What Is the Glass-Steagall Act?

The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 forced commercial banks to refrain from investment banking activities to protect depositors from potential losses through stock speculation. Glass-Steagall aimed to prevent a repeat of the1929 stock market crash and the wave of commercial bank failures.

Signed into law by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt on June 16, 1933, the Act was part of the New Deal and became a permanent measure in 1945. Glass-Steagall was repealed in 1999, although some provisions remain, including theFederal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which guarantees individual deposits.

Provisions of the Glass-Steagall Act

In the pre-Depression era, banks often diverted funds and took risks on speculative investments. The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 created a regulatoryfirewall betweencommercial and investment bank activities. The legislation is named for Senator Carter Glass, a former Treasury secretary and the founder of theUnited States Federal Reserve System, and Henry Bascom Steagall, a former member of the House of Representatives and chair of the House Banking and Currency Committee. Its provisions include:

• Banks were forced to choose between specializing in commercial or investment banking. Ten percent of a commercial bank's total income could stem from securities; however, an exception allowed commercial banks to underwrite government-issued bonds.
• An amendment to the Act created theFederal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC).
• The law enabled the Federal Reserve to regulate retail banks,
• Glass-Steagall introduced theFederal Open Market Committee and, ultimately, monetary policy.
• The law encourages banks to use their funds for lending rather than investing those funds in the equity markets.

Effects on the Banking Sector

Financial giants such as JP Morgan and Company were directly targeted by the legislation and forced to cut their services and source of their income. By creating this barrier, the Glass-Steagall Act aimed to prevent the banks' use of deposits for speculation and prevent failed underwriting.

By the mid-1950s, bank holding companies had surfaced to avoid the restrictions on bank branching or banks with multiple offices. An extension of the Glass-Steagall Act, the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956, defined a "bank holding company" as any company with a 25% stake or more in two or more banks. The 1956 legislation allowed Congress to give the Federal Reserve more oversight over these banks.

The 1999 Repeal and the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act

The limitations imposed on the banking sector by the Glass-Steagall Act sparked debate over how restrictions are imposed. Many argue that banks thatdiversify their activities reduce risk to consumers. Some economists believe the law stifled the commercial banking sector until its repeal and prevented economic growth. Others say that it prevented market volatility and aided the prosperity of the post-war years.

In 1999, Congress partially repealed the Glass-Steagall Act. The establishment of theGramm-Leach-Bliley Act, or the Financial Services Modernization Act, eliminated the Glass-Steagall Act's restrictions against affiliations between commercial and investment banks. TheFederal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was not disabled during the repeal of Glass-Steagall.

Financial Crisis After Repeal

Many economists believe that the repeal of Glass-Steagall encouraged speculative and risky activities, including the rise insubprime lending, which led to the2008 financial crisis. Proponents of the repeal argue that the Glass-Steagall Act was a minor contributor to thefinancial crisis. Instead, they claim that at the heart of the 2008 crisis was nearly $5 trillion worth of worthless mortgage loans, among other factors.

The repeal of Glass-Steagall was at issue during U.S. Senate Finance Committee hearings after the collapse ofSilicon Valley Bank. The 16th largest U.S. bank failed in March 2023, after heavily relying on insured deposits for investment, and the massive withdrawal of deposits led to liquidity problems.

The Federal Reserve intervened following the collapse to improve confidence in the banking system and prevent future failures. This included establishing theBank Term Funding Program (BTFP), a lending program aimed at providing emergency liquidity to U.S. depository institutions. BTFP ceased making loans on March 11, 2024.

Explain Like I'm Five

The Glass-Steagall Act was a law passed in 1933 to prevent a repeat of the banking crisis of the 1930s. It prohibited commercial banks from doing business as investment banks: They had to choose one or the other. It was intended to prevent banks from using customer deposits to invest in risky assets.

President Clinton repealed the Glass-Steagall Act in 1999, allowing commercial banks to resume investment banking activities. Many economists believe this contributed to the financial crisis of 2008.

The Bottom Line

The Glass-Steagall Act prevented commercial banks from speculative risk-taking to avoid repeating the financial crisis experienced during the Great Depression. Banks were limited to earning 10% of their income from investments. The regulation was met with criticism and was repealed in 1999 under President Clinton.