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The SupernaturalINEarly SpanishLiterature

STUDIED IN THE WORKS OF THE COURT
OF ALFONSO X, EL SABIO

By

FRANK CALLCOTT, Ph. D.

Department of Romance Languages
Columbia University

NEW YORK
1923{2}

Es propiedad.Derechos reservadospara todos los países.

Copyright, 1923,
by the Instituto de las Españas.

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To

MY PARENTS{5}{4}

PREFACE

It has been the aim of the author in the following study to collect,classify, and analyze the various references made in the works ofAlfonso X, el Sabio, to the beliefs and superstitions, of the Spaniardof that day, with reference to the supernatural. It is hoped that itwill be possible in this way to reach a better understanding of theattitude of the Spanish people toward the supernatural in general andthus to acquire a more complete appreciation of that early period of thenation’s life.

No attempt has been made here to trace the origins of these earlySpanish traditions (many of which were common thruout Europe during theMiddle Ages), and the comparison of what has been found with thesupernatural in the early literature of other European countries hasbeen left for a later study.

The works of Alfonso el Sabio have been chosen because, to a largeextent, they represent not only their own period but all that had gonebefore them, as recorded not only in Castillian but in Latin and to agreater or less degree in Arabic and Hebrew also. Alfonso gathered tohis court a select group of scholars versed in these{6} languages; andunder his direction they produced or collected a representative libraryof works dealing with their respective subjects. It is the accessiblebooks of this collection that have furnished the material for thepresent study.

The author wishes to express sincere thanks to Professor Federico deOnís of Columbia University for sympathetic encouragement and valuablesuggestions thruout the entire period of study; to Professor Antonio G.Solalinde, of theCentro de Estudios Históricos, Madrid, for helpfulsuggestions and criticism of the manuscript as well as for the privilegeof consulting the proof-sheets of theAntología de Alfonso X, elSabio, which has recently issued from the press; to Professor RaymondWeeks, of Columbia University, for his sympathetic interpretation of theMiddle Ages and for actually introducing the writer to the true spiritof that period; to his wife, thru whose timely assistance solely it hasbeen possible to complete the study without undue delay; and especiallyto Professor Henry Alfred Todd, of Columbia, for his painstaking aid andexpert criticism while this work was taking form and being put thru thepress.

F. C.

Columbia University, January, 1923.{7}

INTRODUCTORY

The human mind is always interested in those things that it can notunderstand; as soon, however, as the problem has been solved it is nolonger an absorbing subject of attention. When a sleight-of-hand feathas been explained we turn with renewed zest to something else andrevive our former interest only to mystify or amuse some friend. Theunsolved problem, on the other hand, will grip our undivided interestfor an indefinite length of time; our minds will revert continually tothe unelucidated trick of legerdemain until we learn how it wasaccomplished. And so we might continue our illustrations thru the wholerange of human knowledge.

Furthermore, we are not content to limit our curiosity to thecomprehension of what others have understood before us, but push our wayin quest of the answer to the eternal and ever hauntinghow? andwhy? We climb the mountains, we crouch beneath a shelter while thestorm beats, we gaze into space on a starlight night, and thesecompelling queries become ever more insistent. This element ofinexhaustible curiosity is, and has been as far back as the existence ofsociety can be traced, present in all human nature; the leaders ofmankind have not{8} been slow to utilize it for the attainment of theirown lofty or ignoble aims. The warrior has employed it to inspire hissoldiers; the priest to exalt his followers; the minstrel to entrancehis auditors.

In the introduction to her Columbia doctorial dissertation,TheSupernatural in Modern English Fiction,[1] Dr. Dorothy Scarborough hasdiscussed in a very engaging manner the inherent need of thesupernatural in fiction. In real life as well it plays a highlyimportant part. It is a demonstrated fact that when a man faces asupreme crisis—when face to face with death—not only will he turninstinctively to the supernatural powers in that moment but all that isextraneous to his real self will disappear and the true man will standforth revealed. What is true of the individual in this respect appliesalso to the race. It is in recognition of this universal truth that thefollowing study has been undertaken, in the hope that a carefulexamination of the supernatural aspect of the beliefs and practices ofSpain as reflected in the literature of a given period will contributeto a better understanding of the questions involved.

Naturally there is a wide difference between the method of thinking ofthe average person in the Middle Ages and that of the average person ofto-day. In the 20th century every peculiar or remarkable phenomenon ofnature is subjected to the scrutiny of scientific study, while with themedieval man it was accepted at its face value as being themanifestation of unseen powers, of{9} gods or of devils. It would seemthat consciously or otherwise they attempted to make everything appearsupernatural whether they could explain it or not. We of today demandthat the God of the universe should work thru well defined natural laws;they, on the other hand, expected that “el milagro sea contranatura”.[2] It is true nevertheless that the “call” of the supernaturalin one form or another has continued to exert a powerful influence evendown to our own time. Some of its forms of manifestation may havechanged, but the belief is almost everywhere present. Instead offorecasting the future by Astrology many today seek aid in theséance;miraculous cures are still being sought for as of old not only in manycases abroad but also in communities nearer home—even in the city ofNew York, during the Novena of St. Ann; while only recently it wasreported in the daily press that a young girl in a convent on the banksof the Hudson showed the marks of thestigmata so prominentlyassociated with the history of St. Francis of Assisi.

Before entering upon the study proper of the early Spanish period itwill be well to review rapidly some of the important facts in the“supernatural” history of the Iberians since the time when the Gothsinvaded Spain.[3]

When they came they brought with them their songs and legends, whichwere peculiarly Germanic. The writer{10} Jordanes, about the middle of the6th century, states that stories of sunken cities, subterranean voices,etc., were common in the region of the Vistula, the river whichseparated Scythia from Germany.[4] But we find no trace of this in theearly Spanish literature owing to the fact that when the Goths conqueredthe Iberians they did not blend readily with the people of the newlyacquired territory. Nor did they, as the Romans had done, encourage thevanquished to continue their established customs and religion giving totheir own traditions an opportunity, thru friendly intercourse, tobecome adopted by their new subjects. On the other hand, in their effortto make assimilation still more impossible they forbade intermarriage.The result of this was, to use the words of Amador de los Ríos, that

It seems, however, that in this struggle the Church was not alwayssuccessful. Often the result was a compromise in which the pagan customswere remodeled and made to conform to the requirements of the Churchinstead of being completely abolished. For instance, according to{11} J. A.MacCulloch, the ancient Celtic warriors used to advance dancing andsinging to the fray;[6] and É. Philipon says:

“Lorsqu’ ils marchaient au combat, les guerriers ibères entonnaient àpleine voix leur chants nationaux, leurpéans, comme disaient lesRomains.”[7]

In the early Middle Ages this custom of the ancient inhabitants of Spainstill continued under the Christian domination; and into these war criesand songs had slowly crept the names of the Christian Deity and of theChristian saints.

This habit of consciously directing the minds of the soldiers to thingsspiritual in such a moment may have been an important factor in thedevelopment of the numerous legends of visions seen by soldiers duringbattle.[8]

One would naturally expect to encounter a marked Arabic influence in theearly monuments of the language, considering the fact that the Moslemswith all their wealth of magic and other arts peculiar to the East,entered Spain in the early years of the 8th century, but this is not thecase. When the Moslems entered Spain those who were able retreatedbefore them, but a large part of the population, unable to do this,remained under Mohammedan rule. Thesemozárabes, as the conquered{12}Christians were called, struggled bravely to keep themselves and theirchildren free from the heresies of their conquerors and for some timewere successful, but by the 9th century the Mohammedans were rapidlyinstilling their teachings into their captives.[9]

A reaction against this began under Abderrahman II. The Christians,becoming obsessed with a desire to be martyrs, began rashly to exposethemselves everywhere. So serious did this movement become that in 852Abderrahman constrained the bishops to call a council, presided over byRecafredo, instructing them to condemn this zeal for martyrdom, whichthey did, but only in a half-hearted manner. This movement was the lastserious attempt on the part of themozárabes to rebel against theteachings of the Moors. From this time on they were rapidly merged intothe nation of the conquerors and it is a question whether any of themremained true to the Catholic Church at the time Spain was reclaimed bythe Christians, all of which explains the lack of a very noticeableArabic influence in the early Castillian writings.

We have therefore (at the time the early Castillian literature began toappear) a nation from which the clergy had attempted to removeeverything that could not be remodeled to conform to theirinterpretation of Christian Scriptures—an endeavor in which they hadbeen signally successful. At this time, so far as the vernacular wasconcerned, there had been little influence from the out{13}side world(since the time of the Gothic invasion) other than that which had beenimported from Rome. But this isolation was not to last long. When theChristians reconquered the cities from the Moors they made a practice ofkilling the men but of enslaving the women and children.[10] These womenas nurses naturally told the children in their care the stories of theirpeople. In addition to this, Paschal II, Pope from 1099-1118, issued abull declaring sacred the war in Spain against the Moors as well as thatin the Holy Land. This gradually brought into Spain Christian knightsfrom all Europe with their traditions. Likewise, in the earlier part ofthe 12th century a school of clerical writers appeared in Spain whosought to win the favor of the people thru making their versions of thetraditions of the Church more attractive by mixing freely sacred historyand profane. They sought inspiration in the Moorish and the Classictraditions; they confused the legends of the past by transferring tothem the customs of their own day.[11] It was they who sought out themysterious legends of the East common among the Moors who lived in theSouth, incorporating them into their sermons and poems and mingling themwith the Christian mythology. All this prepared the way for the greatefflorescence of the supernatural which began with Alfonso X andcontinued in full sway until the 17th century.{15}{14}

CHAPTER I

Alfonso el Sabio as King and Scholar

Alfonso X is one of those unfortunate men who have been—sometimesunconsciously but in many cases purposely—maligned in history. TheLibro de las Querellas, (a 17th century work until recently attributedto Alfonso); the dictum of Mariana, “Dumque coelum consideratobservatque astra, terram amisit”; and the popular verse from theromances “De tanto mirar al cielo se le cayó la corona” which inspiredMarquina’s poem on that theme, all express the exaggerated and pervertedidea which was generally prevalent concerning this monarch. Those whoknew his works of science, especially of astronomy, were amazed at thewealth of knowledge displayed therein, and this, together with the factthat his last years were taken up with rebellions on the part not onlyof his vassals but even of his own sons, seem to have been enough tocreate the impression just mentioned.

Recent criticism has also brought to light the fact that the almostblasphemous quotation so long attributed to this king, “Si Dios mehubiera consultado, habría hecho el mundo de otra manera,” is not his atall, but rather{16} was invented later in Catalonia by a certain king PedroIV, or perhaps by his chronicler Bernat Descoll. Some have attributed itto Fernando IV.[12]

Altho these conceptions may contain some modicum of truth, they are onlya part of the truth. Alfonso took an active part in the politics of hisday and the surprising thing is that amid all the strife and troublethat surrounded him he found any time at all to give to literaryproduction.

Alfonso was born on November 23, 1221, according to the findings of hisbiographer, the Marqués de Mondéjar[13] (whose deductions have beenconfirmed by documents discovered later) and was named for hisgrandfather Alfonso IX of Leon and his great-grandfather Alfonso VIII ofCastile. Practically nothing is known of his early childhood except thathe was associated with certain of the nobility, viz., García Fernándezand Doña Mayor Arias of the province of Burgos. Of his early trainingnothing is known. He was probably reared in Toledo, his father’scapital, and as Sr. Solalinde suggests, much might be inferred from therules for the training of princes given in theSiete Partidas, acollection of the laws of the time, provided the reader does not takethese too literally. At the age of sixteen he began his career as asoldier under his father, Fernando III, el Santo, in{17} the conquest ofAndalucía. He himself added to his father’s crown the kingdom of Murciaand took an active part in the conquest of Sevilla in 1248. The nextyear he married Doña Violante of Aragón, daughter of Jaime elConquistador, hoping in this way to effect an alliance between the twokingdoms, but it seems as tho Fate had decreed that from the very firsthis should be a life of disappointments and trouble. The frontierwarfare between these two nations continued, growing even more sharplater when Alfonso aspired to the crown of Navarra. It was not untilmuch later that the friendship of Alfonso and Don Jaime became firmlyestablished.

Aside from his legal wife, whom he married by way of securing apolitical asset—a mode of procedure not unknown even in later times—hereally loved a certain beautiful lady, Doña Mayor Guillén de Guzmán, whobore to him his daughter Doña Beatriz, later married by her father toAlfonso III of Portugal. The sepulcher and also the body of Doña Mayorin a remarkable state of preservation are still to be seen in Alcocer.One of the hands still wears the glove with which it was clothed at thetime of the burial.

In May, 1252, Alfonso ascended the throne, after receiving his father’ssolemn charge: “Fijo, ricas fincas et tierra et de muchos buenosvasallos más que rey que en la cristianidad sea; pugna en facer bien eser bueno, ca bien has con qué.”

Alfonso, the king, was undoubtedly an indefatigable worker and a man ofthe highest intentions. He knew what ought to be done but apparently didnot have the{18} power of will or the personality to insure the executionof his purpose. When he ascended the throne the war with the Moors hadbeen reduced to operations of minor importance and they recognized theCastillian monarch as their master. But here as elsewhere historyrepeats itself. Each Christian king on the peninsula was dominated bythe desire to extend his territories; and, since there was no longer thenecessity of standing together against the common foe, a series of pettyquarrels soon arose followed by attempted conquests. As time went on,not only Alfonso’s own nobles, but his brothers and even his own sonbecame involved against their king. It was precisely here that Alfonsowas unable to hold the reins of power in as firm a hand as his fatherbefore him had done. It was because of internal troubles that he failed,at the critical moment, to bring the wars in Italy to a decisiveconclusion, and to terminate successfully with the popes and others, thediplomatic controversies in which the throne of the Holy Roman Empirewas at stake. To this throne he had been legally elected at the death ofWilliam of Holland in 1256, when he received four of the seven votes. Hewas opposed by Richard of Cornwall. The long contest which followed wasin reality a political battle with the popes, from Alexander IV toGregory X, in which Richard usually had the upper hand. At Richard’sdeath Rudolph of Hapsburg under the pontifical protection was elected totake his place, and it was only after nineteen years that Alfonsofinally succeeded, in 1275, in obtaining an audience with Gregory inFrance. The unfortunate outcome{19} of this interview was that Alfonso waspersuaded to give up all pretentions to the imperial crown and to foregohis custom of signing international papers with the title of “rey deromanos.” In this manner ended Alfonso’s vain attempt at externalterritorial expansion.

At home, in contests with his own nobles, he had been hardly moresuccessful. Indeed, with all the accumulated expenses of hislong-continued attempts to obtain the imperial crown it would haverequired a man of almost superhuman force to keep his powerful vassalsunder control and at the same time subject them to the excessivetaxation necessarily involved. This, as we have seen, Alfonso did notpossess. The Infante Don Enrique was the first to rebel. His outbreakwas followed by a more serious uprising of the nobles under theostensible leadership of the king’s brother, the Infante Don Felipe, butwas really fostered and maintained by Nuño de Lara, the boldest and mostfavored noble of the court. To restore harmony the king surrendered manyof his own prescriptive rights, but even then the nobles were notsatisfied and Nuño de Lara, inspired by this recently acquired power,objected to the royal decision to require no further payments of tributefrom the king of Portugal. Alfonso, in anger, demanded that Nuñowithdraw from the council; this he did but in open rebellion,successfully drawing with him a large number of the nobles. Many ofthese, apparently faithful to Alfonso, followed an intimation given themby Nuño and outwardly supported their sovereign while privately plottingwith some of his power{20}ful enemies, the king of Navarre and even theemir of Granada.

In an endeavor to adjust matters Alfonso summoned a general convocation,which the aggrieved nobles, in an attitude of open affront, attendedfully armed while their sovereign wore only civilian dress. At thismeeting the monarch ceded still further privileges; but, pursuing theiradvantage, they finally came out in open rebellion and, gathering theirarmy, marched away from Castile to the kingdom of Granada, burning andplundering as they went. Meanwhile Alfonso, by means of his eldest sonand heir, Fernando de la Cerda, still endeavored to negotiate with them.

In spite of all these internal troubles the crown of the Holy RomanEmpire still held the uppermost place in the mind of the monarch and itwas just at this juncture that he succeeded in arranging for his abovementioned visit to France and left his oldest son, Fernando de la Cerda,to govern in his stead. The latter altho only a boy of twenty years wasalready showing great ability as his father’s representative, whensuddenly he died. Fate seemed determined that not one bright lingeringhope should be permitted to relieve Alfonso’s long, unhappy reign.

This unfortunate death was the cause of additional troubles. Don Sancho,Alfonso’s second son, immediately took up the reins of government wherehis brother had let them fall. War having been declared on the Moors, notime was to be lost. Alfonso returned to find his son and heir dead, hisfather-in-law, Don Jaime,{21}—that valiant warrior who had now become hisdevoted friend—just killed by the unbelievers, and his second son,Sancho, self-established as heir-apparent. Altho this was contrary towhat the king himself had ordered inLas Siete Partidas,[14] heconfirmed Sancho as his successor, whereas the crown should have gone toFernando’s eldest son. This brought more trouble. Queen Violante lefthim and sought refuge with her brother, Pedro III of Aragon, in order todefend the rights of her grandsons. The wife of the deceased princehastened to her father, king of France, and war was about to be declaredbetween the two kingdoms, when Rome interfered. Violante returned to herlord upon receiving his promise to cede the kingdom of Jaén to hisgrandson; but this angered Don Sancho, who rebelled against his father.Alfonso publicly disinherited his son, and incontinently set out tocrush him. The other Infantes who had previously supported their brothernow forsook him and came to the aid of their father. Sancho himself,with a kind of religious respect for his royal father, avoided battleand finally implored pardon. Such was the condition of affairs when,after an exceedingly turbulent reign of thirty-two years, Alfonso X diedin Seville on the 4th of April, 1284.

During all these years Alfonso had cherished the fond hope of carryingon an ever broadening war against the Moors and finally of extending itinto Africa and there{22} dealing a death blow to the power of theCrescent. This purpose of his, like a will-o’-the-wisp, flutteredconstantly just beyond his power of execution. He did succeed incarrying out minor conquests, but the ruler of Granada was always quickto take advantage of the civil strife in the kingdom to the north of himto recover his lost territory. The final net result was that Alfonsosucceeded in adding to his crown the cities of Jerez de la Frontera,Medina-Sidonia, Lebrija, Niebla, Cádiz, and a few other towns of littleimportance.

From the foregoing it is easy to see that Alfonso was not a meretheorizing star-gazer. It is surprising that a man with his hands sofull of terrestrial affairs could ever have found time to turn his eyesheavenward or could ever find the leisure and the quiet necessary forthe careful editing of the lengthy works produced at his command.

In speaking of these works and discussing their chronological order Sr.Ramón Menendez Pidal says:

Of the above I have been able to consult only those printed orreproduced in facsimile, which are the following:

Las Siete Partidas, (the best edition of which is the large threevolume work published in 1807 by the Real Academia) is the result ofAlfonso’s successful attempt to complete the work begun by his father incollecting, codifying and standardizing the various laws of the numerousregions of the kingdom, and it has been used as the basis of Spanishjurisprudence ever since. This work has proved of very great valuebecause of the ample comments (made, it seems, either by the compilersor by Alfonso himself) on the laws contained and the customs referredto.

