Peter Abelard

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Dialectician,philosopher, andtheologian, born 1079; died 1142.

Peter Abelard (also spelled Abeillard, Abailard, etc., while the bestmanuscripts haveAbaelardus) was born in the little village of Pallet, about ten miles east ofNantes in Brittany.

Hisfather, Berengar, was lord of the village, hismother's name was Lucia; both afterwards entered themonastic state. Peter, the oldest of their children, was intended for a military career, but, as he himself tells us, he abandoned Mars for Minerva, the profession of arms for that of learning. Accordingly, at an early age, he left hisfather's castle and sought instruction as a wandering scholar at theschools of the most renowned teachers of those days. Among these teachers wasRoscelin theNominalist, at whoseschool at Locmenach, nearVannes, Abelard certainly spent some time before he proceeded toParis. Although theUniversity of Paris did not exist as a corporate institution until more than half a century after Abelard's death, there flourished atParis in his time the Cathedral School, the School of Ste. Geneviève, and that of St. Germain des Pré, the forerunners of theuniversityschools of the following century. The Cathedral School was undoubtedly the most important of these, and thither the young Abelard directed his steps in order to studydialectic under the renowned master (scholasticus)William of Champeaux.

Soon, however, the youth from the province, for whom the prestige of a great name was far from awe-inspiring, not only ventured to object to the teaching of theParisian master, but attempted to set up as a rival teacher. Finding that this was not an easy matter inParis, he established hisschool first at Melun and later at Corbeil. This was, probably, in the year 1101. The next couple of years Abelard spent in his native place "almost cut off fromFrance", as he says. The reason of this enforced retreat from thedialectical fray was failing health. On returning toParis, he became once more a pupil ofWilliam of Champeaux for the purpose of studying rhetoric. WhenWilliam retired to themonastery of St. Victor, Abelard, who meantime had resumed his teaching at Melun, hastened toParis to secure the chair of the Cathedral School. Having failed in this, he set up hisschool in Mt. Ste. Genevieve (1108). There and at the Cathedral School, in which in 1113 he finally succeeded in obtaining a chair, he enjoyed the greatest renown as a teacher of rhetoric and dialectic.

Before taking up theduty of teachingtheology at the Cathedral School, he went to Laon where he presented himself to the venerableAnselm of Laon as a student oftheology. Soon, however, his petulant restiveness under restraint once more asserted itself, and he was not content until he had as completely discomfited the teacher oftheology at Laon as he had successfully harassed the teacher of rhetoric and dialectic atParis. Taking Abelard's own account of the incident, it is impossible not to blame him for the temerity which made him such enemies as Alberic and Lotulph, pupils of Anselm, who, later on, appeared against Abelard. The "theological studies" pursued by Abelard at Laon were what we would nowadays call the study ofexegesis.

There can be nodoubt that Abelard's career as a teacher atParis, from 1108 to 1118, was an exceptionally brilliant one. In his "Story of My Calamities" (Historia Calamitatum) he tells us how pupils flocked to him from every country inEurope, a statement which is more than corroborated by the authority of his contemporaries. He was, in fact, the idol ofParis; eloquent, vivacious, handsome, possessed of an unusually rich voice, full of confidence in his own power to please, he had, as he tells us, the whole world at his feet.

That Abelard was unduly conscious of these advantages is admitted by his most ardent admirers; indeed, in the "Story of My Calamities," he confesses that at that period of his life he was filled with vanity andpride. To these faults he attributes his downfall, which was as swift and tragic as was everything, seemingly, in his meteoric career. He tells us in graphic language the tale which has become part of the classic literature of the love-theme, how he fell in love with Heloise, niece of Canon Fulbert; he spares us none of the details of the story, recounts all the circumstances of its tragic ending, the brutal vengeance of theCanon, the flight of Heloise to Pallet, where their son, whom he named Astrolabius, was born, the secret wedding, the retirement of Heloise to thenunnery of Argenteuil, and his abandonment of his academic career. He was at the time acleric inminor orders, and had naturally looked forward to a distinguished career as anecclesiastical teacher.

After his downfall, he retired to theAbbey of St. Denis, and, Heloise having taken the veil at Argenteuil, he assumed the habit of aBenedictinemonk at the royalAbbey of St. Denis. He who had considered himself "the only survivingphilosopher in the whole world" was willing to hide himself — definitely, as he thought — inmonastic solitude. But whatever dreams he may have had of final peace in his monastic retreat were soon shattered. He quarrelled with themonks ofSt. Denis, the occasion being his irreverent criticism of the legend of theirpatron saint, and was sent to a branch institution, apriory orcella, where, once more, he soon attracted unfavourable attention by the spirit of the teaching which he gave inphilosophy andtheology.

