDocetism, and its refutation furnishes these writers with an occasion to deal at greater length with the Person ofJesus Christ. He is the Redeemer of whom men stood in need. Ignatius unhesitatingly calls HimGod (Trall., vii; Eph., i, and passim). The soteriology of the Epistles to the Hebrews forms the basis of their teaching.Jesus Christ is ourhigh-priest (Epistle of Clement 36-64) in whose suffering and death is ourredemption (Ignat., Eph., i, Magnes., ix; Barnab., v). Diog., ix); whose blood is our ransom (Epistle of Clement 12-21). The fruits of Redemption, while not scientifically treated, are in a general way the destruction of death or ofsin, the gift to man ofimmortal life, and theknowledge ofGod (Barnab., iv-v, vii, xiv; Did., xvi;Epistle of Clement 24-25; Hermas, Simil., v, 6). Justification is received byfaith and by works as well; and so clearly is the efficacy ofgoodworks insisted upon that it is futile to represent the Apostolic Fathers as failing to comprehend the pertinent teaching ofSt. Paul. The points of view of bothSt. Paul and St. James are cited and considered complementary (Epistle of Clement 31-35; Ignat. to Polyc., vi). Good works are insisted on by Hermas (Vis., iii, 1 Simil., v, 3), and Barnabas proclaims (c. xix) their necessity forsalvation. TheChurch, the "Catholic" Church, as Ignatius for the first time calls it (Smyrnæans 8), takes the place of the chosen people; is themystical body of Christ, the faithful being the members thereof, united by oneness offaith and hope, and by a charity which prompts to mutual assistance. This unity is secured by the hierarchical organization of the ministry and the due submission of inferiors to authority. On this point the teaching of the Apostolic Fathers seems to stand for a marked development in advance of the practice of the Apostolic period. But it is to be noted that the familiar tone in which episcopal authority is treated precludes the possibility of its being a novelty. TheDidache may yet deal with "prophets", "Apostles", and itinerant missionaries (x-xi, xiii-xiv), but this is not a stage in development. It is anomalous, outside the current of development. Clement and Ignatius present thehierarchy, organized and complete, with its orders ofbishops,priests, anddeacons,ministers of the Eucharistic liturgy and administrators of temporalities. Clement's Epistle is the philosophy of "Apostolicity," and its corollary, episcopal succession. Ignatius gives in abundance practical illustrations of what Clement sets forth in principle. For Ignatius thebishop is the centre of unity (Ephesians 4), the authority whom all must obey as they wouldGod, in whose place thebishop rules (Polycarp 6;Magnesians 6 and 13;Smyrnæans 8 and 11;Trallians 12); for unity with and submission to thebishop is the only security offaith. Supreme in theChurch is he who holds the seat of St. Peter atRome. The intervention of Clement in the affairs ofCorinth and the language of Ignatius in speaking of theChurch ofRome in the exordium of his Epistle to the Romans must be understood in the light ofChrist's charge to St. Peter. One rounds out the other. The deepest reverence for the memory of St. Peter is visible in the writings of Clement and Ignatius. They couple his name with that ofSt. Paul, and this effectually disproves the antagonism between these two Apostles which the Tübingen theory postulated in tracing the pretended development of a united church from the discordant Petrine and Pauline factions. Among thesacraments alluded to is Baptism, to which Ignatius refers (Polycarp 2 andSmyrnæans 8), and of which Hermas speaks as thenecessary way of entrance to theChurch and tosalvation (Vis., iii, 3, 5; Simil., ix, 16), the way from death to life (Simil., viii, 6), while theDidache deals with it liturgically (vii). The Eucharist is mentioned in theDidache (14) and by Ignatius, who uses the term to signify the "flesh ofOur Saviour Jesus Christ" (Smyrnæans 7;Ephesians 20;Philadelphians 4). Penance is the theme of Hermas, and is urged as anecessary and a possible recourse for him whosins once afterbaptism (Vis., iii, 7; Simil., viii, 6, 8, 9, 11). TheDidache refers to a confession ofsins (iv, xiv) as does Barnabas (xix). An exposition of the dogmatic teaching of individual Fathers will be found under their respective names.

The Apostolic Fathers, as a group, are found in no onemanuscript. The literary history of each will be found in connection with the individual studies. The first edition was that of Cotelerius, above referred to (Paris, 1672). It contained Barnabas, Clement, Hermas, Ignatius, andPolycarp. A reprint (Antwerp, 1698-1700; Amsterdam, 1724), by Jean Leclerc (Clericus), contained much additional matter. The latest editions are those of theAnglican Bishop, J.B. Lightfoot, "The Apostolic Fathers" (5 vols., London, 1889-1890); abbreviated edition, Lightfoot-Harmer, London, I vol., 1893; Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn, "Patrum Apostolicorum Opera" (Leipzig, 1901); and F. X.von Funk, "Patres Apostolici" (2d ed., Tübingen, 1901), in all of which abundant reference will be found to the literature of the two preceding centuries. The last named work first appeared (Tübingen, vol. I, 1878, 1887; vol. II,, 1881) as a fifth edition of Hefele's "Opera Patr. Apostolicorum" (Tübingen, 1839; 4th ed., 1855) enriched with notes (critical,exegetical, historical), prolegomena, indexes, and a Latin version. The second edition meets all just demands of a critical presentation of these ancient and important writings, and in its introduction and notes offers the bestCatholic treatise on the subject.

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