Las Cantigas is a collection of 422 lyric or narrative poems in theGallego-portugués dialect, many of which were probably written by themonarch. Of these 353 are narrations of miracles attributed to theBlessed Virgin. The edition used in this study is that of the RealAcademia, 1889, 2 Vols., 33 cm. edited with a critical introduction byLeopoldo Augusto de Cueto, Marqués de Valmar. A third volume of thiswork by J. Ribera treating of the music ofLas Cantigas has justappeared.

Los Libros del Saber de Astronomía, contain a large number of drawingsof the heavens, various astronomical{24} instruments, etc., as well as acompendium of what was then known relating to this science. In theintroduction to the edition which consists of five 45 × 33 cm. volumesby Manuel Rico y Sinobas, Madrid, 1868, the editor states that among thecompilers were 8 Christians and 6 Jews; while the works of more than 17Arabs were consulted (p.XCII).

La Primera Crónica General (edition of Ramón Menéndez Pidal in NuevaBiblioteca de Autores Españoles, vol. 5, 1906) is an account of thehistory of Spain from the time of Moses to the death of Fernando III, elSanto. This, says Sr. Pidal in hisEstudios Literarios (p. 208 ff.),is the first chronicle written in Spain which considers the Spaniards asa Roman instead of a Gothic people. Being guided by the results of hisresearch, the latest and most authoritative on the subject, I haveincluded in this study only the first part of theCrónica, i. e.,chapters 1-566, as the remaining part is probably the work of Alfonso’ssuccessor.

La General Estoria is still unedited. It is a work of five parts, eachof which is in size equal to thePrimera Crónica General. It purportsto be a history of the world from the creation to the time of Alfonsoand is based primarily on the Bible, altho other authorities, bothsacred and profane, are freely drawn upon. For this study I have beenable to consult only those extracts that appear in theAntología ofSr. Antonio G. Solalinde.

El Lapidario treats of 360 stones, dividing them into twelve groupsdescribes their appearance and the country or locality in which they arefound, bringing in in this way{25} interesting comments on manners andcustoms, scraps of folk-lore, etc., as well as discussing the medicinaland supernatural properties of the various stones introduced. Theedition used was that of José T. Montaña, Antonio Selfa, and HippólitoRodrigáñez, Madrid, 1881.

El Libro de Ajedrez. A two volume photographic edition of this workwas brought out in Leipzig in 1913 by J. G. White under the title ofASpanish Treatise of Chess written by the order of King Alfonso, theSage, in 1283. It is a careful discussion of the game and descriptionof the various moves. As well as chess, the games of dice and backgammonare included.

In this study have been included only those works which may, withoutreasonable doubt, be considered to be the productions of Alfonso elSabio or works in whose composition he took part in the manner indicatedbelow. Those which may have been more or less plausibly attributed tohim but whose authorship still remains in doubt, have been purposelyomitted. Of these latter the most important isCalila y Dimna, whichmany still maintain was translated by the order of Alfonso.[16] But evenif this be correct the book is a purely allegorical one, entirelyforeign to the spirit and manner of Spain, and can in no way aid us inunderstanding the superstitions and religious beliefs of the Spanishnation.{26}

While it is true that Alfonso did not with his own hands write out theworks included in our study, nevertheless the compilers themselves bearwitness to the fact that he did carefully edit them, scrutinizing thecontents, eliminating the non-essential and perfecting the language. IntheGeneral Estoria is found this significant statement:

Small wonder then that the king realized the value of quietude andspecified as one of the essentials for the making of good laws that

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CHAPTER II

Miracles Performed by the Virgin in Response to Prayer

When it is considered that inLas Cantigas alone there are narrated353 separate miracles, it is obvious that it will be impossible to givehere even a brief résumé of all the instances in which the supernaturalappears. What I have attempted to do is to give a synopsis of the mostrepresentative legends and stories, hoping in this way to present acorrect, if succinct, idea of the beliefs, superstitions and religiouspractices of medieval Spain. The various occurrences of the supernaturalfound in the writings of Alfonso X, have been grouped, as far aspossible, under the headings commonly employed in classifications ofthis kind.

Since all the extant works of this period, with the exception ofLasCantigas and a fewcantigas de amor et de maldecir, were written forthe erudite and were in no sense popular in their origins, it isapparent that the popular beliefs in regard to the supernatural will befound mentioned in them only incidentally. Occasionally, as in theCrónica General for example, the traditions of the com{28}mon people hadfirmly established themselves in theCantares de Gesta and othersources which were drawn upon by the compilers. In such scientific worksasEl Lapidario andLos Libros del Saber de Astronomía, the effectof the various heavenly bodies upon things terrestrial is mentioned, butthese reflect the beliefs of the learned, not of the ignorant. Whilethese beliefs of the intellectual classes are interesting and useful inthemselves, they are by no means as important for our study as thesuperstitions of the man of the street.Las Siete Partidas hasfurnished much pertinent information because of the laws concerningpractices involving the supernatural which were forbidden, or which, asin the case of conjuring, were permitted only under certaincircumstances. But from such sources we can get only a very smallproportion of the great mass of popular conceptions and traditions whichmust have existed, as is forcibly illustrated by the fact that in allthe other works exceptingLas Cantigas only nine miracles arenarrated. On the other hand the term “milagro” was considered importantenough to merit a lengthy definition in the laws of the times.[19]According to this definition a “milagro” is a divine intervention in theregular course of nature the purpose of which is, among other things, toreward the faithful and to bear witness to the veracity of the Christianfaith.

But when we considerLas Cantigas, a work whose avowed purpose is togather together all the current stories of miracles attributed to theVirgin either directly{29} or indirectly, we have a collection of 353accounts drawn both from the writings of the saints and from populartradition. It is to be noticed too that all of these are performedeither directly or indirectlyby the Virgin and do not include any ofthose attributed to the various other saints, to the Child nor to theMan Jesus, etc. If such a host of legends and stories could be gatheredwith the facilities of that time dealing with onlyone phase ofsupernatural lore and with onlyone saint how great must have been theentire store!

Another interesting fact in connection with this collection is that,altho according to the Church authorities, the Virgin could performmiracles only when especially empowered to do so, she is representedhere as performing them of her own accord. Only seldom does she go toher Son or to God the Father for aid or permission.

Such a procedure can not be attributed to ignorance on the part of oneso well versed in ecclesiastical law and customs as Alfonso. It isprobably a conscious reflection of the general belief of the commonpeople who knew little of Theology.

In a period of such absolute and naive faith it is not at all surprisingthat the same miracle, with a few minor alterations perhaps, should beattributed at one time to the Virgin and at another to God,[20] or atone time to the crucifix and at another to the image of the Virgin,etc.[21] The result of this customary promiscuous{30} attribution ofbenevolent deeds to various divine forces and personages was that thecounterpart of every miracle mentioned in any of the writings of kingAlfonso X is found inLas Cantigas. Therefore our study of this topicwill be based on this collection with appropriate notes of anyvariations of interest in the legends as found in his other works.

A large number of the miracles in the beginning of the collection ofLas Cantigas are taken, as usually stated in the poem itself, fromsome other accessible book.[22] But as legends from these sources grewscarce the store of oral tradition was drawn upon, and occasionally, asin apprehension that the veracity of the story might be challenged, somesuch strengthening line as “mui bien sey que{31} foi e é gran uerdade”[23]was added. So personal is the tone of the whole collection that there isno hesitation whatever in recounting the miraculous experience of somemember of the royal family or of the king himself.[24] Constant searchin the manuscripts at hand was apparently continued however during theentire time of composition and as late as No. 362 occurs the expression“achei escrito.”[25]

The cult of the Virgin became very popular during the 13th century andwhen we consider the influence it had all thru the period we arestudying it is natural to expect, that in a group of miracles dedicatedexpressly to her, that Jesus, the Son of Mary, and even God the Fatherwould be but seldom mentioned.[26] But when they are they are recognizedas being supreme. The Virgin herself often has to ask a favor of theSon, as in Nos. 14, 45, etc. At times we are privileged to catch aglimpse of the court of heaven resembling greatly a medieval court withGod the{32} Father and His Son as the supreme rulers and below them thesaints in the order of their various ranks.

On one occasion, No. 14 for instance, Saint Peter pleads without successfor the soul of a licentious monk who during life was especially devotedto him. After invoking the aid of the other saints to no avail hefinally appeals to the Virgin and in answer to her God permits thereturn of the soul to the body for the benefit of another chance. Thedetails here are such that one might easily imagine the scene to be thatof any court of 13th century Europe.

Naturally in so large a collection[27] any classification has to bearbitrary, and however the division is made there will be a number whichmay be placed under two or more headings. The present classification,tabulated in detail on page 135 has been made to suit the needs of thisstudy exclusively. In what here follows I shall summarize only thetypical examples of each class.

The group of miracles studied especially in this chapter, thoseperformed by the Virgin in response to prayer,{33} includes almost everyconceivable form of aid, all the way from restoring life to the deaddown to helping a man find his lost falcon. They suffice to give us arare conception of the beliefs and faith, often almost childlike intheir simplicity, of that time.

The greatest of all miracles, the restoration of life, is performed inall over 30 times in answer to prayer and for a great variety ofreasons. In one instance (No. 182) a certain robber who had theredeeming quality of always giving to those in need when asked in thename of Santa María, died suddenly. In answer to a mother’s prayer andto afford an opportunity for repentance his soul was restored and fromthat moment he observed faithfully all the commandments “da Uírgen.” Inanother, to aid a faithful follower in his work on earth the Holy Mothersends to Santo Domingo as a helper a well-educated, zealous young manwho kills himself by overwork. In answer to the supplication of thesaint she descends from heaven with a chorus of virgins and togetherthey read from their books and anoint the corpse, head, body and feet,thus restoring the life of the young man that he might continue in theservice of his worthy master (No. 204).[28] In No. 84 a wife becomesignorantly jealous of the Holy Mother because her husband slips awaymysteriously every night and when asked the reason for his absence{34} heanswers that he loves his wife as much as ever but admits to her, almostin jest, that he loves another woman more. This proved too much and in afit of anger she stabbed herself, but in answer to her husband’s prayersher life was restored. No. 241 is particularly interesting because ofits details and of its really lifelike setting. Two mothers, one havinga son and the other a daughter, decided that a marriage of the youngcouple would be advantageous. All went well until the day of thewedding, when the boy, being in a very happy and buoyant mood, leanedtoo far out of the window as he wiped out a glass, lost his balance,fell and was killed. All were overcome with grief except his mother whoconfidently took him to the altar of the Virgin, where his life wasrestored. As life returned his first words were “What a beautifulmansion you took me from.” The two young people were so impressed theydecided to devote themselves to religion. At another time Alfonso’simmediate family were concerned for the daughter of “o bon rei DonFernando”, who after being carefully reared for the convent at LasHuelgas died. Her mother took her to the foot of the image and puttingeveryone out of the church, determined to remain until her daughterrevived. Her faith was rewarded, and later in life the princess held animportant place in the convent (No. 122).[29]{35}

When we come to consider the various kinds ofbodily ailments cured bythe Holy Mother we are presented with a formidable list. An arrowstriking a man in the face stuck in the bone in such a manner that nonecould remove it. He requested to be taken to the altar of the Virgin andthere confessed, implored aid, and the arrow came out of its own accord(No. 126). Seven separate times do lepers appeal to her and arehealed.[30] The blind have their sight restored; but one clerk,apparently thru lack of faith, asked only that his sight be given himwhile Mass was being said. She took him at his word and allowed him theprivilege of seeing every dayonly during the time of Mass (No. 92).Swellings disappear (No. 346); while often Alfonso sings of the cures hehimself has experienced. After leprosy the most common ailment to incitethe pity of the Blessed Mother is rabies, which is mentioned in no lessthan five separate cantigas;[31] reason is also restored to those whohave been deprived of it (No. 331). No. 69 is the legend of a deaf mutewho presented himself before the altar of the Virgin in Toledo. Whilethere he saw Saint Mary in the form of a beautiful girl approach him asin a vision, put her finger in his ear and take out a worm which had{36}

Later Santa María ordered a monk well versed in the art to aid the manrecover his voice. Another pretty story is that of a little girl withdeformed feet who was taken to the altar of Santa María del Puerto,where, falling asleep, she suddenly cried out with a sharp pain. Inanswer to the questions of her father and those near her she said theVirgin came down from the altar, broke her feet, and then returned. Theyhastily examined them only to find them in perfect condition.

As well as curing the ordinary ills of nature to which the human body issubject, the Blessed Mother may also cure those due to acts of man ifthey are unjustly inflicted, as in the case of the servant whose masterput out his eyes because of false accusation. The servant, knowing hewas innocent, procured his eye-balls, had a surgeon put them back intheir sockets, and then went to Santa María de Salas, where his sightwas restored (No. 177). A miracle showing a strong trace ofmysticism—another instance of the relief of suffering due to noconscious fault of the victim—is No. 315. A laboring woman went intothe field to work and left her child—with a prayer for its safety—tiedto a sheaf of wheat. While she was gone the child swallowed a head ofthe grain and became very ill. The mother, thinking it had swallowedsome insect or had been bitten hastened with it to Madrid where aftermany days of unsuccessful treatment she was advised to take it to theChurch of Atocha. On arriving she undressed the{37} child before the altarfor examination and to the astonishment of all present the head ofwheat, intact, came out thru theleft side of the child, who recoveredimmediately. No. 146 shows the influence of a well-known legend of theMiddle Ages of a father who cut off the hands of his daughter becauseshe insisted on being true to her new faith, Christianity. Later inlife, when, because of misfortunes and persecutions, her hands werenecessary for the care of her child, they were miraculously restored,growing out of the old stumps.[32] In the cantiga the object of themiracle is a boy who wished to go on a pilgrimage to the shrine of theVirgin of Albeza. His mother hesitated because of his enemies but atlast he was permitted to go. He did, indeed, fall into their power andthey put out his eyes as well as cut off his hands. He was found,however, by some fellow-pilgrims, taken to the shrine, and there, uponhis praying the

Altho the Virgin did alleviate bodily ills for good cause she was notalway a saint of mercy. At times she was a saint of vengeance. Evenmore, her devotees were sometimes given the privilege of seeing thisvengeance brought down at their own request upon the enemies{38} of thefaith because of some impious act. One Christian while kneeling atprayer before her shrine was bitten by a large dog that happened to passthat way. As he arose to pick up a stone to drive the animal away he wasgreatly incensed at seeing two Jews laughing at him. Not being able torestrain his anger he called upon the Virgin to avenge herself of suchan affront with the result that the wall by which they were standingfell upon the unbelievers (No. 286).

Such vengeance as this is usually only meted out to infidels and, eventho Saint Mary loves vengeance and desires to please her followers, morethan once has she to temper this very human desire on their part. Onewoman asked that the one who had stolen her husband’s affections bestricken with some serious illness, but the Virgin, considering thepunishment too severe, by a vision caused the unlawful rival to repentand ask forgiveness of the wife, which the latter finally granted (No. 68).

In many respects more important, tho perhaps making a less lastingimpression, are those miracles of prevention from harm. These are almostas numerous as the above, tho they offer less variety and lessopportunity for dramatic effect. Among the most common are rescues fromthe sea, and in No. 236 there is the added element of walking on thewater. A pious woman and her child are in a boat that sinks. She criesout to the Virgin who appears, takes her by the hand, and together theywalk on the water as tho it were land until they arrive at Marseilles.

Those engaged in making objects for the glory of the Virgin, togetherwith the products of their art, receive{39} special protection. A stonemason working at a great height in the church of Santa María deCastrogeriz felt his legs weaken and began to fall. Calling on the localsaint he miraculously caught on an edge of one of the stones and altho avery large man his fingers were strengthened, enabling him to hold on agreater part of the day until aid came (No. 242). At another time apainter who habitually drew the Devil as ugly as possible and the Virginas beautifully as he was able received a visit from his satanic majestyin person complaining of the treatment, but the artist refused to changehis pictures. The Devil, greatly offended, set loose a terriblehurricane, which entered the church; but, appealing to the Virgin, boththe painter and his work escaped unharmed (No. 74). Ten instances, mostof which bear a striking resemblance to similar stories in the NewTestament, are told of miraculous release from prison.[33] In one ofthese (No. 227) Saint Mary appeared surrounded by a bright light and ledthe captive, invisible to his captors, from the dungeon. In nearly allsuch releases the victim had been unjustly imprisoned.

Those who are especially devout are saved even tho at times it isnecessary to bring down the heavenly hosts. One good knight (No. 233)fleeing on a swift horse before his enemies arrives at the church of theVirgin of Pena Cova. His pursuers, unbelievers, on arriving at thechurch, see a battalion of heavenly soldiers drawn up in front of itand, thus admonished, they repent and naturally{40} no longer desire hislife.[34] When Bondoudar, the Sultan of Egypt, laid siege to Tortosa deUltramar there were but few defenders within its walls, but when theSultan arrived he saw a great host in the city. One of his advisers toldhim:

On hearing this the Sultan withdrew, saying he would not fight againstthe Virgin and later even sent much money to those in the city (No. 165). No. 49 reads almost like a fairy tale. A band of pilgrimsjourneying to Santa María de Soissons lose their way in the mountainsand in answer to their prayers she appears to themwith a shining wandin her hand and leads them safely to their destination.

The idea ofbargaining, one of the fundamental elements of allprimitive religions,[35] and one which even yet has by no meansdisappeared, was present in a very striking manner. In this respect,indeed, the people were so naïve at times that they made the BlessedMother human in the{41} extreme and sometimes they seemed almost to losesight entirely of her divinity. In no less than nineteen[36] cantigas isthe record of wax being offered in exchange for divine favors and in tenof these the wax was promised in the prayer of supplication; and althothis may not at all times have been consciously offered as a bribe or asa kind of barter yet there is no doubt that unconsciously the feelingwas there. Wax was by far the most popular of all offerings. It wasoffered in bulk, or in the form of an image of the Virgin or of theobject desired, or often in candles. One account which is veryinteresting because of the well-known historical personages involved isNo. 376. During a conversation with the Infante Don Manuel, Alfonsoshowed him a beautiful ring and offered it to him as a gift. The kingsent a servant to deliver it to the house of the Infante, but on the wayhe lost it. He immediately appealed to Santa María del Puerto; offeringher six pounds of wax for her church if she would help him recover thering. A little later a man voluntarily handed it to the messenger sayinghe had found it on the street.

Altho we might consider wax a suitable offering for a miracle of thetype just mentioned, it does cause some surprise to find it accepted inreturn for even such an important act as the restoration of life. Butthere was a woman of Zaragoza whose children were always stillborn, soafter the third sad experience she offered a child{42} of wax to theVirgin. The fourth child was also born dead but, confident now, sheimplored Santa María de Salas, and even while the prayer continued thechild came to life. In addition to wax many other kinds of gifts wereacceptable such as a garland of roses; or when roses were unavailable an“Ave María” might be substituted for each rose in the bouquet (No. 121);or nails were offered for a temple (No. 106); or a promise was made ofthe most beautiful thing captured from the enemy during a battle, whichin No. 374 was a beautiful cloth of gold and scarlet.