"More subtle and more learned than ever", as a contemporary (Otto of Freising) describes him, he took up the former quarrel with Anselm's pupils. Through their influence, hisorthodoxy, especially on thedoctrine of the Holy Trinity, was impeached, and he was summoned to appear before a council atSoissons, in 1121, presided over by thepapal legate, Kuno,Bishop of Praneste. While it is not easy to determine exactly what took place at the Council, it is clear that there was no formal condemnation of Abelard's doctrines, but that he was nevertheless condemned to recite theAthanasian Creed, and to burn his book on the Trinity. Besides, he wassentenced toimprisonment in the Abbey of St. Médard, at the instance apparently, of themonks ofSt. Denis, whose enmity, especially that of their Abbot Adam, was unrelenting. In hisdespair, he fled to adesert place in the neighbourhood ofTroyes. Thither pupils soon began to flock, huts and tents for their reception were built, and anoratory erected, under the title "The Paraclete", and there his former success as a teacher was renewed.

After the death of Adam,Abbot of St. Denis, his successor,Suger,absolved Abelard fromcensure, and thus restored him to his rank as amonk. TheAbbey of St. Gildas de Rhuys, nearVannes, on the coast of Brittany, having lost itsAbbot in 1125, elected Abelard to fill his place. At the same time, the community of Argenteuil was dispersed, and Heloise gladly accepted theOratory of the Paraclete, where she becameAbbess.

AsAbbot of St. Gildas, Abelard had, according to his own account, a very troublesome time. Themonks, considering him too strict, endeavoured in various ways to rid themselves of his rule, and even attempted to poison him. They finally drove him from themonastery. Retaining the title ofAbbot, he resided for some time in the neighbourhood ofNantes and later (probably in 1136) resumed his career as teacher atParis and revived, to some extent, the renown of the days when, twenty years earlier, he gathered "allEurope" to hear his lectures. Among his pupils at thistime wereArnold of Brescia andJohn of Salisbury.

Now begins the last act in the tragedy of Abelard's life, in whichSt. Bernard plays a conspicuous part. Themonk ofClairvaux, the most powerful man in theChurch in those days, was alarmed at theheterodoxy of Abelard's teaching, and questioned the Trinitariandoctrine contained in Abelard's writings. There were admonitions on the one side and defiances on the other; St. Bernard, having first warned Abelard in private, proceeded todenounce him to thebishops ofFrance; Abelard, underestimating the ability and influence of his adversary, requested a meeting, or council, ofbishops, before whom Bernard and he should discuss the points in dispute.

Accordingly, a council was held atSens (themetropolitansee to whichParis was then suffragan) in 1141. On the eve of the council a meeting ofbishops was held, at which Bernard was present, but not Abelard, and in that meeting a number of propositions were selected from Abelard's writings, and condemned. When, on the following morning, these propositions were read in solemn council, Abelard, informed, so it seems, of the proceedings of the evening before, refused to defend himself, declaring that heappealed toRome. Accordingly, the propositions were condemned, but Abelard was allowed his freedom. St. Bernard now wrote to the members of theRoman Curia, with the result that Abelard had proceeded only as far asCluny on his way toRome when thedecree ofInnocent II confirming thesentence of the Council of Sens reached him.

TheVenerable Peter of Cluny now took up his case, obtained fromRome a mitigation of thesentence, reconciled him with St. Bernard, and gave him honourable and friendlyhospitality at Cluny. There Abelard spent the last years of his life, and there at last he found the peace which he had elsewhere sought in vain. He donned the habit of themonks of Cluny and became a teacher in theschool of themonastery. He died at Chalôn-sur-Saône in 1142, and wasburied at the Paraclete. In 1817 his remains and those of Heloise were transferred to thecemetery of Père la Chaise, inParis, where they now rest.

For ourknowledge of the life of Abelard we rely chiefly on the "Story of My Calamities", an autobiography written as a letter to a friend, and evidently intended for publication. To this may be added the letters of Abelard and Heloise, which were also intended for circulation among Abelard's friends. The "Story" was written about the year 1130, and the letters during the following five or six years. In both the personal element must of course, be taken into account. Besides these we have very scanty material; a letter fromRoscelin to Abelard, a letter of Fulco of Deuil, the chronicle ofOtto of Freising, the letters of St. Bernard, and a few allusions in the writings ofJohn of Salisbury.

Abelard'sphilosophical works are "Dialectica," alogical treatise consisting of four books (of which the first is missing); "Liber Divisionum et Definitionum" (edited by Cousin as a fifth book of the "Dialectica");Glosses on Porphyry, Boëius, and theAristotelian "Categories"; "Glossulae in Porphyrium" (hitherto unpublished except in a French paraphrase by Rémusat); the fragment "De Generibus et Speciebus", ascribed to Abelard by Cousin; amoral treatise "Scito Teipsum, seu Ethica", first published byPez in "Thes. Anecd. Noviss". All of these, with the exception of the "Glossulae" and the "Ethica", are to be found in Cousin's "Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard" (Paris, 1836).