More curious than these, and a miracle in which the moral lesson is notto be considered, is No. 214, in which two men, one very rich while theother possessed only a church building, were rolling dice. The wealthyman played high stakes, the poor man, having only the church, played it.The rich one rolled and three sixes fell. His companion, trembling, inhis turn rolled. As he did so he offered the church to the Virgin shouldhe win. To his astonishment, and to the wonder of the bystanders, one ofthe dice fell in two, three sixes and one ace appearing.

Aside from material gifts such as the above, offers of service such asthe promise to go on a pilgrimage to some shrine are also veryeffective.[37]

The naïve elements become almost startling at times in theirchildishness. For instance in No. 8 a singer, after singing a “lais” toSanta María, asked that one of the{43} candles of her shrine light himwhile he ate. The candle was miraculously placed on his instrument, buta monk seeing it out of place became angry, thinking it bewitched, andput it back where it belonged. This was repeated three times until thepeople witnessing this repetition intervened, while the monk, convincedhe had witnessed a miracle, repented.[38] Again, at Rocamador, ninepilgrims ordered nine pieces of meat prepared for their meal. When theydrew near the table only eight pieces were brought in, the servanthaving stolen one. They prayed Santa María to show them where the ninthpiece was and at once heard a noise in a chest. It was the piece of meatjumping around to attract their attention (No. 159). Even more peculiarwere the actions of a paralyzed mule which was ordered killed andskinned by its master. The servant boy before beginning the task stoppedto eat and upon finishing his meal was astonished to find the mulehealed and going toward the shrine of the Virgin of Torena. On reachingthe church it ran around it three times rapidly, entered and kneeledbefore the altar, then returned home with the servant (No. 228).

It is to be remarked also that while the miracles usually do contain amoral lesson—in fact some have no other purpose than to teach a moral,No. 155,—occasionally they are much less concerned with the moral thanwith the really important fact, the miracle, which shows the goodness,power and mercy of Santa María. Bent on{44} emphasizing this they become attimes realistic in the extreme. We must remember also that theconception of what is moral and what is immoral changes constantly andthat therefore it is imposible to measure the 13th century by thestandards of the 20th. But even so, we can say this for Alfonso elSabio; whenever he does include such accounts in his collection hehandles them with his accustomed brevity and never dwells upon theimmoral act nor enlarges upon it. With a few strokes he paints thepicture and then comes to what, for him, is the all important part, themiracle. One such, very popular thruout all Europe in the Middle Ages,is the legend of an abbess, accused by those under her of being withchild, who was called to account before the authorities. She prayedearnestly to the Virgin, who during her sleep brought the child andspirited him away to Saussonna. She was then examined and foundinnocent.

No. 201 is even more interesting, being the story of a beautiful youngwoman who vowed eternal chastity and then, falling in love with a younggallant, became the mother of three of his children and killed each onesoon after its birth. Later in life she repented and tried to killherself with a knife but did not die; she then swallowed two poisonousspiders[39] and still she could not{45} die. Finally she prayed the HolyMother, who appeared to her and with her own divine hand cured her. Thesinner obtained forgiveness by a long life of penance. In this case theimmoral element of protecting the sinner from just punishment hasentirely disappeared, for while the Virgin shows mercy toward her andcures her ills—the result of a self-imposed penance—yet she does notforgive her terrible sin. All she can do is to change the form of thepenance.

One of the phases of the belief of the time which at first glance seemsto us today to be sacrilegious, or to say the least quite startling, isthe part that the breasts of the Virgin and her sacred milk played inthe religion of Medieval Spain. In this belief can be seen how very realand how very human the Mother of Christ was to the people. This race,which has produced some of the greatest mystics of the world, to whomeverything had a mystical meaning, saw in the sacred milk of the Virginthe symbol of healing and of life, and the breasts which had nourishedthe Christ-child were to them the symbol of the fountain of life.

In No. 138 Alfonso tells how San Juan Boca de Oro, exiled by theGentiles, was first blinded and then put out on the highway and told toleave the country. Wandering,{46} he soon fell into brambles, when, callingon “á Rëynna esperital” for aid, she came, restored his sight and ledhim out into the road again. In the conversation which ensued he askedher what was the thing that Jesus loved most when He came into theworld. She left without answering, but appeared to him again that nightwith the child Jesus playing with her breasts. Turning to the him shesaid,

The milk poured by the Blessed Virgin herself from her sacred breastscured an infirmity of the face and neck which had caused long years ofsuffering to one of her faithful monks (No. 54). Similar to this is No.93, an account of how God chastened a man of Burgos with leprosy forthree years because of his sins. After he had recited a good thousand“Ave Marías” Saint Mary at last took pity on him, and bathed him in herown milk, which cured him immediately.

And after all, when considered reverently, and in the light of the factthat the Virgin was the most important and most beloved personage in thereligion of the period, what more beautiful and sublime symbol couldthere be than this!

Possessions are constantly being restored thru the agency of the HolyMother, who is never unmindful of{47} the needs of her children, and who isjust as quick to respond to the needs of the rich, if they are realneeds, as to those of the poor. Altho such service is quite oftenperformed in return for some gift, as indicated in the discussion ofBargaining,[40] it is by no means limited to this. Often the simplefaith and earnest prayer are sufficient.

A certain Don Domingo of Santa María del Puerto lost thirty sheep in themountains. His devout wife appealed to the local Saint to save them fromthe wolves. Three days later they were found surrounded by wolves, whichinstead of harming them wereguarding them from harm (No. 398). In theincident of a woman of Toledo (No. 212) we catch a glimpse of some ofthe customs of the times as well as find an entertaining story. Thiswoman had the habit of loaning a lovely string of pearls to the poorgirls of her acquaintance for their wedding ceremony, because

But her husband for some reason forbade her to do so any longer. Soonafter this another poor woman came begging for the pearls, and becauseshe asked “in the{48} name of the Virgin” the lady could not withstand theplea and loaned them surreptitiously. While the girl was bathing, aservant stole them, but note—

The bride was heartbroken and the lady, very much grieved but still morefrightened, went to the church of the Virgin, where from sheer weaknesscaused by her anxiety she fell asleep before the altar. While therestill asleep, the woman who had stolen the jewels passed thru the churchwith them hidden in her bosom. The sleeping woman awoke at that momentand, miraculously given to know that this one had her pearls, forciblyrecovered them.

Legends of necessities being miraculously supplied are not lacking.There is one concerning a church in Jerusalem built under the guidanceof the Virgin that reminds us of the widow’s cruse of oil. The communitywas about to have to leave owing to a severe famine. As a last resortthey met and prayed all night, and when morning came they found all thebread boxes full. Later a similar famine occurred and again they prayedall night, and this time they found a large sum of pure gold on thealtar. (No. 187). Miracles similar to the one performed by Jesus at thewedding feast in Canaan of Galilee (John 2: 1-11) are Nos. 23 and 351.The first is the simple{49} story of a woman who was out of wine when theKing came to visit her, so she asked the Virgin to help her in herperplexity, and immediately the wine casks in the cellar were filled.The second, on a larger scale and with an element of humor, maintainsthat at the great annual feast in honor of the Virgen de Agosto one yeara great hogshead of wine was supplied for the public, but, sad torelate, it did not last long. After it became exhausted the crowd wasslow to go away and someone suggested that they look again to seewhether it was entirely empty. To their surprise they found it was fullof miraculous wine supplied by the Saint, and it had the quality notonly of delighting those who partook of it but also of curing ills.

Altho such benefits and protection are usually bestowed only uponChristians, and more especially upon those who are particularly devotedto the Mother of Christ, occasionally she will hear the requests ofthose who belong to another faith provided they are ready to acceptChristianity. A vagrant Jewess was cast from a high rock in punishmentfor her misconduct, but, on appealing to the Virgin, she fell harmlesslybeside a fig tree. In gratitude she was baptised and remained constantto the faith thru life (No. 107). The Virgin’s mercy was also greatenough to restore life to the child of a Moorish woman who, because shehad heard of the miraculous power of Santa María de Salas, took the deadbody of her little one to the shrine. After the mother had remainedthere all night in prayer the child was brought back to life altho ithad been dead three days (No. 167).

There is another small group of miracles recorded in{50} which the responseis not to prayers but to threats—cases in which the believer losescontrol of himself and defies both God and man. No reason is given whythe threats are effective after prayers and requests have been of noavail. Does it imply that the Holy Mother was to them such a humanpersonality that, like an earthly lord, she might be susceptible tofear?

One case in point (No. 76) is that of a devout woman, the mother of acriminal, who became desperate when her son was hanged. Snatching theform of the child Jesus from the arms of the image in the church shethreatened to keep it as a hostage. The Virgin became merciful—(orfearful)—and brought from the other world to the distracted mother hercriminal son, who, now truly penitent, reprimands his mother for hersacrilegious act. So greatly was she impressed by the experience thatshe became a nun.

The most surprising miracle of the entire collection so far as thebehavior of Saint Mary is concerned and her show of fear is thefollowing, from which I shall quote freely. The young son of a baronfell with his horse from a high bridge. The father saw the accident andcried out aloud to the Virgin:

This is the first and only reference I have found to this peculiar fearon the part of the Virgin.{53}{52}

CHAPTER III

Miracles Performed Voluntarily by the Virgin

Altho at times this study of Miracles may have the appearance of anexamination of the character of the Virgin, which indeed it is in acertain sense, nevertheless it is such only in order that we may, bystudying her acts as recorded in these miracles, come to a betterunderstanding of what was considered supernatural in that period andwhat was not. Perhaps it will help in arriving at this result if, beforebeginning the study of the next group, we stop at this point to see whatwas Alfonso’s own judicial definition of “miraglo”, as the term is usedin hisSiete Partidas.[43] It reads as follows:

Next in extent after the group of miracles performed in answer todirect appeal is that in which Santa María{55} comes to the aid of herfollowersvoluntarily, owing, perhaps indirectly, to their prayers,but if so this is not so stated and the dominating thought is not thatthe act was in answer to prayer but rather it is to emphasize thekindness, care and eternal vigilance she ever has for those who havecommended themselves to her keeping.

In our study of this division we shall follow the same classification aswe did in the last, but shall cite examples only in cases where theydiffer materially in one particular or another from those mentionedabove. Altho the actual number of miracles is less, here divine aid ismanifested in an even greater variety of ways. These new elements willbe considered under additional appropriate headings beginning on page65. On the whole the general tone of the miracles is the same, andsometimes it seems as tho the poet merely forgot, or perhaps it was notconvenient for him, to work into his verse the statement that a givencase was one of direct answer to prayer. At other times, however, itseems that the prayer was answered in a manner entirely unlooked for, oragain that the miracle was performed without supplication whatever onthe part of the recipient.

Beginning again with the group composed of the greatest of all miracles,the restoration of life, it is noticed that here instead of being inresponse to a direct appeal on the part of some faithful servant, themiracle seems to be performed as a reward, without the bereaved personhaving thought such a thing possible. The fact that the soul of theperson whose life is thus restored may be brought back from the regionsof eternal happiness seems of minor im{56}portance. One of the mostbeautiful of these miracles is said to have taken place in “Inglaterra.”A widow had a young son who sang, as no one else could, the “Gaude VirgoMaría”. A jealous Jew killed him and put his body in a cellar, thinkingthat would be the end of it. The mother, not knowing what had become ofher son, went thru the street calling “Where are you?” As she passed thehouse of the Jew she was answered by her resurrected child singing morebeautifully than ever “Gaude María”. The Jew was put to death for hiscrime (No. 6).

The new element of temporary restoration is found in No. 311. A piousman and his friend set out on a pilgrimage to Nuestra Señora deMonserrat. His friend does not seem to be very well confirmed in thefaith, and when, as they are passing thru Barcelona, a flash oflightning kills his devout companion, he curses the Virgin and tauntshis dead fellow pilgrim with the worthlessness of his devotion. The nextday at the burial the dead man rises in his coffin and vindicates hisfaith by saying that all is well now.

The Virgin plays an even more important part in the miracle (No. 323)which happened when Aben Yussef crossed the straits of Algeciras andmade damaging raids into the territory of Seville. A poor man’s only sondied, and, as the Moors were already in sight, all the father could dowas to commend the body and his worldly possessions to the BlessedMother as he hastily fled before the enemy. When the land was recapturedthe old man, to his great astonishment, found his son alive and all hispossessions safe. The boy told him that a lady had come{57} to accompanyhim and for some reason the Moors had respected her.

Very close akin to these are those of life miraculously sustained whenaccording to all laws of nature death was inevitable, as was the case(No. 131) when Emperor Alexius of Constantinople, while on a tour ofinspection, was imprisoned in a caving mine along with many workers. Allwere killed except the emperor who was saved by a large rock whichformed a protection for him. The empress and all at court gave him upfor lost and spent much time in Masses for his soul. At the end of oneyear the Patriarch of the city dreamed the emperor was still alive andimmediately took workmen and had the mine opened. Thereupon they foundthe emperor unharmed and learned that he had been fed and solaced byangels during the entire interval.

Even more dramatic is the experience of a German and his son on apilgrimage to the shrine of Santiago, who while lodging in the house ofa heretic fall victims unawares to the old trick of having silver put inthe boy’s bag in order to accuse him of theft. The boy is hanged, andthe heart-broken father, still faithful, continues on his way andfulfills his vow. On his return he is impelled to pass by the gallows.To his surprise he finds his son still alive, having been sustained bythe Virgin for three months. Hastening to the bailiff, the fathersecures the release of his boy and has the heretic duly burned (No. 175).

There are no new elements presented in the various miracles in thisgroup dealing with the curing of bodily ailments, beyond those alreadyindicted on page 35. No{58} 206 however describes the interesting spectacleof Pope Leo, very devout and austere, who became so much perturbed atbeing kissed on the hand by a beautiful woman at Mass that he could notforget the sensation nor concentrate on his work until he had his handcut off. This did not give him peace because he was no longer qualifiedto say Mass. The Virgin, seeing his grief and having mercy on him,descended from heaven and applied a marvelous ointment to the stump withthe result that the hand was restored.

In the methods by which the Blessed Mother prevents harm from befallingher devotees there is nothing new. The only difference being that herethe act is performed more as tho it were the reward for faithful servicewhile previously it was in answer to prayer.

As is to be expected the idea of bargaining is almost entirely absentfrom this group. The bargain idea found its birth on the part of man andnot of the Deity. One legend only in the entire collection representsthe Virgin as taking the initiative in a bargain (No. 307). This is whenshe appears to a virtuous man after an eruption of Mount Etna which hadcaused great damage and had lasted forty days. She told him if he wantedthe eruption to cease to compose a hymn to her. This he did with thedesired effect.

The number of the unmoral, in fact in some cases distinctly immoral,miracles here is greater than before. We must not forget, however, that,as mentioned above, often there was no very close connection betweenreligious observances and morals in Medieval Europe.{59}

On one occasion (No. 24) we are told that a very wicked man, a robberand a gambler, died and was refused a Christian burial, but during hislife he had been devoted to the Virgin, so she appeared to the priestand demanded that his body be taken up and buried in sacred ground. Whenthey opened the grave they found a rose in the mouth of the corpse[45].No. 11 is the story of a licentious monk who was drowned one night whilecrossing a river on the way to visit his amour. The Devil appeared forhis soul but two angels contested his claim. He convinced them of hisright and they were about to retire when the Virgin arrived, routed theDevil, and ordered the soul to return to the body in order that the monkmight repent and do penance. In this instance, it will be noted, thesoul is simply restored to the body and given another chance, while inNo. 24 above, the indication is that the soul of the evil doer is saved.

Then there are five quite similar, Nos. 55, 58, 59, 94 and 285, tho themoral lesson differs somewhat. In the first a young nun elopes with amonk to Lisbon where when she finds herself about to become a mother sheis cruelly deserted. Not knowing what else to do she returns penitent tothe convent. Angels attend her at the birth of the son during the nightand no one suspects her. None had missed her during the absence becausethe{60} Virgin had taken her place and it is not until one day in her oldage when her son, now a handsome young man, appears in the choir singing“Salve Regina” that all is discovered because the worthy nun recognizeshim publicly. No. 94 is apparently the same legend more fully developed.The nun, the treasurer of the convent, falls in love with a knight andon leaving the convent gives the keys into the keeping of the Virgin.She and her husband live together happily for years, being blessed withmany children, and it is only in later years that she repents andreturns to the convent, confessing all. To her astonishment, she foundthat the Virgin had taken her place during her absence and no one hadever known the difference. When it is learned that the Blessed Motherhad performed such an act of kindness, all burst into a hymn of praiseto her. In No. 285 we have the same setting of a young nun falling inlove, this time with the nephew of the abbess, but the actions of theVirgin are quite different. On the first attempt to leave the conventSaint Mary stopped her. The next day she sent word to her lover that shehad failed to keep her appointment because she had been ill but promisedto meet him the next night, which she did, and the two made their escapesuccessfully. They married and had children but even then she was notable to get away from the Holy Mother, who appeared to her in a dreamand severely reprimanded her. This was too much. She at last told herhusband and in repentance they both decided to enter the monastic life.In this legend the immoral element has disappeared, the Virgin no longerprotecting the guilty. No. 59 is still another{61} story with the sametheme, but the punishment is still more severe. As the young girl wasabout to depart she went to take leave of the Saint. At the parting herimage began to shed tears. The girl then drew near the crucifix, which,loosing one of its hands from the cross, struck her in the face, leavingthe mark of the nail as a stigma. In No. 58 the girl concerned was aboutto elope, but two dreams of Hell and of eternal punishment weresufficient to make the heroine send for her lover and tell him thattheir union would be impossible.

Of the three instances in which the sacred breast or milk of the Virginplay a part, all involve an answer to direct appeals.See page 45.

While there is only one account of possessions being restored withoutrequest (No. 228, which contains no new elements) there are severalwhich tell of rare materials, or of materials delayed by storms at sea,etc., being miraculously supplied; or perhaps, as in the case of EmperorConstantine (No. 231), Santa María would help in the erection ofbuildings. The emperor had brought huge blocks of marble from Roumaniafor the altar and columns of a church to be dedicated to her. When theyarrived they were so large no means could be found to hoist them intoposition. At last she appeared to the architect and told him to do awaywith all apparatus and use only three small boys to do the work. He didas he was bidden and they placed the blocks in position with ease.

These, however, do not give us as intimate a picture of the life of thecommon people as do other accounts,{62} such as No. 273. In it we get aglimpse of the privations of the home life of the peasants and at thesame time an idea of their innate pride in their local church. AtAyamonte there was a small and poor church erected to Santa María but inspite of the poverty of its communicants the altar decorations wererich. So great were their privations that even the Host was scarce. Atthe feast of the Virgen de Agosto some of the altar cloths neededmending and one of the devout men of the congregation offered to do it.He had a needle but no thread, and no one could provide him with it.While before the altar considering what he should do, he glanced up andsaw two threads on his shoulder obviously supplied by the Saint. It isin such apparently incidental allusions as this—and the one, No. 211,where bees come into the church of their own accord and supply the waxfor the candles because the congregation could not furnish any—that wecan, from time to time, form an idea of how “the other half,” which didnot consist of knights and nobles, really lived.

Following the same order as in the first group we now come to thoseaccounts in which the Virgin comes to the aid of the enemies of thefaith. Quite modern in tone is the story (No. 335) of a poor man who,altho entirely ignorant of Christianity and its teachings, gave even thelittle he had to the poor. The Holy Mother, knowing of his goodness,appeared to him as a poor woman with her child in her arms and asked himfor a morsel of bread. Fearing he had none he went, nevertheless, to seeif he could not scrape out just a little more flour from{63} the barrel.When he returned with the last of his flour made into bread for her, shehad gone. He made inquiry thruout the neighborhood describing her, andwas finally advised to go and inquire of the Christians. There herecognized the Virgin and Child from her image and became a Christian.From the day she appeared to him the flour never failed in the bin.

Not only was mercy extended to those good at heart and living modellives and to those who did not believe simply because of ignorance, butopportunities for proselyting were quickly taken advantage of. A certainJewess, (No. 89) dangerously ill at childbirth, was about to despair.Naturally she did not believe in the Virgin but she heard a mysteriousvoice bidding her call on Santa María, which she did. When thoseattending her heard this awful name they fled, calling her a heretic anda renegade, but she was cured. The mother and child both becameChristians.

The Blessed Mother, however, knew mankind and did not use the samemethod with every one. With some, more persuasion was necessary thanwith others, and so when dealing with one hardened Jew, who had beenrobbed and beaten by Christians and was still being kept on a diet ofbread and water in the hope of extorting even more from him, it was notenough that she should merely appear to him and bid him forsake hisreligion; she tells him that altho he is of the evil race she will showhim what his people have missed. With that she takes him from prison toa high mountain where she shows him how the Jews are being tortured andthen to another from{64} where he can see the Christians surrounded withangels, and thence to a monastery, where, taking the hint, he gladlybecomes a Christian (No. 85).[46]

The Christians themselves used rather persuasive methods of proselytingat times if we may trust the account of a Christian of Consuegra whodisputed much with a Moorish captive of his concerning the Virgin. Whenhe could not make the man believe by arguing he put him in prison, wherehis efforts were supplemented by the intervention of supernaturalbeings. The Devil tormented him for two nights and on the third theVirgin appeared to him and told him if he wished to be free from theDevil he would have to forsake the “dog” Mohammed. He told this visionto his master, was baptised, and from that time on was a faithfulbeliever (No. 192).

In another (No. 205) we again find both human and divine personsinterested in the unbeliever, but this time it is physical safety theyare concerned about. The miracle was witnessed by two nobles mentionedby name, Don Alfonso Tellez and Don Gonzalo Eanes, Maestre de Cala, andtheir followers. They were attacking a Moorish castle and had set fireto it. On one of the towers they saw a Moorish woman with her child whoby her pose reminded them of the Virgin and Child. The sight filled themwith pity and inspired them to pray for the safety of the two. In answerthe flames respected them, while{65} the tower fell gently to the ground,allowing them alone of all those in the castle to escape unharmed. Themother out of gratitude asked for baptism for herself and her child.

After examining these classes, which coincide more or less with similarones of the first group, there still remain a number of other miracleswhich present entirely new elements. First we shall examine those inwhich Saint Mary aids her devotees in acts of worship or in restrainingevil passions which prevent their undivided service.

A person sincerely trying to do his religious duty could always countupon aid from heaven when his temptations were becoming too great forhim or when worldly cares caused him temporarily to neglect his regularworship. A very devout woman (No. 246) used to pray every Saturdayevening at the shrine of Santa María de Mártires. Once she forgot, owingto household duties, until very late. On her arrival, altho the churchdoors were already closed they opened of their own accord, after she hadbegun her devotions before the portal. She entered and deposited hergift, and as she left the doors closed of themselves. Astonished, shereturned to the city where the closed gates of the wall opened withoutthe touch of a human hand. Just then a beautiful woman appeared and whenthe peasant asked her who she was she acknowledged herself to be theVirgin. The poor wretch tried to kiss her feet, but as she did so theHoly One disappeared.

Again, we learn (No. 156) of a clerk who persisted in chanting Mass inhonor of the Virgin, thereby angering{66} some heretics who cut out histongue. Some time later the good man entered the church of Santa Maríade Cunnegro while the congregation were singing vespers. As he attemptedto join in the song a new tongue was given him.[47]

Of the numerous legends having as the dominant theme the inability ofthe person concerned to restrain his animal passions the best developedis the story of the clerk who was much given to women. One night whilein the room with one he suddenly saw thru the window the lights of achurch of the Virgin. Never having seen them there before he left toinvestigate, but finding nothing returned. This time the woman herselfclosed the window fast but almost immediately a strong gust of wind blewit open, and again the church was seen. With this he recognized hiserror, repented, and became a monk. A little later, when his formerconduct was criticized and he was brought to account for it before thechurch council, the Virgin cleared him of all charges (No. 151).

It will be noted that often in the foregoing miracles, and often inthose that are to follow, the Virgin appears in dreams or visions, butthe feature of the vision has usually been only incidental. In all wehave only two examples (Nos. 261 and 288) of a true mystical vision{67}granted for the sake of the experience alone. One of these (No. 261)recounts how a very devout woman was desirous of seeing a perfectlyvirtuous man and woman. Communicating her desire to the priest, he toldher to return home and to remain alone in fasting and prayer. This shedid and after nine days she saw a bright light followed by those whosaid they were saints. These in turn were followed by the Virgin and herSon. Upon seeing them she had no further desire to live and prayed to betaken with them, which request was granted. When the priest was told ofher death, and undertook to prepare her body for burial, he found itgiving off an odor more delicate and pleasing to the senses than theperfumes of the Orient.

The usual purpose of the vision is to give commands, or to strengthenthe weakhearted or discouraged.[48] There are one or two accounts,however, in which the vision itself is enlarged upon and the cure orcommand or lesson, as the case may be, sinks into minor importance. Thescene is that of a deeply grieved mother sitting beside the bed of hervery religious son, a deaf mute, who was dying of a serious illness. Hismother saw him suddenly rise up in his bed and begin to talk to someperson unseen and unheard by her. It was the Blessed Mother who hadvisited him in a vision and healed him (No. 269).

At other times the vision seems to be a kind of clairvoyance thru whichthe recipient sees what is happening at a distant place at that verymoment. In relating one of his own experiences Alfonso declares (No. 345) that{68} when D. Nuño de Lara abandoned Jérez, in spite of the factthat reenforcements had been sent him, the Moors entered, destroyed thechapel, and tried to burn the image of the Virgin but could not. At thatparticular time both the king and the queen were taking their siesta atSeville and each dreamed of the Virgin and her Child fleeing from theburning chapel of Jérez. On awaking they learned of the disaster andhastened to retake the city, after which the royal couple, together withtheir children, restored the church.

Similar to this in so far as the character of the vision is concernedtho in an entirely different setting is No 15 in which Emperor Julianwas the victim. In this particular case we are presented with twoversions of the legend—one inLas Cantigas, originally toldsupposedly by an eye witness of the events as they happened at the tombof the saint, and the other in thePrimera Crónica General. In briefthey are as follow:

In this last version the vision motif is entirely lacking.

At other times the vision takes on a kind of symbolic or mystic feature,its purpose being to strengthen the faith of the one concerned. One inwhich the acts of Saint Mary astonish us is that experienced by somenuns commissioned by a religious and devout king (probably Alfonsohimself altho he was too modest to say so) to pray for him. They saw theVirgin calling for the king on Easter morn{70}ing, saying she would grantanything he asked if he would come. He entered the church and as he didso the image kneeled before him and kissed his hand. He immediately fellon his face in humility. She, thru her image, bade him rise for, shesaid, “You have always honored me and my Son and when you die you willcome to us.” After witnessing such magnanimous acts the vision passedand the nuns hastened to tell the king what they had seen. He was devoutbefore, but this greatly increased his devotion (No. 295).

The line between experiences having the mystical element usuallyconsidered essential in visions proper, or in dream-visions, and thoseexperiences which some few persons undergo while in full control of alltheir faculties is so fine as to be at times almost undistinguishable.The following (No. 365) has, indeed, all the marks of a vision but onthe other hand the friar manifests none of those emotions usuallysupposed to accompany such cases. This clerk, contaminated with theAlbigensien heresy, did not believe in the immortality of the soul andtherefore was about to flee from the convent to a life of pleasure, whenhe saw the Virgin descend from heaven with a host of angels and returnwith the soul of a poor, humble, but believing man. This convinced himof his error and he passed the rest of his life in the convent full ofholy hope.

The rôle of a saint who admonishes and warns is quite common for theBlessed Mother. She is indeed in many respects like a mother whocarefully watches over her children, ready to offer a word of comforthere or one of criticism there. Just like a school boy who tires of his{71}task and is ready to flee before its completion was a friar of Burgoswho began a garment of prayers for the Virgin, but was persuaded by theDevil to leave the monastic life with his task half finished. She,however, appeared to him holding in her hand a dress far too short, andtold him to return and finish the work, adding that she wanted him, too,for he was going to die within one year, but that she would come againbefore the final day. 364 days later she did return and he died on theday following (No. 274)[49].

Another picture, so very human and so child-like, is that of a doctorwho became a friar, but, not liking the poor food, complainedconsiderably. To cure him of this the Virgin appeared with a dish ofdelicious food and, treating the whole community as so many children,gave some to each one except the complaining clerk. He acknowledged andaccepted the lesson (No. 88).

Various methods besides that of the vision are employed to warn thedelinquent. These can be best illustrated by giving a brief résumé ofthree miracles which need no comment.

A gambler, losing heavily (No. 154) curses God and the Virgin and indefiance of their power picks up a{72} bow and shoots an arrow into thesky, shouting “D’aquesta uegada ou a Deus ou a sa Madre darei mui gransaetada”. Having thus given vent to his feelings he returns to play. Afew moments later the arrow, wet with blood, falls on the table aroundwhich they are seated. Thinking someone has been wounded, each hastilyexamines himself. When each is found whole the true significance dawnson them and they become terrified indeed. So great is the effect thatthe blasphemer repents and enters an austere order—and, it is said,gained heaven.

In No. 196 a gentile[50] priest who hated everything connected withChristianity prepared a mold for an image which he expected would answerall his questions. When it came out it had a form quite different fromwhat he had anticipated, so he asked his fellows what it was. They couldnot help him. Finally some of his Christian acquaintances told him thatit was the form of the Virgin, and to prove their assertion took him tothe church where he could see for himself. This experience convinced himof his error and he was converted.

The Bishop of Siena (No. 219) had several images made for the church,all in white. Among them was one of the Devil and one of Santa María. Asthis color did not make Satan look as vile as he really was the Virginturned the figure black. The prelate, hearing of the change, thought itwas some trick and ordered the image washed and scraped, but withoutresult. It was black{73} thru and thru. He then recognized his sin andprayed for forgiveness.

The hope of reward has ever been one of the strongest arguments offeredby any religion. The Mohammedans, the greatest rivals of the Christiansat that time, offered thru their faith attractive rewards in the nextlife, as did Christianity also. But for the peasant and also for the manof the middle class as well as occasionally even for the noble, thefuture life was something afar off; reward in the present life was muchmore attractive and it was this that the Virgin granted from time totime to a chosen few. The first miracle recorded in the collection (No. 2) is the old and even then well-known legend of the mantle the Virgingave to San Ildefonso for his service and which at his death hissuccessor in office, Don Siagrio, dared to appropriate, dying as theresult of his sacrilege[51].

Usually the favor was in return for some special service. In No. 141 itis an answer to the eternal desire to grow young and is bestowed upon acertain very devout friar who always fell on his knees when he heard thename of the Virgin. When very old the abbot assigned two monks toaccompany and care for him, but one day when left alone for a fewmoments he fell and could not rise. He called on the Saint, who appearedand led him by the hand before her altar, where she told him to kiss itand become young. To his great surprise he found himself again a youngman of about twenty years.{74}

No. 63 is especially interesting, not only because of its contents butalso of its similarity to the story found in the second part ofLaPrimera Crónica General (p. 426). A knight, the constant companion ofthe Count D. García in his campaigns against the Moors, was extremelyconscientious in his devotions and always stayed until Mass was entirelyover before leaving. One day, due to this, he was late in arriving onthe field of battle, tho no one had missed him. As he rode up the Countmet and embraced him and bade him have his wounds dressed,congratulating him at the same time, saying that it had been his skilland valor that had saved the day. Shamefacedly the knight glanced at hisarmor and was surprised beyond words to see it full of holes and bloody.He then realized that some divine messenger had taken his place; and allrejoiced in the miracle.[52]

In another instance (No. 105) the reward is the gift of healing, thothis time it is not, as is so often the case, by means of a mantle. TheBlessed Virgin appeared to a young girl early in life and told her ifshe wished to gain heaven she must remain a virgin. The child promised,but her parents married her against her will. She repelled her husbandfor over a year until, beside himself, he wounded her with a knife.About this time the people of the community began to fall ill withleprosy. She too took the disease and, still suffering from her wound,went to the altar of Santa María. While there, asleep{75} from exhaustion,she was visited in a dream by the Holy Mother who appeared in her dream,cured her, and gave her the power of healing all lepers with her kiss.

There are also a few accounts of the faithful being taken to heaven whenlife has become intolerable (Nos. 384, 56, etc.).

Just as Santa María, when answering prayer, is not limited in her powerto curing bodily ills but may also protect from harm, so in bestowingrewards she does not confine her mercies to those who are suffering. Infact she much more frequently protects them from such harm. Naturally,miracles of this type, all in return for faithful service, cover a largevariety of cases such as: the congregation miraculously saved from harmwhen a heavy beam fell during a sermon (No. 266), a pilgrim saved onfalling into the sea (No. 33), a wife saved from an angry husbandbecause she spent too much time at devotions (No. 314), a boy freedafter capture by the Moors (No. 359), a clerk who lost his positionbecause he could say only one Mass ordered reenstated (No. 32), and onethat reminds us of Coleridge’s “Ancient Mariner,” the story of a hermitcaptured by pirates after they had sacked the surrounding country andwere ready to sail away. They started with him on board but each nightsome mysterious power brought their ships back to where they had beenthe day before. At last the admiral decided to release the hermit, CountAbran of Germany, and in addition offered him great riches of which heselected only one glass to keep as a reminder of the favor he hadreceived at divine hands (No. 95).{76}

Quite often Saint Mary protects her own from unjust punishment. Aconfidential adviser of a certain lord was falsely accused by hisenemies. Because of his devotion to Santa María she caused the truth tobe brought out at the trial so that he was freed while his maligner wasburned. She proves equal to the occasion when her followers aresubmitted to the ordeal of trial by fire[53]. A married woman’smother-in-law accused her before her husband of unfaithfulness. The wifeand the Moor with whom she was accused and who had agreed to act as anaccomplice of the mother-in-law were taken to the public square to beburned. The Moor perished immediately but the woman was unharmed, andfurthermore the Virgin was seen beside her in the fire (No. 186).

The motherly characteristic of Santa María again comes to the front inNo. 47 when she rewards a good priest who has always been punctual inhis duties but gives{77} way once and, yielding to temptation, becomesthoroly drunk. This she does by caring for him on his way home, when theDevil in the form of a bull, a frightful black man, and a lion tormentshim. She protects him even to the point of striking the lion with astick, then she tells him to go and sin no more.[54] At another time sherewards a faithful servant by keeping his wife from harm while he isaway in the wars. During his absence a gallant courts her and sends hera pair of shoes. She puts one on to try it and to her dismay is unableto remove it. In fact no one could do so until her husband returned,when he took it off with ease (No. 64).

Santa María is particular about vows that have been made to her and iscareful to see that they are conscientiously fulfilled. A woman (No. 117) promised never to work on Saturday, that day being dedicated to theMother of Christ. When she forgot her vow she was stricken withparalysis. Another mother who forgot her vow made while praying that shemight have a child, was punished by having it die before reachingmaturity (No. 347).

The conception of “The Bride of Christ” on taking the vows of a nunremains even to the present time. In the Middle Ages, when the cult ofthe Virgin was at its zenith, the vow of celibacy on the part of menseems to have had a similar appeal with respect to consecration to theworship and love of the Virgin while{78} she is constantly represented asbeing extremely jealous of those who have thus dedicated themselves toher. One young man made the vow either under the inspiration of themoment or perhaps even partly in jest, but this did not make it any theless binding. As he was about to begin to play ball he removed the ringof his fiancée from his finger for fear of damaging it, and as hehappened to be standing near an image of the Virgin he slipped it on itsfinger saying as he did so that he would never love another woman. Tohis surprise and great fear the image bent its finger so the ring couldnot be removed. His friends advised a monastic life but he did not heedthem, shortly afterwards forgetting all about the incident and preparingto marry. But the Virgin appeared to him in two successive dreams and inher anger so disturbed the youth that he wandered aimlessly for a monthand then entered a monastery (No. 42). She was a little more lenient attimes with young nuns who violated their promise. In fact nearly allthose miracles termed unmoral are cases where the Blessed Mother out ofpity shielded these same girls from what was considered their justpunishment.

As well as being jealous of those who have consecrated themselves toher, the Virgin guards with the greatest care her shrines, her ownimages and those of her Son, her feast days, and the special customs,etc., that grew up around her individual sanctuaries. She protected herchurch of Monsarás (Portugal) from an avalanche (No. 113), and the onein Murcia from the political wiles of man by making it impossible toremove as much as one nail (No. 169). Later she saved this same church{79}when even Alfonso X himself consented to its destruction, and stilllater against the ravages of the Moors. During this period of constantwar she frequently had occasion to guard her images against theMohammedans (Nos. 99, 183, etc.), or against sacrilegious acts ofsupposed Christians (Nos. 136, 293, etc.). This might be accomplished bycausing the images to remain intact amid general destruction of allother objects (No. 99), or to pass thru a severe fire unharmed (No. 39).The occupation of the offenders might be brought to a standstill (No. 183), the offender himself might be physically harmed (No. 293), or theimage might put up its arm to protect itself (No. 136). Santa María deRibila would allow nothing but olive oil to be burned before her shrine(No. 304).

Neither will she tolerate the making and maltreatment of effigies of herSon.[55] A heavenly voice at Mass warns the congregation, “The Jews whoare killing my Son do not desire to be at peace with Him”. TheChristians rush to the Jewish quarter and find the Jews engaged inbeating and spitting upon an effigy of Jesus which they are preparing tocrucify. All the Jews perish on the rack for the deed (No. 12). In No.215 in a little town near Martos a Moor attempts to stab an image butwounds himself instead; stones it but it remains unharmed; puts it inthe fire for two days but it is not affected; ties a stone around itsneck and then throws it in the river but it does not sink. The King ofGranada then sends it to the king of Castile,{80} who is at Segovia; hereceives it with great joy and orders it put in his chapel.[56]

It is necessary to approach the church of the Virgin with due humilityand in a penitent state of mind. Wilful sinners can not force an entryuntil they have duly and earnestly repented (Nos. 98, 217, etc.),neither are Moors allowed to enter for unholy purposes, but are struckblind and paralyzed, etc. (No. 229). Acts of violence committed in thechurch are always fittingly punished with disease, paralysis, or death.Sometimes such punishment is accompanied by significant acts by theimage of María, sometimes not. In No. 164, because of the affrontoffered by the Infante D. Fernando in arresting a prior before the altaron the charge of counterfeiting money, the image of the Virgin separateditself from that of the Son and lost its color. After the repentance ofthe Infante the form of the mother went back to that of the Son butnever regained its color.