Abelard'stheological works (published by Cousin, "Petri Abselardi Opera", in 2 vols., Paris, 1849-59, also byMigne, "Patr. Lat.", CLXXVIII) include "Sic et Non", consisting ofscriptural andpatristic passages arrangedfor andagainst varioustheological opinions, without any attempt to decide whether the affirmative or the negative opinion is correct ororthodox; "Tractatus de Unitate et Trinitate Divinâ", which was condemned at the Council of Sens (discovered and edited by Stölzle, Freiburg, 1891); "Theologia Christiana," a second and enlarged edition of the "Tractatus" (first published by Durand andMartène "Thes. Nov., " 1717); "Introductio in Theologiam" (more correctly, "Theologia"), of which the first part was published by Duchesne in 1616; "Dialogus inter Philosophum, Judaeum, et Christianum"; "Sententiae Petri Abaelardi", otherwise called "Epitomi Theologiae Christianae", which is seemingly a compilation by Abelard's pupils (first published by Rheinwald, Berlin, 1535); and severalexegetical workshymns,sequences, etc.

Inphilosophy Abelard deserves consideration primarily as a dialectician. For him, as for all thescholasticphilosophers before the thirteenth century,philosophical inquiry meant almost exclusively the discussion and elucidation of the problems suggested by thelogical treatises ofAristotle and the commentaries thereon, chiefly the commentaries of Porphyry and Boëtius. Perhaps his most important contribution tophilosophy andtheology is the method which he developed in his "Sic et Non" (Yea and Nay), a method germinally contained in the teaching of his predecessors, and afterwards brought to more definite form byAlexander of Hales andSt. Thomas Aquinas. It consisted in placing before the student the reasonspro andcontra, on the principle thattruth is to be attained only by a dialectical discussion of apparently contradictory arguments and authorities.

In the problem ofUniversals, which occupied so much of the attention of dialecticians in those days, Abelard took a position of uncompromising hostility to the crudenominalism ofRoscelin on the one side, and to the exaggeratedrealism ofWilliam of Champeaux on the other. What, precisely, was his owndoctrine on the question is a matter which cannot with accuracy be determined. However, from the statements of his pupil,John of Salisbury, it is clear that Abelard's doctrine, while expressed in terms of a modifiedNominalism, was very similar to the moderateRealism which began to be official in theschools about half a century after Abelard's death.

Inethics Abelard laid such great stress on themorality of theintention as apparently to do away with the objective distinction betweengood andevil acts. It is not the physical action itself, he said, nor any imaginaryinjury toGod, that constitutessin, but rather thepsychological element in the action, theintention ofsinning, which is formal contempt ofGod.

With regard to the relation betweenreason andrevelation, between thesciences — includingphilosophy — andtheology, Abelard incurred in his own day the censure ofmystic theologians like St. Bernard, whose tendency was to disinheritreason in favour ofcontemplation andecstatic vision. And it istrue that if the principles "Reason aidsFaith" and "Faith aidsReason" are to be taken as the inspiration ofscholastic theology, Abelard was constitutionally inclined to emphasize the former, and not lay stress on the latter. Besides, he adopted a tone, and employed a phraseology, when speaking of sacred subjects, which gave offence, and rightly, to the more conservative of his contemporaries. Still, Abelard had good precedent for his use ofdialectic in the elucidation of themysteries offaith; he was by no means an innovator in this respect; and though the thirteenth century, the golden age ofscholasticism, knew little of Abelard, it took up his method, and with fearlessness equal to his, though without any of his flippancy or irreverence, gave full scope toreason in the effort to expound and defend the mysteries of theChristian Faith.

St. Bernard sums up the charges against Abelard when he writes (Ep. cxcii) "Cum de Trinitate loquitur, sapit Arium; cum do gratiâ, sapit Pelagium; cum de personâ Christi, sapit Nestorium", and there is nodoubt that on these several heads Abelard wrote and said many things which were open to objection from the point of view oforthodoxy. That is to say, while combating the oppositeerrors, he fell inadvertently into mistakes which he himself did not recognize asArianism,Pelagianism, andNestorianism, and which even his enemies could characterize merely as savouring ofArianism,Pelagianism, andNestorianism. Abelard's influence on his immediate successors was not very great, owing partly to his conflict with theecclesiastical authorities, and partly to his personal defects, more especially his vanity andpride, which must have given the impression that he valuedtruth less than victory.

His influence on thephilosophers andtheologians of the thirteenth century was, however, very great. It was exercised chiefly throughPeter Lombard, his pupil, and other framers of the "Sentences." Indeed, while one must be careful to discount the exaggerated encomiums of Compayré, Cousin, and others, who represent Abelard as the first modern, the founder of theUniversity of Paris, etc., one is justified in regarding him, in spite of his faults ofcharacter and mistakes of judgment, as an important contributor toscholastic method, an enlightened opponent of obscurantism, and a continuator of that revival of learning which occurred in theCarolingian age, and of which whatever there is ofscience, literature, and speculation in the earlyMiddle Ages is the historical development.

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