No. 38 has the added element, by no means uncommon, of the Devil or ofdemons acting as the agents of God in killing the offenders. This timeit was the Conde de Poitiers who with his men entered and desecrated thesanctuary, one going so far as to maltreat the image of the{81} Virgin withthe Child in her arms by striking it, thereby breaking one of the arms.To his surprise and horror, blood flowed freely from the wound. Demonskilled the guilty person, and hearing of it the Count vindicated himselfby punishing all those implicated. So particular is the Virgin about thesacredness of her shrines that some pilgrims at Santa María de Terenaafter becoming engaged in a terrible fight among themselves during thenight, were awe-struck, on going out to collect the dead and wounded, tofind them all well and reconciled, altho their armor was battered andbroken. The Blessed Mother would not tolerate Christian blood shed byChristians in front of her church (No. 198).

Those legends which have to do with the earthly life of the Mother ofJesus are very rare, and when we do find them it almost startles us tothink she was ever considered as a person, human in all respects as theywere and living on this earth. We learn, however (No. 27), that in thetime of the apostles, the Christians had bought a synagogue intending toconvert it into a church. When the Jews hear of their intention theyreclaim it and carry the matter before Caesar. The Christians go toMary, who is then living at Mount Sion and ask her advice. She tellsthem not to fear, for she will help them at the trial. When the dayarrives the case is called in the church building. As Peter takes hisplace beside the altar an image of Mary appears on the altar cloth. Thisis too much for the Jews, who refuse to carry the trial further.Tradition has it that this was the first church dedicated to SantaMaría. Some time later Emperor{82} Julian ordered the Jews to take away theimage of the Virgin, but it frowned on them in such a manner that theyfeared to touch it.[57]{83}

CHAPTER IV

Miracles Performed by Images

Since the image of the Virgin was intended to be a representation of theDivine Mother, it often, especially in the mind of the peasant,attracted to itself all her attributes. The result was that in a numberof cases it was the image and not the Virgin that performed the deed.Often, also when the miracle was attributed to Santa María it was notsimply to the saint, Mary the mother of Jesus, who lived in the distantpast, far away in the Holy Land, nor to Mary, the most powerful of allthe saints in heaven, but it was to the very present, and very localsaint, Santa María de Salas, or Santa María del Puerto, as the casemight be. There is little doubt that in the mind of the common folkthere were as many different Saints Mary as there were shrines, and yet,at the same time, these all had a definite connection with the Mother ofChrist in some mysterious way which the plain people did not troublethemselves to explain. Just as the mystery of the Trinity did notperturb them nearly as much as it did the Anglo-Saxons{84} of the North, sothis particular problem caused them little concern.

As might be expected, most of the miracles attributed to the image ofthe Virgin are of the same nature as those performed by the saintherself. The image cures the diseased (No. 349), it bows over a man andthanks him for a hymn of praise he has composed (No. 202), saves anaughty child from punishment (No. 303), protects a man’s property fromthreatened storm (No. 161), restores to health queen Beatriz, mother ofAlfonso el Sabio, when the doctors had pronounced her illness incurable(No. 256), restrains a rich libertine knight of Catalonia fromcommitting an immoral act in its presence (No. 312), protects a cityfrom capture by the Moors even after the latter had learned from aprisoner that there were but fifteen men remaining to defend it (No. 185), protects its altar from fire by removing a veil from its head andspreading it over the fire, thereby instantly extinguishing the flames(No. 332), and lastly even pours milk from its sacred breasts as a finalargument to convince and convert a Moor (No. 44). The story of No. 321differs somewhat from this, reminding us of a similar cure attributed tothe Child Jesus while on the flight into Egypt.[58] A child wassuffering from a swelling in the neck and was pronounced incurable. Afriend advised that the patient be taken to the king, adding that allChristian kings had the power of healing. This was done, but the kingtold them to take it before the image of the Virgin,{85} wash the image inpure water, and then give the child this water to drink for as many daysas there are letters in the nameM-a-r-í-a. On the fourth day thechild was healed. In two instances the power is extended a littlefarther and in No. 123 a young friar on dying turned black and ugly. Hisbrethren took a candle from the altar and put it in his hand, whichcaused his natural color to be restored. Later he returned and appearingto the two friars told them that the reason he became black at death wasthat he saw Devils, but that the light of the Virgin drove them promptlyaway. In No. 209 Alfonso was very ill and when the doctors could notgive him relief he called for the unfinished manuscript[59] ofLasCantigas and by applying it to the affected part of his body he washealed.

Because of the very high esteem in which the Virgin was held it iscommon to find instances in which a person swears by her or by her nameor image, while she on her part is rightly conscientious in seeing thatsuch oaths are not taken lightly. One young shepherd developed the habitof stealing and was finally caught, but cleared himself by swearing byGodand the Virgin that he was innocent. A little later he was caughtagain, and convicted. This time the Virgin allowed him to be hanged,because he had sworn by her falsely (No. 392). Another man (No. 239)perjured himself before her image by adjuring that he had never receiveda certain article in trust.{86} Even before leaving the church he wasovertaken by a severe illness which caused his death within three days.So high and so sacred was this oath before the image of the Virgin heldto be, that in one instance a wife, being accused of unfaithfulness byher jealous husband, offered to submit to the ordeal by fire to proveher innocence, but her husband demanded instead that she swear beforethe altar of Nuestra Señora. Then he added that she could further clearherself by jumping from a high rock. She passed both tests safely andher husband, penitent, begged forgiveness on his knees (No. 341). Inother cases the image of the Virginspeaks, as, for example, whencalled upon to bear witness in a difference between a Jew and aChristian over the payment of a debt (No. 25).

The very name of María was one to conjure with.[60] Two miracles (Nos.194 and 254) are attributed to the power of the mere sound of the name;and once (No. 195) a girl is saved because her name is María. In No. 194a villainous host sends in pursuit of his departing guests some thugs torob them, but the bandits, on hearing their intended victims call on thename of Santa María for help, become powerless and speechless. In No.254, the image of the Virgin saves some monks who, while recuperating onthe banks of a river from the rigors of convent life, transgress thebounds of what is proper for men of their order. Seeing some devils inthe form of{87} men, coming down the river in a boat, the monks, terrified,call on the Virgin for aid. “She alone has saved you,” shout the devilsas they continue on their way. A girl (No. 195) who had been sold by herfather to a knight on his way to a tournament was saved from harm whenshe told him her name was Mary and that that particular day was oneespecially consecrated to the Saint’s worship. On learning that, theknight sent her for safekeeping to an abbey, while he continued on hisjourney. At the tournament he was killed and buried in the openprairie.[61] The Virgin appeared to the girl and told her of his fatedemanding that she and the abbess go and give the man a worthy burial,telling them they would be able easily to identify the body, for itwould have a rose in its mouth.

* * *

There now remains a group of fifteen poems that do not seem to have anyparticular purpose other than to produce an atmosphere of mystery; butthis very sentiment of the mystical played an important part in thereligious worship of the time. The very architecture of the churchestended to produce it, the processions, the ritual, all inspired the samefeeling. Herewith are summarized only four poems of this group, whichwill give a sufficient idea of the emotions aroused by them.

A young girl, a religious fanatic, died very early in{88} life as theresult of self-imposed hardships. Her parents, suspecting poison,ordered an autopsy, and on the heart of the dead girl was found an imageof the Virgin (No. 188). In No. 361, Alfonso is said to have given abeautiful image of the Virgin to the monastery of Las Huelgas de Burgos.On Christmas night the strange idea of putting the image to bed occurredto the pious nuns. Almost immediately they saw it change color and turnfrom side to side. No. 79, of the codex of Toledo (a poem which does notappear in the codex of the Escorial), relates an incident that tookplace weekly in the church at Constantinople. In this church was abeautiful image of the Holy Mother, covered with a veil. Every Friday anangel descended from heaven to lift the veil, which remained suspendedin the air until Saturday evening, (the day on which the faithful cameto worship), when the angel would return and lower the veil again.Cantiga No. 226 narrates a legend entirely foreign to Spanish thoughtand one which must have caused some surprise in its unwontedenvironment. The incident is said to have happened in “Gran Britaña”.The account runs briefly as follows: A company of friars were in theirconvent saying Mass on Easter morning, when the entire monastery wasswallowed up by the earth—the ground closing above it and leaving notrace whatever. For just a year the monks continued in this enforcedseclusion, without lack of anything needful; they were even lighted by amarvellous sun. On the next Easter morning all was restored to itsformer natural state. It can be seen at a glance that this legend isentirely different from anything that has{89} been mentioned in thiscollection; and I have found no parallel to it in anything else of theperiod.

In closing this chapter attention should be called to two miracles whichemphasize the great importance attached to confession.[62] No. 124 isthe story of a man condemned to be stoned because he had broken a law ofthe Moors in whose land he was living. While undergoing this punishment,he begged permission of the Virgin to make his confession; from thatmoment his executioners could not harm him. Astonished that theirmissiles suddenly ceased to have any effect they allowed him to confess,after which he died praising the Blessed Mother. In No. 96 a sinner wasunwilling to do penance, altho devoted to Santa María. He was beheadedby robbers, without opportunity for confession. Four days later twofriars, on arriving at the spot, were surprised to hear the head pleadfor the privilege of confession. They summoned a crowd; the headattached itself to the body, confessed, and then became separated againfrom the body.[63]{91}{90}

CHAPTER V

“The Devil and all His Works”

His Satanic Majesty is and always has been one of the most interestingof personages. The tracing of his development from the beginning ofreligion in the dim mythical past to his latest rôle as the prince ofevil spirits and “controls” as depicted by Sir Conan Doyle, Sir OliverLodge, and others of similar faith, is fascinating work. Satan as wefind him in the period with which we are concerned is far from being adull and lifeless character. He is referred to as one who had been asholy and perfect as any, but who, because of his sin and treason, becamethe lowest of all.[64] As such, having become the arch-enemy of God, itis his aim to drag down to Hell as many as possible. At the same time,the nearer he comes to localities especially dedicated to his Enemy,God, the more difficult it is for him to exercise his powers. InLasSiete Partidas it is stated as a fact that the Devil cannot{92} harm thesouls of those interred in holy ground as easily as of those buriedelsewhere.[65] He is subject to conjuring[66] and can never face theVirgin. In fact, the mere sound of her name is often sufficient to drivehim away (No. 254). To our surprise he takes on one hellish attributewhich we do not customarily connect with Spain of this period, butrather with the Orient. This is illustrated inLas Cantigas No. 82,where it is related that a monk on his bed saw some devils in the formof swine approach, but they dared not touch him because of his holiness.Shortly afterwards a black man appeared who said he was going to destroythe monk, whereupon the latter, in desperation, appealed to the Virgin.As she hastened to him the devils disappearedin a cloud of smoke.

Demoniac possession is quite common and has only the well-known NewTestament characteristics. The incidents as recorded could easily havetaken place in the time of Jesus in the Holy Land. But the humorouselement manifests itself at rare intervals even here, as we see in No.343 ofLas Cantigas where we find that a girl, possessed, is able, onseeing a person, to tell what his secret sin is and has a mania fordivulging this in public. Needless to say, she is soon shunned by all.Even the priest to whom she was first taken was mocked by her, the holywater did not protect him, and he was not{93} able to face her. However shewas finally cured before the altar at Rocamador.

The compilers of thePrimera Crónica General[67] saw nothing in thevisions of Mohammed but demoniac possession.

Not infrequently Satan resorts to taking on other forms than his own toattain his ends. One story (well known long before Alfonso’s time) whichfound its way intoLas Cantigas is that the Devil, taking on the formof an apostle, ordered a pilgrim to so mutilate himself, as penance forhis sin, that he died, after which Satan prepared to carry away his soulbut was prevented by Santiago (St. James) who rescued it.[68] At anothertime, when he wished to take vengeance on a philanthropic Christian whohad established a hospital, he entered the corpse of a handsome youngman, becoming the good man’s servant, hoping thus to have an opportunityto assassinate him, but was prevented from doing so because his masterprayed every day. At last, the bishop made a visit to the hospital andthe Devil, fearing to appear before him, pleaded illness. The kindprelate, solicitous for his welfare, requests to be allowed to see him.Immediately upon coming into his presence he notes his actions and,suspecting something, conjures him in the name of God. The Devilconfesses and flees leaving the dead body of the young man at the feetof the bishop and philanthropist (No. 67). While thus taking on otherforms he is at times distinctly{94} mischievous, and we can see almost thesparkle of his eyes when, finding that the Virgin has made a certaininnocent man invisible in order that he may escape his foes who accusehim falsely, Satan himself takes the form of this man and playspractical jokes with his pursuers (No. 213).

The familiar “Devil Pact” is to be found in its simplicity when a Jewsells his soul to the Devil, and later on repenting and praying mostearnestly to the Virgin, finds that she hears his prayer and impels theDevil to return the contract.[69]

This simple, and even then conventional, plot does not seem to havesatisfied the demands of the time, since we find it occasionallyintroduced with variations. One man (in No. 281) to gain his lost wealthpromises the Devil he will deny God and the Church, but refuses to denya certain one of the saints, and that is the Virgin. Diabolus hesitates,but remarks

Time passes and he prospers, until one day he is called upon to attendthe king on a public function during which, accidentally, the monarchenters a church. The knight refuses to accompany him, saying it isforbidden him to do so. With that the image of the Virgin beckons tohim, and upon being thus reassured he enters and confesses all. This acthas such an effect on the king that{95} he adds a fortune to the visibleprotection of Santa María (No. 281). Another illustration is that of theman who barters his wife to the Devil, but the Blessed Mother does notallow the bargain to be carried out.[70]

Aside from the above-mentioned traits, that are to be found almostwherever the Devil himself is present, we notice a few others that arerare.

There is the threat of bottling the imps later mentioned on page 116.

ThePrimera Crónica General contains a legend in which the devilsappear almost like human beings holding a general conference. Antidio,archbishop of Vesentine, on crossing the bridge of the river of Duero,sees a group of devils in the field. Apparently without fear, thearchbishop approaches to see what it is all about. As he draws near hisattention is attracted by the report of one of the imps to the effectthat after seven years he has been successful in making the Pope sin.The clergyman immediately demands as proof that the devil take him tothe Vatican on his back that he may verify the statement. This is doneand the report found to be correct. After making the Pope do penance,the archbishop, by conjuring in the name of God and Santa Cruz, nowrequires the diminutive devil, whom he has kept waiting all this time,to carry him back to his diocese.[71]

Very often the Devil appears as a servant of God—as a sort of scavengerwhose business it is to do the disagreeable{96} work. The Vandal king,Gunderico, after sacking Seville, attempts to enter the church by forceto plunder it also. As he approaches the door he is met by the Devil andis killed for his sacrilege.[72] InLas Cantigas No. 34 the Devilkills a Jew for robbing an image of the Virgin, while in No. 192 he sotorments an imprisoned Moor for two nights in succession that the Mooris glad to become a Christian.[73]

Hell, the abode of the Devil, is miserably slighted by the pen ofAlfonso el Sabio. Numerous references are made to “el fuego dellinferno”; a little more graphic is

But no attempts are made to describe the familiar place.[74]

Altho there can be no doubt that enchantment was known and practiced, asevidenced by the laws against it,[75] it is strange that there is butone instance of it in the{97}Primera Crónica General, and that, thestory of Simon Magus, the enchanter, is in the narration of the historyof events in the time of Christ. InLas Cantigas, where we wouldnaturally look to find records of this nature, there are only such casesas the threat of the clerk to bottle the devils (No. 125), occasionalaccusations of the practice of enchantment (No. 8), or a reference tothe fact that medicine, enchantment, and prayers were all of no avail inthe attempt to cure a case of rabies until at last Santa María de Terenawas approached (No. 319). The motif furnished by this practice was notdeveloped, nor did it become popular in literature, until the Books ofChivalry.[76]{99}{98}

CHAPTER VI

Divinations—Omens—Auguries

The love of the mysterious found its greatest development in Spain inthe study of divination, in omens and in auguries. In the practice ofthis art Spain excelled all other countries of Europe in the MiddleAges. Gaston Paris makes the following significant statement in speakingof the episode of the journey of the seven sons of Lara going to visittheir uncle Ruy Velázquez, the quarrel and reconciliation:

The Spanish at this time, in spite of the intermixtures of other races,were essentially a Roman people and this was one of the characteristicsof the old Roman civilization{100} that had not been materially changed bytime or religion. It is true that such practices in all cases except bymeans of astrology, were forbidden by law,[78] but the fact that the lawwas so full and explicit implies that divination and the study of omensand auguries not only existed but must have been quite common. Suchcustoms are usually mentioned merely in passing, as in the miracle ofthe Host mentioned on page 118 or in such statements as the one to theeffect that king Herod died according to the prognostications of a Greekaugur,[79] or the simple statement that a certain person foretold thatcertain events would come to pass without giving any clue as to how thisinformation was received[80]. Another indication that divining was quitecommon is that when Tiberius expelled from Rome all who practiced blackmagic the chronicler considered the event of such minor importance thathe gives it only two lines:

Under the law inLas Siete Partidas treating of actions for which aperson might be legally dishonored, is the following entry:{101}

“Como maguer el astrologo diga alguna cosa de otro por
razón de su arte, non le puede ser desmandado
por deshonra.

Pierden los homes á las vegadas algunas de sus cosas, et van á losastrólogos a rogar que caten por su arte quales son aquellos que lastienen, et los astrólogos usando de su sabiduria dicen ó señalan áalgunos que las han: et en tal caso como este decimos que los que asiseñalaren non pueden demandar que les fagan emienda desto asi como enmanera de deshonra: et esto es porque lo que ellos dicen, fácenlo seguntsu arte, et non con entención de los deshonrar. Pero como quier que nonpuedan demandar emienda dello como en manera de deshonra, con todo esosi el adevino fuese baratador que faga muestra de saber lo que non sabe,bien lo pueden acusar que reciba la pena que mandan las leyes del títulode los adevinos et de los encantadores.”[82]{102}

Very closely associated with the foregoing accounts, altho differingsomewhat in nature, are a large number of legends mentioning wonderfulsigns that appear in the{103} heavens or on the earth at certain significantmoments in the life of an individual or nation. These differ from omensand auguries because they are out-of-the-ordinary happenings, while withauguries and omens proper there is nothing whatever unusual in the eventitself and all depends upon the interpretation. The wonderful signsusually require interpretation, but the person seeing them, even theuninitiated, knows immediately that theyhave a meaning. When OctaviusCaesar ascended the throne there appeared a rainbow around a clear sun,and again, three suns appeared that merged into one, signifying first,that the Roman Empire, divided into three at the death of Caesar, wouldbecome one, and second, that Christ would{104} show the world the mystery ofthe Trinity[83]. More portentous still were the phenomena which appearedduring the consulship of Sextus Julius Caesar and Lucius Marcus, whenmany signs, fire and noises occurred in the sky, blood flowed from breadas if it were meat when it was cut, real stones and earth were hailedupon the land, the earth opened and flames shot to the sky, a mountainof the color of gold descended from heaven and ascended again until itcovered the sun, tame animals became wild, etc.[84] Then, as we leaveRoman history and come on down to the 7th century, a sign in the form ofa sword appeared in the sky and remained for 30 days, which “demostrauael sennorio que los moros auien de auer.”[85]

While usually quite distinct, the line between these marvelous signs,and omens and auguries proper, may at times{105} become almostimperceptible; as, for instance, when queen Dido arrived in Africa sheimmediately prepared to build a city, and as the workmen set aboutdigging the foundation for the walls they found the skull of a cow. Thiswas taken to the augurs and they declared it signified that any citybuilt there would always be one of toil and always under the power ofothers. They moved to another place and again began to dig, this timefinding the skull of a horse, which, said the augurs, signified that acity built in that place would always be one of pride and ofwarriors.[86]

Incidents of this kind might conveniently be placed in either class,because, altho the event itself does not startle one, it does not take asoothsayer to tell a person of an imaginative turn of mind that a skullfound under such circumstances probably has a significance.

The foregoing have been but signs whichindicated the future, and nomatter how striking theform an interpretation was necessary. Butthere are a few cases recorded where a person is apparently given to seeinto the future and somehow is permitted to know what is going to occur,without any medium whatsoever, and furthermore is impelled to speak outwhat he knows. We find that a Roman senator and his wife enter thetemple of Jupiter and as they do so a priest who has all the symptoms ofdemoniac possession, cries out, “Aquest mugier trae en el uientre cosaque destruya de rayz aqueste grand templo et menuzara todos los dios queen el estan.”[87] The event fore{106}told did come to pass when the childreferred to became a friend of the emperor and thereby succeeded inhaving the temple destroyed. Then is added the significant statementthat this happened just 1000 years after Rome was founded.

The agent used to convey the message is usually a person, but it may bean animal. An ox tells his master of the future;[88] or even an idol ina heathen temple imparts the knowledge that the temple will stand only“fasta que parriesse uirgen”[89].—The temple fell when Christ wasborn.{107}

CHAPTER VII

Visions

The two termsdream andvision seem to have been only vaguelydifferentiated in the period we are studying, just as even at thepresent time they are often used almost synonymously. Inlas Cantigaswe find:

and

but in No. 336 the person certainly was not asleep, for:

A similar confusion of the two words is characteristic of the otherworks of Alfonso X.{108}

Because they are thus synonymously employed it has not seemed desirableto treat the two separately. Also it must be remembered that in manyinstances, especially inLas Cantigas, some simple statement is madesuch as “The Virgin appeared to him,” with no indication whether it wasin a dream or a vision, or whether, in the form of an ordinary humanbeing she appeared to the person concerned while he was in fullpossession of his faculties. It is to be regretted that there is nodefinition of either “dream” or “vision” inLas Siete Partidas. Theonly reference to dreams is one to the effect that in themselves theyare not sufficient authority for the establishment of a church or analtar[90].

Visions and significant dreams[91] may conveniently be divided intothree classes: (a) those which deal with what is to us the unknown fateof persons in whom we are interested; (b) those concerned withcontemporary events at which we ourselves are not present; and (c) thoseassociated with the future.{109}

In the literature of Alfonso X, those pertaining to the first group dealexclusively with the fate of the soul in the other world. For instance,shortly after the death of king Dagobert of France a holy man had avision in which he saw the devils contending for and almost successfullycarrying off to Hell the soul of the deceased king[92]. Many good mendesired this consummation, but Saint Denis, bishop of Paris, pleaded toGod for Dagobert’s soul and the bishop’s prayer was granted.[93]

In reading other passages we can almost imagine ourselves in thepresence of a clairvoyant medium. Alfonso X dreams of the destruction ofthe church of Jerez (No. 343), and in a similar manner the EmperorJustinian has a vision of the evil that Gilemer the Vandal is doing inAfrica[94]: while the Emperor Heraclius dreams of the misfortunes of histroops in Africa.[95] All of these visions are contemporary with theevents involved.

By far the greater part of the visions and dreams have to do with thefuture of the individual to whom they are manifested; and of thesevisions by far the greater number are symbolic. Occasionally themessenger appears and gives a direct command, as San Fernando when heappeared to Maestro Jorge and bade him take a fine ring from the fingerof a statue recently erected to the saint’s memory by his son Alfonso X,and put it on the finger{110} of the image of the Virgin[96]; or as when thesaints appeared to Taion who had gone on a seemingly hopeless task toRome to find the famous bookMoralia in Job and told him where it wasto be found, even mentioning the exact position in the chest;[97] oragain, as when Aeneas, upon his landing on the shores of Africa, dreamedof his future meeting and love affair with Dido[98]. But it is thesymbolic vision that was the most popular.

Usually this type of vision is quite simple in its elements, as when OurLord appeared to Emperor Marcian and showed him the broken bow ofAttila. The emperor was at a loss to understand the real import of this,but interpreted it as a favorable omen. Later he discovered that on thevery night of the vision Attila had married, and had died as a result ofthe debauch that had accompanied the wedding.[99] This is an example ofthe usual type, but at times such a vision is considerably elaborated,involving much symbolism and mysticism. One of the best introduces theEmperor Constantine. It is given here in the writer’s words:

On awaking, the Emperor fails to recognize the meaning of the dream,until after seven days of fasting on his part, the Pope Sylvester.

There is also quite a long account of the visions beheld by Mohammedwhile he was at Jerusalem, from which city he was permitted to ascendthru the seven heavens. The compilers preface the history of thisarch-enemy of the Christian faith with the statement that Mohammed{112}suffered from epilepsy, because of which he saw visions that he thoughtwere of God but in reality they were of the Devil.[101] The account endsalso with a reminder to the same effect[102].{113}

CHAPTER VIII

Various Manifestations

We now come to a group of miscellaneous elements which, altho some ofthem were doubtless quite common in the daily life of the people, havefor one reason or another received comparatively slight attention at thehands of Alfonso. Some of these, as conjuring for instance, are usuallynow considered as a part of black magic, but it will be noted in thefollowing paragraphs that it was freely practiced by the Church and infact formed a part of the most sacred religious rites. In the discussionthat follows, these various subjects are taken up in alphabetical order.

I.—CONJURING

Conjuring, says Alfonso in effect, is the art of using potent words inthe right manner. Then he illustrates the point with naïvequaintness—as he does so often: “These words, just like a carpenter’stool, may serve for many different purposes, but it is necessary, ifthey are to have the effect desired, that they be said by a person who{114}knows how. The fact that they do have effect is seen from the results ofeveryday life.”[103] The fourth rank of the clergy was held by theExorcist, and this title

How much this short passage taken from a law book tells us of thecurrent beliefs, and of the place held by conjuring! Note, however, thatconjuring was limited, according to law, to dispossessing the Devil.This practice, like baptism, was in the hands of the clergy and couldonly be resorted to by the layman in cases of dire necessity.Enchantment and wizardry were strictly forbidden, and for the practiceof such criminality a father was given the right to disinherit hisson[105]. In thus combatting the Devil the sacred oil, orcrisma, wasone of the most powerful instruments. In setting forth its power andsignificance, the law reads:

{115}

The method by which the oil was to be prepared is expounded as follows:

After having been thus carefully prepared,

Not only thecrisma, but certain words (among them the following)possessed special virtue: “Avemaría”, because from the contents of thatprayer one comes to understand the mystery of Jesus, moreover itcontains the words of salutation used by the angel to María and thesewords still greatly please her; “Paternoster”, because it reveals theFather and contains the seven petitions which Jesus taught Hisdisciples; and “Credo in Deum”, because it reveals the Holy Spirit andcontains all the faith and science of Christianity.[108]

From these and similar regulations pertaining to the various sacraments,especially baptism, perhaps we might not err seriously in supposing thatthe practitioners of black magic received not a little of theirinspiration from the Church itself, altho much against the will of thelatter.{116} With such a number of laws, regulations, etc., it might atfirst seem a little surprising to find so few legends in which conjuringplays an important part, but probably this can be accounted for by thefact that it was so common a practice that it was scarcely esteemedworthy of mention. The most interesting story for our presentpurpose—and one which is illustrative of the group in general—is thatof the great debate conducted in Rome in the year 320 between theChristians and the Jews. The latter, to prove the superiority of theirGod, whispered His name in the ear of an angry bull, which promptly felldead. The Christians went even further; they whispered the name of theirGod in the ear of thedead animal, which immediately returned to lifeand, quite gentle and meek, was led from the assembly.[109]

InLas Cantigas conjuring is mentioned only in passing references, andalmost always it is the Devil who is conjured to leave a person (No. 67). But in one instance we have the well known story of a man, thistime a monk, who has at his command the services of the Devil and whenSatan cannot procure for him what he desires, because the personconcerned is under the special protection of Santa María, the monkthreatens him and his host of imps in these words:

II.—GHOSTS

There is not a genuine clean-cut ghost in the entire period. In fact,such apparitions as we know them seem never to have flourished veryvigorously in Spain. There arefantasmas, andsombras, etc., inabundance in a later period, but the ghost that appeals to present dayobservers was entirely lacking. In the time of Alfonso X, the functionof the ghost, which is usually that of issuing warnings from the otherworld, was generally exercised by the saints or angels. In one case, itis true, a friar returns after his decease to explain to his twobrethren why his corpse turned black at death and was restored to itsnatural color when a candle from the altar of the Virgin was placed inits hand (No. 123). But this is a very poor example; there is no elementof fear recorded. The shade does not pass thru closed doors, weapons donot pierce its body without effect, etc. Emperor Julian has a ratherghostly experience when he is killed by the phantom knight,[110] butthis is in reality a returned saint and not a ghost, and besides hekills with a weapon—a most unorthodox piece of behavior for a ghost.

There is only one good ghost story in the entire lot, and this claims tobe no more than a narrative from Roman history, apparently told solelybecause it is in the old records. Emperor Caius Caligula wasassassinated and his enemies half burned his body, then in hastepar{118}tially buried it. Because of this his spirit could not rest in peacebut tormented the keepers of the garden where the body lay, and theguardians of the place where he had been killed, until the cremation wasproperly performed and the ashes suitably buried. This has indeed thenecessary elements of a ghost story, but as indicated above, it seems tohave found its way into the literature purely by chance and makes noliterary impression on the period.[111]

III.—THE HOST

The sacrament of communion was intended especially to remove thetendency to do evil rather than good. This sacrament being the mostfrequently observed of all and in many ways closely associated withExtreme Unction which may be described as the most potent, there grew uparound the Host a number of legends. The Host, on account of its extremesacredness, became one of the favorite points of attack for thepractitioners of black magic, who seemed to have considered it as a mostpowerful charm. Four of the miracles[112] inLas Cantigas wereperformed to protect it from such an unholy use, altho in only one ofthese, which is briefly as follows, does the black magician appear inperson:[113] a countryman wished to secure a large yield of honey withlittle effort, so he consulted asorteira, who{119} told him that nexttime he went to communion he should not swallow the Host nor touch itwith his teeth but should take it and put it in one of the hives. Havingdone so, he found later upon opening the hive, an image of the Virginand Child. Frightened, he hastened to the priest, who ordered the marveltaken in procession to the church. There, when it was blessed, it turnedback again into the simple Host.

The Host is again transformed in No. 149. Here it is a devout priest whocannot bring himself to believe in transubstantiation. One day at Massthe Host disappeared and the priest saw before him the Virgin and Child.He asked the Virgin if she had the Host. “Yes, it is here,” she saidshowing him her Son. With that, upon explaining why it took the form ofbread and wine, she disappeared. As she vanished the priest again sawthe bread and wine as it was previously, but he no longer doubted.

Aside from this type of story, illustrating the sacredness andinviolability of the Host, there are a number of cures of various kindspurporting to have been wrought in persons waiting before the altar atthe time of Mass.[114] The hours themselves at which Mass was celebratedwere symbolic. These were ordinarily the third hour, the hour in whichthe Jews demanded the death of Jesus and in which He was scourged; thesixth hour, that of the crucifixion and the ascension; or the ninthhour. In cases of conflict with an hour of regular occupation, or otherreason of necessity, private Mass might be said earlier or later{120} up tothe ninth hour.[115] At Christmas a clergyman might recite three Masses(usually he was allowed to recite only one a day), and they were to beat the following hours: (1) at cock-crowing before dawn, signifying thetime when the people were still in darkness, (2) at dawn, signifying thesemi-light of the prophets, and (3) at the third hour, representing thefull light of the present dispensation.[116]

The ceremony of the Mass was one which the Devil could not venture tolook upon. In order to test whether a questionable peculiarity was ofthe devil, the person affected by it was sometimes taken to Mass, as inthe case of a young girl who had been placed in a convent andconsecrated to the Church, but who developed a mania for fondling theChild of the Virgin Mary, without opposition on the part of the HolyMother. At last the community discovered the situation, and, dulyshocked, appealed to the Pope. He did not know what to say, so hedecided to test the case at Mass. During the ceremony, at the girl’srequest, he had the image of the Virgin’s Child placed in the girl’sarms. Upon receiving it she exclaimed, “This is my child and I want togo with him.” Saying which, she took the Host and expired, going to bewith Him in paradise (No. 251).[117]{121}

IV.—MYSTIC NUMBERS

The Spanish—as before intimated—are a highly imaginative race andincline to look for a mystical meaning or a symbol in everything. It wasprobably due to this that the Catholic faith, with its elaborateceremonial, crowded with symbolism, was so fervently embraced by thenation as a whole. For them every event was fraught with an hiddenmeaning. The enigma of the future, for example, had been written by themysterious finger of God in the stars. There was a special mystery,again, shrouding certain numbers, particularly three, seven, and nine.Since there were three clases of sins, venial, criminal, and mortal, thepriest, in the ceremony of baptism, was to breathe three times in theface of the candidate, conjuring the Devil to leave the body; threetimes was he to conjure salt and put it in the mouth of the person; andthree times must he immerse the infant who was the recipient of therite. Again there were nine orders of angels, nine also of theclergy—nine being the square of three.[118] But the greatest and mostsignificant of all numbers was seven. There were seven things neededbefore a church was complete (Partidas, 1-10-14); seven privileges ofthe prelates over the clergy (1-5-65); seven punishments for crime(7-31-4); seven virtues a king should possess (2-5-7 and 8). Eachofficial must swear to seven things; there are twice seven,{122} orfourteen, joints in the hand, and therefore twice seven articles offaith, as the articles of faith have the same function in the divinehand as the joints in the human (1-3-3). There are seven notes in themusical scale.[119] But to give a just idea of the true significance ofthis number I can do no better than to quote from the Prólogo ofLasSiete Partidas, pages six and seven.

POR QUALES RAZONES ESTE LIBRO ES DEPARTIDO EN SIETE PARTES

Septenario es un cuento muy noble que loaron mucho los sabiosantiguos, porque se fallan en él muy muchas cosas et muy señaladasque se departen por cuento de siete, asi como todas las criaturasque son departidas en siete maneras. Ca segunt dixo Aristotiles etlos otros sabios, ó es criatura que non ha cuerpo ninguno, mas esespiritual como angel et alma; ó es cuerpo simple que non seengendra nin se corrompe por natura, et es celestial, asi como loscielos et las estrellas; ó ha cuerpo simple que se corrompe et seengendra por natura, como los elementos; ó ha cuerpo compuesto etalma de crecer, et de sentir et de razonar como home; ó ha cuerpocompuesto et alma de crecer et de sentir et non de razonar, asicomo las otras animalias que no son homes; ó ha cuerpo compuesto decrecer, mas non de sentimiento nin de razon, asi como los árboleset todas las otras plantas; ó ha cuerpo compuesto et non alma ninsentimiento, asi como los metales, et las piedras et las cosasminerales que se crian en la tierra. Otrosi todas las cosasnaturales ban movimiento que se departe en siete maneras; ca o esasuso ó ayuso, ó delante{123} ó atras, ó á diestro ó á siniestro, ó enderredor. Et en este mesmo cuento fallaron los sabios antiguos lassiete estrellas mas nombradas, á que llaman planetas, et de quetomaron cuento por los siete cielos en que estan por los susnombres; et ordenaron por ellos los siete dias de la semana. Et lossabios departieron por este cuento de siete las partes de toda latierra á que llaman climas. Et por este mesmo cuento departieronlos metales; et otrosi algunos hi hobo que por este cuento de sietepartieron los saberes á que llaman artes: eso mesme fecieron de laedad del home. Et aun por ese mesmo cuento demostró Dios á los queeran sus amigos muchas de sus poridades por fecho et por semejanza,asi como á Noe, á quien mandó facer el area en que se salvase deldeluvio, et que le mandó que de todas las cosas que fuesen buenaset limpias metiese en ella siete. Otrosi Jacob, que fue patriarcaservió a su suegro siete años por Rachêl, et porque le dió a Liaservió otros siete por ella mesma, et esto fué por muy grantsignificanza. Et Josep, su fijo, que fue poderoso sobre toda latierra de Egipto por el sueño que soltó al rey Faraon de los sieteaños de mengua et de los siete de abondo, segunt el sueño que elRey soñara de las siete espigas et de las siete vacas: esto fuefecho de grant devocion. Otrosi á Moysen quando le mandó facer eltabernáculo en que feciesen oracion los fijos de Israel, le mandóque entre todas las otras cosas que señaladamente posiese dentro deél un candelero de oro fecho en manera de árbol, en que habiesesiete ramos, que fuese fecho por grant significanza. Et David, quefue otrosi rey de Israel, por gracia que le veno de nuestro señorIeso Cristo, fizo por Espíritu Santo el salterio, que es una de lasmejores escripturas de santa Eglesia, et mostró en él siete cosas,asi como profecía, et oracion, et loor, et bendicion, etreprehendimiento, et consejo et penitencia. Et despues de todo estoquando nuestro Señor quiso facer tan grant{124} mercer al mundo quedeñó prender came de la virgen santa María por nos salvar, et quele podiésemos veer vesiblemente, et conoscer que era Dios et home,por este cuento, segun dixo el profeta, hobo él en si siete donesde Espiritu Santo. Et otrosi por este cuento, segunt dixieron lossantos, hobo santa María siete placeres muy grandes del su fijo,que se cantan en santa eglesia. Et en este cuento mesmo nos diónuestro señor Ieso Cristo siete sacramentos, porque nos podiésemossalvar. Et otrosi en este mesmo cuento nos mostró él mesmo laoracion del pater noster en que ha siete cosas en que le debemospedir merced. Otrosi san Iohan evangelista, que fue pariente etamigo de nuestro señor Iesu Cristo, fizo un libro, á que llamanApocalipse, de muy grandes poridades que le él demostró, et lasmayores cosas que en él escribió son todas partidas por este cuentode siete. Onde por todas estas razones que muestran muchos bienesque en este cuento son, partimos este nuestro libro en sietepartes, et mostramos en la primera dellas de todas las cosas quepertenescen a la santa fe católica.

While one of the greatest of all mysteries was that connected withcertain numbers the idea did not stop here. Jerusalem was destroyed inthe same month Jesus was crucified.[120] The well known biblical mysterytraditions connected with the earthly life of Jesus are all faithfullynarrated.[121] Attila is supplied with a sword from Vulcan in amysterious way.[122] Alejandro el Magno and his host, after travelingfor seven days in darkness in the Orient come to a river{125}

After leaving this place and journeying a little farther amid variousadventures they again come upon another land of

V.—RELICS

Relics, which played an exceedingly important part in the life of themedieval Church, might consist of anything which formerly belonged to asaint or to Jesus, or anything which might serve as evidence inestablishing a miracle. Every altar, upon being consecrated, should havesome relics placed within it,[125] and these usually were ofmiracle-working power themselves. At Chartres there{127} was a certain dressthat had belonged to the Virgin, on which it was the custom to placecloth which was made up into garments for warriors, because it wasbelieved that after being thus treated garments made from it would beinvulnerable. In fact a knight wearing one of these was attacked whileunarmed, and altho his enemies thought they had pierced him thru andthru he was in reality unharmed (No. 148). The bones of St. Thomas,together with a letter purporting to have been written by Jesus, were sopowerful that when placed over the gate of Edessa no enemy could enterwithout first making peace with the city.[126] Very interesting is thecase of the humble woman who went to confession and after doing penanceasked for a written certificate of pardon, which after some hesitationwas given. Misfortune overtook her and she was forced to beg. In onecity she came upon a moneychanger and asked the loan of a small sum buthe would not let her have it without security. The only security shecould offer was this certificate of pardon. The moneychanger laughed atthe idea, but finally promised to let her have the equivalent of itsweight in gold, and putting it on his scales was astonished to find thatall his gold would not balance it. This convinced him, and becomingconverted he told the woman to take whatever amount she needed. (No. 305).

Such relics not only had the power to work miracles but were themselvesdivinely protected. One man, a peasant, laughed at the idea that acertain shoe on the{128} altar in the church had ever belonged to theVirgin, because, he said, a shoe as old as that would not be in so gooda state of preservation. To cure him of such flagrant unbelief sheafflicted him in the mouth in such a manner that he could be cured onlyupon the application of the shoe in question (No. 61). At another timesome priests, by the exhibition of relics, were collecting money torebuild a church. In the course of their travels they entered a shipwith some merchantmen. After a short while they were attacked bypirates, and in the face of danger the merchants, to secure immunity,offered gifts of money for the building of the church. When the dangerwas safely passed they repented of their extravagance and took backtheir donations, buying wool for their own use with the money. Shortlyafterward a stroke of lightning set fire to their purchases, thusavenging both God and the Virgin (No. 35).

Naturally, some relics were more powerful and more sacred than others,and they varied in these respects according to the importance of thesaint to whom they belonged; and seemingly were protected in a likemeasure. When Alfonso el Sabio left Seville for Castile he ordered therelics of the Virgin, along with those of the other saints, to becarefully put away, but when he returned ten years later he found onlythose of the Virgin in perfect condition; those of the other saints haddecayed (No. 257).{129}

CONCLUSION

After the foregoing investigation the fact is impressed on us morevividly than ever that the Spain of the Middle Ages was truly the motherof the Spain of today. Hers were a people with a lively imagination, butthis was dominated by the two elements which have always been mostmarked in her history—religion and realism. And wherever these twoelements enter into the development of the supernatural in the mind ofman, the Spanish contribution has to be taken seriously into theaccount.

It is impossible, as stated previously, to affirm which of the medievaltraditions are Spanish and which are not. The most that we can hope todo is to note what type of legend appealed to this people; of all thehost of supernatural stories common through the Europe of the MiddleAges, to determine what classes or types found their way into Spain andthere were welcomed, being repeated from generation to generation(becoming thus a part of the national tradition); and what kind or kindswere rejected because they did not have this appeal.

In Spain the beliefs and superstitions we have been passing in review,having as their starting point the actual observation of objectivenature and of human nature, were{130} amazingly multifarious. The study inparticular of omens and of auguries, based on the real experiences oflife, made a peculiar appeal to the Spaniards, as is witnessed by theabundance of material concerning such found at every turn in the earlyliterature. Contrasted with this is the notable lack of the fantasticand purely imaginary, so popular among the nations of the north, as wellas among the Mohammedans.

The effect of this realistic spirit on the religion of the people, theother dominating element of their national life, must also be noted. Theunreal ghost has given place to the more naturalistic saint or angel,for their religion permitted no denial of the existence of these twoorders of beings. Moreover, soothsayers, diviners, and other similarcharacters were recognized by the Church as a real force, as isevidenced by the Church’s constant warfare against them. And the Devil!What good medieval Christian,—above all, what Spaniard,—could refuseto believe in him?

To summarize: We are impressed first by the commanding prominenceaccorded to the personalities of the saints, especially Saint Mary, thenof Santiago (St. James) and the others; next, of the predominatingimportance of the rôle of the Child Jesus, with the relegation to acomparatively unimportant place of the adult Saviour; and finally of theenemies of God, headed by Diabolus. The works and influences of all theabove are manifested in dreams and visions, miracles and portents, inalmost every conceivable form, conjuring, fortune-telling, etc. Theritual of the church service, especially of the sacraments,{131} becomesintertwined and adorned with what many faithful churchmen of the presenttime would doubtless be willing to class as downright superstitions.Omens and the like, because of their realistic appeal, continue in spiteof the constant opposition of the Church.

In contrast to this, however, we find no unquestionable ghosts. The“magic ring”, moreover, is entirely lacking, as is nearly all that typeof Arabian magic. King Oberon, with his fairy band, has not yet made hisappearance, and the sage Merlin is only alluded to occasionally by thelearned. Subterranean cities still remain limited to their northernabode. The well-knownmal de ojo is absent, and enchantment is littleheard of. The Werewolf, mentioned, it is said, by Pomponius Mela,Herodotus, and Ovid, is entirely neglected and omitted either thrusimple ignorance of it or because it does not conform to their realisticthought. The search for the elixir of life is only faintly hinted at inthe restoration of youth to the aged priest who seeks help from theVirgin (No. 141). The myth of supernatural prolongation of life is to befound only in its primitive stages, in such legends as that of MaríaEgipciaca and in some of the miracles contained inLas Cantigas, andyet we are told that,

{132}

Arabian influence does appear, however, quite frequently, especially incertain types of visions such as those in which a person is transportedfrom one point to another to witness various scenes; as well also as inthose in which the subject sleeps many years while experiencing the joysof Paradise. French religious traditions dealing with various shrineswere common property. Many of the miracles related inLas Cantigas aresaid to have been performed in France, especially at Soissons.

The general impression gained from the study is that we are standing atthe beginning of a new period; that soon there is going to unfold beforeus a magnificent spectacle, so far as the supernatural is concerned, inwhich these elements, whose beginnings we can even now discern, willpresent themselves in all their fullness, but at the same time thosewhich have already reached their culmination will survive, and, beingthe product of the real life and soul of the nation, will still be thedetermining factors in shaping its beliefs and practices, as itcontinues its course among the hosts of outside influences it is soon toencounter.

As we close the study we can not, if we would, resist the pervasivecharm cast over us by the simplicity of the primitive age with itschildlike faith. From time to time the canvas has been reversed, thecustomary medieval picture has been changed, the sound of the bugle, theglitter of burnished arms, the noise of battle, have now receded intothe background, and altho we are still faintly conscious of them webecome almost unaware of their presence. In the foreground have arisen,we scarcely{133} know how or whence, the common people, with their sheep andtheir goats, their games of chance and their wine, their joys and theirsorrows, their loves and their hates, their marriages, births,deaths—all these—along with their interesting superstitions and ardentdevotion to their local saints, as well as their fidelity to their lord,who moves about among them as their guardian and protector.{135}{134}

CLASSIFICATION OF THE MIRACLES INLAS CANTIGAS

I

A.—Direct answer to prayer by the Virgin

B.—Miracles voluntarily performed

II

Miracles performed by image, name, or relics or Virgin. 9, 27, 34,38, 46, 51, 59, 61, 123, 139, 148, 161, 162, 164, 183, 185, 194,202, 209, 254, 256, 264, 272, 294, 303, 306, 321, 332, 353, 361.(See p. 83-87.)

III

Miracles of mystery. 8, 29, 56, 103, 153, 162, 184, 188, 219, 226,305, 313, 315, 342, 361. (See p. 87-89.)

{139}

{138}

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Published Works of Alfonso X, el Sabio

Alfonso X, el Sabio, Antología de sus obras, byAntonio G. Solalinde,Madrid, 1922, 275 pp. (A second volume is in preparation.)

Cantigas de Santa María de Don Alfonso el Sabio, ed. Real AcademiaEspañola (Preface by the Marquis of Valmar), Madrid, 1889, 2 vols.

El libro de Ajedrez, das Spanische Schachzabelbuch des königs Alfonsdes weisen vorn jahre 1283; illustrierte handschrift im besitze derkönigl. Bibliothek des Eskorial vollständige nachbildung der handschriftin 194 lichtdrucktafeln, Leipzig, 1913. (Introduction by John G. White.)

Los libros del Saber de Astronomía, ed. M. Rico y Sinobas, Madrid,1863-1867, 5 vols.

El lapidario, ed. J. Fernández Montaña, Madrid, 1881, XX pp., 76, 14numb. 1., 76 pp.

Opúsculos legales del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio, ed. Real Academia dela Historia, Madrid, 1836, 2 vols.

Primera Crónica General, ed. of R. Menéndez Pidal inNueva Bibliotecade Autores Españoles, vol. 5, Madrid, 1906, 4+1+ 776 pp.

Las Siete Partidas, glosadas por Gregorio López. There are numerouseditions of this work. Some of the editions available in the UnitedStates are: Salamanca, 1576, 3 vols. + 1 vol. index; Madrid, 1611;Valencia, 1767; Madrid, 1829-1831, 3 vols. + 1 vol. index (The titlepage of this edition reads, “Las Siete Partidas del sabio rey DonAlfonsoXI, etc.{140}”)

Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio, ed. Real Academia dela Historia, Madrid, 1807, 3 vols.

Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio. Pandectashispano-mejicanas, o sea, código general comprensivo de las leyesgenerales, útiles y vivas de las Siete Partidas, ed. Juan Rodríguez deSan Miguel, Méjico, 1839-1840, 3 vols.

Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio, la primera partida,textkritische untersuchung einer unveröffentlichten handschrift desvierzehnten jahrhundrets, by Whilhelm Friedmann, Leipzig, 1911.

Las Siete Partidas, and other writings, extracts from, inWarner’sLibrary of the world’s best literature, vol. 1, pp. 383-388.

Tabule Alfonsi hispaniarum regis & L. Gaurici artium doctoris egregijtheoremata ... In calce huius libri seorsum annexe sunt tabule Elisabethregine nuper castigate & in ordinem redacte per L. Gauricum ...Venetiis, 1524, 123 f. + 1.

Tabulae Alphonsinae perpetuae motuum coelestium denuo restitutae etillustr. a Franc. Garcia Ventanas. Traduntur praecepta de fest.mobilib. sec. correct. Gregorianam, et tabulae constr. ad meridian.Toletanum con alg. grab. En 4. Matriti, 1641. Perg. 8 + 126 hh.

Works Treating of Alfonso el Sabio

Books

Alfonso el Sabio, como rey y conquistador de la provincia de Cádiz.Memoria inédita, Cádiz, 1892.

Pedro Aguado Bleye,Santa Maria de Salas en el siglo XIII; estudiosobre las Cantigas de Alfonso X, el Sabio, Bilbao, 1916, 98 pp.

Theophilo Braga,Cancionero Portuguez da Vaticana, Lisbon, 1878, 112 +236 pp.

Arnold Busson,Die doppelwahl des Jahres 1257 ... etc. Münster, 1866,6 + 137 pp.{141}

Emilio Castelar y Ripolli,Alfonso el Sabio, Rey de Castilla. Novelahistórica original, Madrid, 1853, 16 + 407 + 3 pp.

Manuel Colmiero,Cortes de los antiguos reinos de León y de Castilla,Madrid, 1883-1884, 2 vols.

—Reyes cristianos desde Alonso VI hasta Alfonso XI, Madrid, 1894, 4vols.

Emilio Cotarelo y Mori,Estudios de la historia literaria de España,Madrid, 1901. See pp. 1-31. Also review inRomania, 1898, vol. 27, p.525, byA. Morel-Fatio.

—Documentos de la época de Alfonso el Sabio, Madrid, 1851, 2 vols.

Pedro Gómez de la Serna,Sobre el reinado de Don Alfonso el Sabio.(Speech read upon being received into the Real Academia de la Historia.)Madrid, 1857, 72 pp.

Gaspar Ibáñez de Segovia Peralta y Mendoza, marqués de Mondéjar,Memorias históricas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio i observaciones a suChrónica, Madrid, 1777, 687 pp., Fol.

A. G. F. Kolditz,De Alphonso X., Castillae Legionisque rege, cognominesapientis indigno, Serveste, 1757.

R. Menéndez Pidal,L’Épopée Castillane à travers la littératureespagnole, Paris, 1910, 26-306 pp.

—Estudios Literarios, Madrid, 1920, 345 pp.

—Crónicas generates de España, 3rd. ed., Madrid, 9 + 1 + 238 pp.

Francisco Martínez Marina,Ensayo histórico-critico sobre la antigualegislación y principalis cuerpos legates de los reinos de León yCastilla, especialmente sobre el código de don Alfonso el Sabio,conocido por el nombre de Las Siete Partidas. 1st. ed., Madrid, 1808, 2+ 450 pp.; 2nd. ed., Madrid, 1834, 2 vols.; 3rd. ed., Madrid, 1845, 21 +23 + 574 pp.

Andrés Martínez Salazar,Fragmento de un nuevo códice gallego de lasPartidas, La Coruña, 1910.

Gayetane Puch y Portoles,Historia de las Siete Partidas de Alfonso X,Madrid, 1829, 32 pp.

Antonio G. Solalinde,Alfonso X el Sabio, antología de sus obras,Madrid, 1922, 275 pp. (Second volume is in preparation.)

Diego Suárez,Don Alfonso X—sus ideas políticas y sociales,{142} (Speechdelivered upon receiving the degree of Doctor en Filosofía y Letras.)Madrid, 1861, 28 pp.

Leopoldo Augusto de Cueto, Marqués de Valmar,Estudio histórico-criticoy filólogico sobre las Cantigas del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio. 2nd. ed.,Madrid, 1897, 22 + 1 + 400 pp. (This is theIntroduction to theAcademy edition of 1889 of Las Cantiagas, published in a separatevolume.)

José de Vargas y Ponce,Elogio del Rey Alfonso el Sabio, Madrid, 1782,76 pp.

Magazine Articles

Alfonso X of Spain and the code of 1256, inAmerican Journal ofEducation, 1877, vol. 27, p. 157-164.

Pedro D’Azeredo,Duas traducões Portuguesas do sec. XIV; um fragmentoda versão das Partidas de Castilla, inRevista Lusitana, 1913, vol.16, p. 101-111.

Michael Barrington,The Lapidario, etc., inThe Connoisseur, London,1906, vol. 14, p. 31-36.

Rodolfo Beer,Los cinco libros que compiló Bernardo de Brihuega pororden del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio, inBoletín de la Real Academia dela Historia, 1887, vol. 2, p. 363-369.

A. F. G. Bell,The “Cantigas de Santa María” of Alfonso X, inModernLanguage Review, 1915, vol. 10, p. 338-348.

Samuel Berger,Les Bibles Castellanes, inRomania, 1889, vol. 28, p.360-408 and 508-542.

Mary E. Blake,Alfonso X and the Birth of Spanish Literature, inCatholic World, 1893, p. 518-530.

Antonio Ballesteros y Beretta,Un detalle curioso de la biografía deAlfonso X el Sabio, inBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia,1918, vol. 73, p. 408-419.

—Alfonso X de Castilla y la corona de Alemania, inRevista deArchivos, bibliotecas y museos, 1916, vol. 34, p. 1-23 and 187-219;1916, vol. 35, p. 223-242; 1918, vol. 39, p. 142-162; 1919, vol. 40, p.467-490.{143}

Henry Collet andLuis Villalba,Contribution a l’étude des “Cantigas”d’Alphonse le Savant, inBulletin Hispanique, 1911, vol. 13, p.270-290. (A musical study of some of the Cantigas.)

G. Daumet,Les testements d’Alphonse X le Savant, roi de Castille, inBibliotheque de l’École des Chartes, 1906, vol. 67, p. 71-99.

Adolf Fanta,Ein Bericht über die Ausprüche des Königs Alfons auf dendeutschen Thron, inMitteilungen des Instituts fur OsterreichischeGeschichtsforschung, 1885, vol. 6, p. 94-104.

Fidel Fita,Biografías de San Fernando y de Alfonso el Sabio por Gil deZamora, inBoletin de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1884, vol. 5,p. 308-328.

—La Cantiga XLIX del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio—Fuentes históricas, inBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1889, vol. 15, p. 179-191.

—Cincuenta leyendas por Gil de Zamora combinadas con “Las Cantigas” deAlfonso el Sabio, inBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia,1885, vol. 7, p. 54-144.

—San Dunstán, Arzobispo de Cantorbery, en una cantiga del rey DonAlfonso el Sabio, inBoletín de la Real Academia de la Historia,1888, vol. 12, p. 244-248.

—El libro del Cerratense, inBoletín de la Real Academia de laHistoria, 1888, vol. 13, p. 226-237.

R. Foulchè-Delbosc,Les “Castigos e Documentos”, inRevueHispanique, 1906, vol. 15, p. 340-371.

Paul Groussac,Le Livre des “Castigos e Documentos”, inRevueHispanique, 1906, vol. 15, p. 212-239.

Friedrich Hanssen,Estudios ortográficos sobre la Astronomia del reyDon Alfonso X, inAnales de la Universidad de Chili, 1895, vol. 91,p. 281-312.

—Los endecasílabos de Alfonso X, inBulletin Hispanique, 1913, vol.15, p. 248-299.

C. De Lollis,Cantigas de amor e de maldizer di Alfonso el Sabio, inStudi di filologia romanza, 1887, vol. 2, p. 31-66.

José Ramón de Luanco y Riego,Clavis sapientae Alphonsi{144} regisCastillae (InHomenaje a Menéndez y Pelayo), Madrid, 1899, vol. 1, p.61-67.

Pedro de Madrazo,Sobre la edición fotocromolitográfica del códice delLapidario de Alfonso X, inBoletín de la Real Academia de laHistoria, 1877, vol. I, p. 471-475.

F. F. Mann,Eine altfranzösiche prosaversion des Lapidarus Marbod’s inRomanische Forschungen, 1886, vol. 2, p. 363-374.

J. J. Nuñes,A review of Fragmento de un nuevo código gallego de lasPartidas, inRevista Lusitana, 1911, vol. 14, p. 312-316.

Juan Ruíz de Obregón y Retortillo,Alfonso X el emplazado—unaleyenda, inRevista de archivos, bibliotecas y museos, 1916, vol. 32,p. 420-449.

L. Serrano,El ayo de Alfonso “el sabio”, inBoletín de la RealAcademia Española, 1920, vol. 7, p. 571-602.

Antonio G. Solalinde,Intervención de Alfonso X. en la redacción de susobras, inRevista de Filología Española, 1915, vol. 2, p. 283-288.

—El códice florentino de las “Cantigas”, inRevista de FilologíaEspañola, 1918, vol. 5, p. 142-179.

O. T. Tallgren,Observationes sur les manuscrits de l’Astronomied’Alphonse X, etc., inNeuphilologische Mitteilungen, 1908, p.110-114.

F. Valls y Tabernir,Relations familiars i politiques entre Jaume elconqueridor i Anfos el Savi, inBulletin Hispanique, 1919, vol. 21,p. 9-52.

Mary Ward,Alfonso the Wise, King of Castille, inMacmillan’sMagazine, 1872, vol. 26, p. 126-136, and inLiving Age, 1872, vol.26, p. 51-59.

Paul Scheffer-Boichorst,Zur Geschichte Alfons’ X, von Castilien, inMitteilungen des Instituts fur Osterreichische Geschichtsforschung,1888, vol. 9, p. 226-248.

A Few General Studies

Nils Aberg,La civilisation néolothique dans la péninsule ibèreque,Paris, 1921, 14 + 204 pp.{145}

Miguel Asin-Palacio,Escatología Musulmana en la “Divina Comedia”,Madrid, 1919, 403 pp.

Pierre Aubry,Trouvères et Troubadours, 2nd. ed., Paris, 1910, 2 p.1., 223 (1) pp.

V. Balaguer,Los Trovadores, 2nd. ed., Madrid, 1882, 4 vol. in 2.

Antonio Ballesteros y Beretta,Sevilla en el siglo XIII, Madrid, 1913,338 + 255 pp.

The Bible—King James’ Version.

Joaquín Costa,La Poesía popular española y mitología y literaturacelto-hispana, Madrid, 1881, 8 + 489 pp.

Georges Dottin,La langue gauloise, Paris, 1920, 17 + 364 pp.

Reinhart, P. Dozy,Histoire des Musulmans d’Espagne jusqu’à la conquêtede l’Andalousie par les Almoravides, Leyde, 1861, 4 vols.

—Recherches sur l’histoire et la littérature de l’Espagne pendant lamoyen âge, 3rd. ed., Leyde, 1881, 2 vols.

Francisco Guillén Robles,Leyendas Moriscas, Madrid, 1885-1886, 3vols.

James Hastings,Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Edinburgh and NewYork, 1908-1922, 12 vols.

C. Julian,Histoire de la Gaule, Paris, 1908-1920, 6 vols.

E. H. Klotsche,The Supernatural in the Tragedies of Euripides,Lincoln, Neb., 1918, 106 pp.

John A. MacCulloch,The Religion of the Ancient Celts, Edinburg, 1911,15 + 399 pp.

Francisco Martínez-Marina,Teoría de las cortes o grandes juntasnacionales de los reinos de León y Castilla, Madrid, 1813, 3 vols.

Hubert Matthey,Essai sur le merveilleux dans la littérature françaisedepuis 1800, Paris, 1915, 318 pp.

R. Menéndez Pidal,La leyenda de los Infantes de Lara, Madrid, 1896,16 + 448 pp.

—Discursos leídos ante la Real Academia, Madrid, May 21, 1916.

M. Menéndez y Pelayo,Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, Madrid,2nd. ed., 1911-1918, 3 vols.

Allen Menzie,History of Religion, New York, 1913, 17 + 440 pp.{146}

Manuel Mila y Fontanals,De los trovadores en España, estudio de poesíay lingua provenzal, Barcelona, 1889, 32 + 542 pp.

Alonso Núñez de Castro,Vida de San Fernando el tercero, rey deCastilla y León, Madrid, 1787, 8 + 513 + 9 pp.

Juan de Pineda,Memorial de la Excelente Santidad del Sr. Rey SanFernando III, Sevilla, 1627, 20 + 196, pp. numbered irregularly.

Gaston Paris,La Légende des Infants de Lara, Paris, 1898, 28 pp.(Extract fromJournal des savants, mai et juin, 1898.)

Édouard Philipon,Les Ibères, Paris, 1909, 24 + 344 pp.

José Amador de los Ríos,Historia crítica de la literatura española,Madrid, 1861-1865, 7 vols.

Dorothy Scarborough,The Supernatural in Modern English Fiction, NewYork, 1917, 7 + 329 pp.

Mariano Soriano Fuertes y Piqueras,Historia de la música españoladesde la venida de los fenicios hasta el año 1850, Madrid, 1855-1859, 4vols.

Samuel M. Waxman,Chapters on Magic in Spanish literature, New York,and Paris, 1916, 139 pp.

C. E. Whitmore,The Supernatural in Tragedy, Cambridge, 1915, 8 + 370pp.{147}

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

Because of the preceding classified list of miracles including theindication of the pages treating of each class, it has been deemednecessary to include in the index only the proper names cited in thework and the titles of those works from which examples of thesupernatural have been drawn. The reader is referred to the Bibliography(page 139-146) for works of the authors cited. Whenever various names ofan individual, or different forms of the same name are used, only thebest known or the most popular form will be given in the index, but thepages indicated are those on which any of the variations appear. Forexample, all references to Saint Mary will be found under “Virgin, The.”

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,L,M,N,O,P,R,S,T,V,W,Z

Abderrahman II, 12
Aben Yussef,56
Abran of Germany, Count,75
Achela, 44n
Adán,91n
Aeneas,110
Africa,21,66n,105,109,110
Agosto,49,62
Albans, St.,131
Albeza,37
Alcocer,17
Alejandro el Magno,124,125,126
Alemany, José,25n
Alexius, Emperor,57
Alexander IV, Pope,18
Alfonso III, of Portugal,17
Alfonso VIII,16
Alfonso IX,16
Alfonso X, el Sabio,5,13,15-26,27,29,30,30n,31n,34,35,44,45,53,67,79,84,85,88,93,96,96n,97n,107,109,113,117,128
Algeciras,56
Amadís de Gaula,33n
Andalucía,17
Ann, Saint, Novena of,9
Antidio,95
Arcalaus,33n
Arcipreste de Hita, El,95
Aristotle,54,122
Arras,71n
Asin Palacios, Miguel,64n,96n,109n,112n
Assisi, St. Francis of,9
Atocha,36
Attila,110,124
Ayamonte,62

{148}Barcelona,56
Basilio, San,68
Beatriz, Doña,17
Beatrice, Queen,84
Berceo,59n,77n,93n,97n
Bernat Descoll,16
Bizancio,110,111
Bondoudar,40
Burgos,16,46,71,88

Cádiz,22
Caesar,81
Caesar, Octavius,103
Caesar, Sextus Julius,104
Caesarea,68
Caligula, Emperor Caius,117
Canaan,48
Cantigas, Las,23,27,28,30,31n,32,68,85,85n,92,93,93n,96,97,107,108,108n,116,116n,118,131,132
Cantigas de amor et de maldecir,27
Castile,16,20,79,99,128
Castrogériz,39
Catalonia,16,84
Chartres,126
Cid, the,96,126n
Cirot, G.,25n
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor,74
Conquista del Ultramar, La Gran,40n
Constantine, Emperor,61,110,111
Constantinople,57
Consuegra,64
Crónica General, La,22,24,27,40n,66n,68,74,74n,80,93,95,96n,97,100n,104n,105n,106n,109n,111n,112n,116n,126n
Cueto, Leopoldo Augusto de, Marqués de Valmar,23
Cunnegro,66

Dagobert,109
David,123
Denis, Saint,109
Devil, The,39,59,64,71,72,77,77n,80,85,89n,91-97,112,114,116,120,121,130
Dido,105,110
Domingo, Santo,33
Domingo, Don,47
Doyle, Sir Conan,91
Duero,95

Eanes, D. Gonzalo,64
Edessa,126
Egypt,40,84,123
Elina,111
Enrique, Infante D.,19
Escorial, The,88
Etna, Mount,58
Europe,5,13,32,44,58,96n,99,129
Ezequias,54n

Faraón,123
Felipe, Infante Don,19
Fernán Gonzales,74n
Fernando III,16,24,34,109
Fernando IV,16
Fernando de la Cerda,20
Fernando, Infante Don,80
France,18,20,109,132

Galileo,69
García, Fernández,16
García, Count Don,74
Germany,10
Gilemer,109
God,9,29,31,31n,32,37,50,54n,71,72,80,91,93,96,102n,109,112,114,115,116,121,123,124,128,130
Granada,20,22,79
Granada, Emir of,20
Gran Estoria,22,24,26
“Gran Britaña”,56,88
Gregory X,18
Guillén Robles, Francisco,37n,109n,112n
{149}Gunderico,96
Guzmán, Doña Mayor Guillén de,17

Hastings, James,76
Hell,61,64n,91,96,109
Heraclius, Emperor,109
Herodotus,131
Herod, King,51,100
Holy Land, The,83,92
Holy Spirit, The,115,123,124
Host, The,62,89n,118-120
Hudson River, The,9
Huelgas, Las,34

Ica,40
India,125
Ildefonso, San,73
Israel,123
Italy,18,96n

Jacob,123
Jaime, el Conquistador,17,20
Jaén,21
Jérez,68,109
Jérez de la Frontera,22
Jerusalem,48,51,111,124
Jesus,29,31,31n,32,45,48,49,50,51,54n,63,64,67,79,81,83,84,92,97,103,106,111,112,114,115,119,120,123,124,127,130
Jordanes,10
Jorge, Maestro,109
Josef,123
Juan, San,124
Julian, Emperor,68,69,81,117
Justinian, Emperor,109
Jupiter, temple of,105

Lapidario, El,23,24,28
Lara, sons of,99
Lebrija,22
Leo, Pope,58
Lia,123
Libro de Alejandro, El,96n,97n,126n
Libro de Ajedrez, El,23,25
Libros del Saber de Astronomia, Los,22,23,28
Lisbon,59
Lodge, Sir Oliver,91

MacCulloch, J. A.,17
Macedonia,125
Madrid,36
Manuel, Infante Don,41
Marcian, Emperor,110
Marcus, Lucius,104
María Egipciaca,131
Mariana,15
Marquina,15
Marseilles,38
Mártires,65
Martos,79
Mayor Arias, Doña,16
Medina Sidonis,22
Mela, Pomponius,131
Menéndez Pidal, J.,104n
Menéndez Pidal, R.,22,24
Menéndez y Pelayo,12n
Menzie, Allan,40n
Mercurio, San,68,69
Merlin,131
Milagros de Nuestra Señora, Los,59n,77n,93n,97n
Mildmay, Mrs. S.,11n
Mahommed,64,111
Mondéjar, Marqués de,16
Monsaras,78
Monserrat,56
Montana, José T.,25
Moralia in Job,110
Moses,24,123
Murcia,17,78
Mussafia,30n

Navarre,17
Navarre, King of,20
Navas, Conde de las,117n
Niebla,22
Nuño de Lara,19,68

Oberon, King,131
{150}Onís, Federico de,6
Oro, San Juan Boco de,45
Ovid,131

Paris,109
Paris, Gaston,99
Pascual de Gayangos,25n
Paschal II, Pope,13
Pedro III, of Aragón,21
Pedro IV,16
Pena Cova,39
Persia,68,69
Peter, Saint,32,81
Philipon, É.,11
Poitiers, Conde de,80
Portugal, King of,19
Puerto,41,47,83

Rachel,123
Recafredo,12
Reyes Magos, Los Tres,84n
Ribera, J.,23
Ribila,79
Richard of Cornwall,18
Rico y Sinobas, Manuel,24
Ríos, José Amador de los,10
Rocamador,43,93
Rodrigáñez, Hippolito,25
Rome,21,100,106,110,111,116
Roman Empire, The Holy,18,20,103
Roumania,61
Rudolph of Hapsburg,18
Ruy Velázquez,99

Sancho, Infante Don,20,21
Santa Cruz,95
Santiago,57,93,130
Salas,36,42,49,83
Saussonna,44
Scarborough, Dorothy,8,131n
Scythia,10
Selfa, Antonio,25
Septenario, El,22
Seville,17,21,56,96,128
Segovia,80
Siagro, Don,73
Siena, Bishop of,72
Siete Partidas, Las,16,21,22,23,28,53,76n,79n,87n,89n,91,91n,92n,100,108,108n,114n,115n,120n,121,121n,122,126n
Sion, Mount,81
Soissons,40,132
Solomon,114
Solalinde, Antonio G.,6,16,24,25n,26n,30n,31n,125n,126n
Spain,9,11,12,13,22,24,25,27,45,92,96n,99,117,129
Sur, Libano de,69
Sylvester, Pope,110,111

Tablas, Alfonsíes ... Las,22
Taion,110
Téllez, D. Alfonso,64
Temperley, H.,11n
Terena,43,81,97
Thomas, Saint,127
Tiberius,100
Toledo, Codex of,88
Toledo,16,35,47
Todd, Henry Alfred,6
Tortosa de Ultramar,40

Vatican, The,95
Vesentina,95
Virgin, The,23,27-89,92,94,95,96,108,110,119,120,124,127,128,130,131
Virgin, Cult of,31
Violante of Aragón, Doña,17
Violante, Queen,21
Vistula,10
Vulcan,124

Wandering Jew, The,131
Waxman, S. W.,97n
Wendover, Roger of,131
Weeks, Raymond,6
Werewolf, The,131
White, J. G.,25
Whitmore, C. E.,118n
William of Holland,18

Zaragoza,41

{151}

CONTENTS

PUBLICACIONES DEL
INSTITUTO DE LAS ESPAÑAS

LIBROS DE ENSEÑANZA

La Enseñanza de Lenguas Modernas en los Estados Unidos.

PorLawrence A. Wilkins. 160 páginas. Rústica $1.25.

EN este libro aparece la serie de conferencias que el autor dió en elCentro de Estudios Históricos de Madrid y en el Instituto de Idiomas deValencia en el año de 1921. A manera de prólogo van las palabraspronunciadas por el sabio filólogo español don Ramón Menéndez Pidal alinaugurar estas conferencias. El método general, los métodos especialesdetalladamente descritos, la preparación para el profesorado, elmovimiento hispanista en los Estados Unidos, las relaciones entre estepaís y los pueblos hispanos, son los temas principales tratados en estelibro. Por su exposición clara y sistemática y por su sana doctrinapedagógica, esta obra se hace indispensable a todos los maestros deidiomas, de cualquier país.

Cervantes. Cartilla Escolar.

Biografía y selección porM. Romera-Navarro. Vocabulario porJ.Mercado. 16 páginas. Rústica $.05.

DEDICADO a los estudiantes de español de las escuelas de este país, fuéescrito este folleto a propósito de la Fiesta de la Lengua que celebrael Instituto el 23 de abril de todos los años en honor de Cervantes.Contiene una breve exposición de la vida y la obra de Cervantes y dostrozos refundidos del Quijote, uno de ellos la celebrada aventura de losmolinos de viento. Al fin va un vocabulario español-inglés, compuestocon el propósito de ayudar a los estudiantes de habla inglesa.

Nuestro Futuro Diputado

PorSamuel A. Wofsy. 64 páginas. Rústica $0.50.

POQUISIMAS son las piezas dramáticas en español que puedan serrepresentadas por los Clubs de las escuelas y universidades de estepaís. Las que existen o son muy largas o no son apropiadas. Este vacíolo llena en parte la farsa en tres actos, con vocabularioespañol-inglés, del Sr. Wofsy, profesor de español de la Universidad deWisconsin. Hay en ella bastante acción, ambiente netamente español ysituaciones cómicas. Estas cualidades solamente hacen de ella una piezainteresante e instructiva para todos los dedicados al estudio de lalengua española.

ESTUDIOS

The Romantic Dramas of García Gutiérrez.

ByNicholson B. Adams, Ph. D. 149 pages. Paper $1.00.

GARCIA GUTIERREZ is one of the most important figures in the SpanishRomantic movement, and in poetic power he surpassed his contemporaries.This study gives an insight into the plays of this famous Spanishdramatist. The sketch of his life, which opens the book, paves the wayfor the reader to reach an understanding of the man who wroteElTrovador. The book itself, as well as the chronological list of theplays of García Gutiérrez appended to it and the list of works eitherpartially or exclusively devoted to him, will be of valuable assistanceto all persons interested in the literary history of Spain.

Martín Fierro: An Epic of the Argentine.

ByHenry A. Holmes, Ph. D. 192 pages. Paper $1.00.

PECULIAR colonial conditions in Argentina created in the isolation ofthe pampa a striking type of horsemen: cowboys, trackers, Indianfighters, etc. These men, calledgauchos, were in many respects likeour western cowboys, but their unique traits call for such a sympatheticstudy as is made in this book. The work takes its title from that of themost celebrated Argentine cowboy poem, whose hero, Martín Fierro, singsofgauchos, Indians, and the pampa, in truly epic vein.

En Prensa: Jacinto Benavente.

Estudio literario porFederico de Onís.

LITERATURA

Desolación. Poemas.

PorGabriela Mistral. 248 páginas. Rústica $1.50. Tela $2.25.

LA fama de poetisa de Gabriela Mistral está ya tan bien cimentada entodos los países de habla española, que su nombre en un libro bastarapara despertar el interés de todos los amantes de las letras hispánicasde nuestros días. Esta edición ha sido dedicada a la autora por losmaestros de español de este país, en testimonio de admiración y afecto.Esta es la primera vez que la autora ha dado su consentimiento para quese publiquen en un libro, así sus poesías inéditas como todas las que yahan visto la luz en diferentes revistas. ElInstituto se enorgullece deprestar tal valioso servicio a la literatura hispánica moderna con lapublication de la obra completa, verso y prosa, de esta genial poetisachilena.

Del Camino. Poesías.

PorJulio Mercado. 120 páginas. Rústica $1.00.

LAS POESIAS que componen este libro, el cual nos presenta la obracompleta del poeta, no sólo darán solaz a quienes las leyeren, sinollevaran igualmente al corazón y la mente de los lectores elconvencimiento de que se trata de un poeta de fuerza, con personalidadpropia. He aquí lo que dice el conocido critico don Federico de Onís,prologuista de la obra: “La poesía de Mercado pertenece a ese modo depoesía que siente y piensa al mismo tiempo, y que en la modernaliteratura española alcanza sus más altos ejemplos en Antonio Machado yMiguel de Unamuno.”

CONFERENCES

Lo que se puede aprender en España.

PorJoaquín Ortega. 8 páginas. Rústica $.15.

EL autor describe, dentro de un pequeño marco, todo lo que losangloamericanos pueden aprender en España en presencia de las reliquiasde la tradición hispánica, bajo el encanto de las viejas ciudadesespañolas y en contacto con toda clase de gente, inclusivo una simplevendedora de naranjas. No sólo es interesante e instructiva estaconferencia para los angloamericanos, sino también lo es para todas laspersonas de habla española, quienes hallarán satisfacción y solaz en laamena lectura de este folleto encaminado a recordar las virtudes de laraza.

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